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BFT 4053

ADVANCED TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1 : Traffic flow model

• Elements of traffic flow
• Flow, speed and density relationships
• Gaps and acceptable gaps
• Stochastic approach to gap acceptance
• Queuing theory

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Important term in traffic flow study

• Density-- the number of vehicles occupying a road lane per unit length at a given
instant.
• Flow-- the number of vehicles passing a point per unit of time; often called volume
when the time unit is one hour.
• Gap-- the time interval between the passage of consecutive vehicles moving in the
same stream, measured between the rear of the lead vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle.
• Headway-- the time interval between passage of consecutive vehicles moving in
the same stream, measured between corresponding points (e.g. front bumper) on
successive vehicles.
• Interrupted Flow-- occurs when flow is periodically interrupted by external fixtures,
primarily traffic control devices.
• Jam Density-- the density when speed and flow are zero.
• PHF (Peak Hour Factor)-- This describes the relationship between hourly volume
and the maximum rate of flow within the hour: PHF = hourly volume/maximum
rate of flow. For the 15 minute periods, PHF = volume/4 x (maximum 15 minute
volume within the hour)

Important term in traffic flow study (cont.)

• Shockwaves-- Shockwaves occur as a result of differences in flow and density which
occur when there are constrictions in traffic flow. These constrictions are called
bottlenecks. The speed of growth of the ensuing queue is the shockwave, and is
the difference in flow divided by the difference in density.
• Space Mean Speed-- the arithmetic mean of the speed of those vehicles occupying
a given length of road at a given instant.
• Spacing-- the distance between vehicles moving in the same lane, measured
between corresponding points (front to front) of consecutive vehicles.
• Speed-- the time rate of change of distance.
• Time Mean Speed-- the arithmetic mean of the speed of vehicles passing a point
during a given time interval.
• Travel Time-- the total time required for a vehicle to travel from one point to
another over a specified route under prevailing conditions.
• Uninterrupted Flow-- occurs when vehicles traversing a length of roadway are not
required to stop by any cause external to the traffic stream, such as traffic control
devices.
• Volume-- Traffic volume is the most basic and widely used parameter in traffic
engineering, vehicles per mile, or vehicles per kilometer.

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Types of flow
• Uninterrupted flow - flow regulated by
vehicle-vehicle interactions and interactions
between vehicles and the roadway. (example,
vehicles traveling on an interstate highway)
• Interrupted flow - Flow regulated by an
external means, such as a traffic signal. (Under
interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle
interactions and vehicle-roadway interactions
play a secondary role in defining the traffic
flow)

Traffic flow parameter

• Speed (v) - distance of vehicle travels per unit of time
• Volume - number of vehicles that pass a given point on the
roadway in a specified period of time
• Flow (q) - the rate at which vehicles pass a given point on
the roadway, and is normally given in terms of vehicles per
hour.
• Peak Hour Factor (PHF) - The ratio of the hourly flow rate (
q60) divided by the peak 15 minute rate of flow expressed
as an hourly flow (q15). PHF= q60/ q15
• Density (k) - Density refers to the number of vehicles
present on a given length of roadway.
• Headway (h) - measure of the temporal space between two
vehicles. Specifically, the headway is the time that elapses
between the arrival of the leading vehicle and the following
vehicle at the designated test point. (reported in units of
seconds)

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Traffic flow parameter

• Spacing (s) - physical distance, usually reported in feet or meters,
between the front bumper of the leading vehicle and the front
bumper of the following vehicle.
– product of speed and headway.
• Gap (g) - Gap is very similar to headway, except that it is a measure
of the time that elapses between the departure of the first vehicle
and the arrival of the second at the designated test point
– measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first vehicle and
the front bumper of the second vehicle, where headway focuses on
front-to-front times.
– Gap is usually reported in units of seconds.
• Clearance (c) - similar to spacing, except that the clearance is the
distance between the rear bumper of the leading vehicle and the
front bumper of the following vehicle.
– The clearance is equivalent to the spacing minus the length of the
leading vehicle.
– Clearance, like spacing, is usually reported in units of feet or meters.

Elements of traffic flow

• Flow
• Density
• Speed

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Mathematical relationship describing

traffic flow
• Macroscopic approach
– Greenshields models
• Satisfies the boundary conditions when the density, k is
approaching zero and when the density is approaching jam
density Kj (A/B)
• Can be used for light or dense traffic
– Greenberg model
• Satisfies the boundary condition when density is approaching the
jam density but it does not satisfy the boundary condition when k
is approaching zero
• Useful for dense traffic condition
• Microscopic approach
– Shock wave
– Queuing

Speed-Flow-Density Relationship
• Speed, flow, and density are all related to each
other.
• Under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed,
density, and flow are all related by the following
equation:
q = kv
• Where:
q = flow (vehicles/hour), k = Density (vehicles/mile,
vehicles/kilometer), v = Speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)

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Special Speed & Density Conditions

• Free Flow Speed
– This is the mean speed that vehicles will travel on a
roadway when the density of vehicles is low.
– Drivers have no worry about other vehicles.
– They subsequently proceed at speeds that are
controlled by the performance of their vehicles, the
conditions of the roadway, and the posted speed limit.
• Jam Density
– Extremely high densities can bring traffic on a
roadway to a complete stop.
– The density at which traffic stops is called the jam
density.

Greenshield’s Model
• Able to develop a model of uninterrupted
traffic flow that predicts and explains the
trends that are observed in real traffic flows.
• While Greenshield’s model is not perfect, it is
fairly accurate and relatively simple.

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Greenshield assumption
• Under uninterrupted flow
conditions, speed and
density are linearly related. Speed
• This relationship is
expressed mathematically
and graphically below. (See A = free flow
figure) speed

v=A-Bk A/B = jam density

• Where:
v = speed (miles/hour,
kilometers/hour)
A,B = constants determined
from field observations Density
k = density (vehicles/mile,
vehicles/kilometer)

Greenshield assumption
• Inserting Greenshield’s speed-
density relationship into the
Flow = q dq/dk = A – 2Bk
general speed-flow-density
(maximum flow)
relationship yields the following
equations: setting dq/dK = 0
yields:

q = (A-Bk)k or k = A/(2B)

q = Ak – Bk2
Where:
q = flow (vehicles/hour)
A,B = constants
k = density (vehicles/mile,
vehicles/kilometer) Density = k

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• Therefore at speed at maximum flow:

v = A – Bk
= A – B(A/2B)
= A – (AB/2B)
= A – A/2
= A/2

• This indicates that the maximum flow occurs

when traffic is flowing at half of free-flow speed
(A).

• Substituting the
optimum speed and
density into the speed- V = Speed
flow-density
relationship yields the
maximum flow.

q = (A – Bk)k
q = Ak – Bk2 , k = A/2B
= A (A/2B) – B(A/2B)2
= A2/2B – BA2/4B2
q = density
= A2/4B

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The following can be derived from

Greenshield’s model:

• When the density is zero, the flow is zero

because there are no vehicles on the roadway.
• As the density increases, the flow also
increases to some maximum flow conditions.
• When the density reaches a maximum,
generally called jam density, the flow must be
zero because the vehicles tend to line up end
to end (parking lot conditions).

Time space diagram

• Commonly used to solve a number of transportation- related problems.
• Describes the relationship between the location of vehicles in a traffic stream and the
time as the vehicles progress along the highway.
• Useful for discussions of shock waves and wave propagation

Reductions in speed cause the The slope of the line Curved portions of the
slopes of the lines to flatten represents the speed of the trajectories represent vehicles
vehicle undergoing speed changes
such as deceleration.

headway
• Acceleration causes the time-
space curve for the
accelerating vehicle to bend
until the new speed is attained.
Spacing • Curves that cross indicate that
the vehicles both shared the
same position at the same
time.
• Unless passing is not
permitted, crossed curves
indicate collisions.

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EXAMPLE
LOOK AT PAGE 224 (EXAMPLE 6.2)

Speed, v Density, k
(km/h), yi (veh/km),
xi
53.2 20
Use the regression analysis to
48.1 27
fit these data to the
greeshields model 44.8 35
40.1 44
37.3 52
35.2 58
34.1 60
27.2 64
20.4 70
17.5 75
14.6 82
13.1 90
11.2 100
8.0 115

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Greenberg model

Greenberg model
• Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed
and density.

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Example 6.3
GREENBERG MODEL

Shock Waves
• A shock wave propagates along a line of
vehicles in response to changing conditions at
the front of the line.
• Shock waves can be generated by collisions,
sudden increases in speed caused by entering
free flow conditions, or by a number of other
means.
• Basically, a shock wave exists whenever the
traffic conditions change.

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Shock waves
• The equation that is used to estimate the propagation velocity of shock
waves is given below.

vsw = (qb – qa)

(kb – ka)
• Where

vsw = propagation velocity of shock wave (miles/hour)

qb = flow prior to change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
qa = flow after change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
kb = traffic density prior to change in conditions (vehicles/mile)
ka = traffic density after change in conditions (vehicles/mile)

• Note the magnitude and direction of the shock wave.

• (+) Shock wave is travelling in same direction as traffic stream.
(-) Shock wave is traveling upstream or against the traffic stream

Shock wave example

• Assume that an accident has occurred and that the
flow after the accident is reduced to zero.
• Initially, the flow was several vehicles per hour. Also,
the density is much greater after the accident.
• Substituting these values into the shock wave equation
yields a negative (-) propagation velocity. This means
that the shock wave is traveling against the traffic.
• If you could look down on this accident, you would see
a wave front, at which vehicles began to slow from
their initial speed, passing from vehicle to vehicle back
up the traffic stream.
• The first car would notice the accident first, followed
an instant later by the second car. Each vehicle begins
slowing after its driver recognizes that the preceding
vehicle is slowing

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q, flow

Max flow

Original flow
A
Crawl
speed

B
Bottleneck flow

Shock
speed

K, density

• Wave velocity : uw = dq/dk

• If :
qB = platoon flow (veh/hr)
kB = platoon density (veh/mi)
qA = free flow
kA = free density

• Then:
qB/kB = vB and qA/kA = vA

• Therefore
speed of shock waves, uw = (qB – qA) / (kB – kA)

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Types of shock wave

• Frontal stationary shock waves
– Formed when the capacity suddenly reduces to zero at an
approach. (eg. At signalised intesection)
• Backward forming shock waves
– Formed when the capacity is reduced below the demand flow
rate resulting the formation of a queue upstream of the
bottleneck.
• Backward recovery shockwaves
– Formed when the demand flow rate becomes less than the
capacity of the bottleneck or the restriction causing the capacity
reduction at the bottleneck is removed
• Rear stationary and forward recovery shock waves
– Formed when demand flow rate upstream of a bottleneck is first
higher than the capacity of the bottleneck and then the demand
flow rate reduces to the capacity of the bottleneck

5 4 3 2 1

6 5 4 3 2 1

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Example

A school zone (20mph) of 1/4 –mile length is located on a 40-

mph highway. Stream measurements at various section
upstream, middle of the school zone, and just downstream of
the school zone, respectively, are as follows:

Approaching zone : qA = 1000 veh/hr, vA = 40mph

Middle of zone : qB = 1100 veh/hr, vB = 20 mph
Downstream of zone : qC = 1200 veh/hr, vC = 30 mph

Sketch the q-k-v curves and indicate critical values. Calculate

the intensity and direction of the shockwaves created by this
speed zone. What is the length of the platoon created by the
speed zone and the time required to disperse it? (Assume
that the speed-zone restriction operates for only 15 minutes
during morning and evening

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zone q (veh/hr) v (mph) k = q/v

A, approaching 1000 40 25

B, middle 1100 20 55

C, downstream 1200 30 40

50
45
A
40
35 C
30
v (mph)

25 B
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80
k (vph)
Shockwave
1400
front of platoon 40 mph 30 mph
C 20 mph
1200
A B
Shockwave rear
1000 of platoon
v (mph)

800

600

400

200

0
0 20 40 60 80
k (vph)

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Solution : Speed of shock wave at the rear of platoon

From equation:
uw = (qB – qA) / (kB – kA)

= (1100 – 1000) / (55 – 25)

= 3.33 mph
(moving downstream or in the direction of
stream flow)

Solution : The intensity and direction of the

shockwaves created by this speed zone

• Relative growth of the platoon is proportional

to the relative speed between 20 – 3.33 =
16.67mph.
• (the platoon grows at the rate of 16.67 mp as
it moves forward)
• School zone operates 15 minutes, therefore:
– Length of platoon = 16.67 x (15/60) = 4.17 miles
– Number of platoon = 4.17 x 55 = 230

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Solution : Shock wave at end school zone

uw = (qB – qA) / (kB – kA)

= (1200 – 1100) / (40 -55)
= -6.67 mph

Moving upstream or opposite to the direction of

traffic flow.

Solution : Time to dissipate platoon

The relative speed of two shock wave
-6.67 – (+3.33) = 10 mph
From previous calculation, length of platoon = 4.17

Therefore time to dissipate platoon

= 4.17 / 10
= 0.417 hours
= 25 minutes

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Shockwave propagation
• Assume greenshield traffic flow model vf represents
the mean free speed and kj the jam density.
Vi = vf (1 – ki/kj)
If x = ki/kj
Therefore, Vi = vf (1 – x)

• If there are two regions in a traffic stream flow having

ki/kj values of x1 and x2 then
v1 = vf (1-x1) and v2 = vf (1-x2)
And
uw = vf [1 – (x1 + x2)] ,
Where
uw is velocity of shock wave in term of two densities in the
corresponding two regions

Shock wave caused by nearly equal

densities

• If x1 and x2 are nearly equal, then

uw = vf(1 – 2x1)

• This shock wave is referred as a wave of

discontinuity

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Shock wave caused by stopping

• Density upstream x1 is brought to a jam

density condition and x2 = 1.

uw = vf [1 – (x1 + 1)]
= - (vf) (x1)

Shock wave caused by starting

• Assume that at time t = 0, a platoon of vehicles
has accumulated at the stop bar at intersection,
and that the saturated (jam) density is such that
x1 = 1. At t = 0, the signal turns green permitting
vehicles to be released at velocity v2.

Uw = - vf(1-v2/vf) = - vf + v2 = - (vf – v2)

• Assuming that vehicles depart at velocity v2 =

vf/2, the starting shockwave travels backward
with a peed of vf/2.

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EXAMPLE

a) A Two-lane highway traffic stream following

Greenshields model has the following characteristics:
mean free speed, vf = 50mph, kj = 220 veh/mile.
What is the speed of the shock wave of discontinuity
when k1 = 50, k2 = 160 and k3 = 110 veh/mi?

b) A traffic accident on this highway stops all traffic for 5

minutes, when the space mean speed is 45 mph and
the density is 40 veh/mi. Calculate the shock wave
speed and the length of the stopped lines on cars

c) Assuming the vehicles start moving at 25 mph after

the incident is removed, calculate the speed of the
starting wave?

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Solution (a)
• From equation uw = vf(1 – 2x1). Where x1 = ki/kj
k x uw

K1 = 50 50 / 220 = 0.227 50 (1 – 2(0.227)) = 27.27

mph (downstream)

K2 = 160 160 / 220 = 0.727 50 (1 – 2(0.727) = -22.73

mph
K3 = 110 110 / 220 = 0.5 50 (1 – 2(0.5)) = 0

Solution (b)
• Shock wave cause by stopping
uw = vf [1 – (x1 + 1)]
= - (vf) (x1)

x1 = 40/220 = 0.1818
Therefore uw = - (45)(0.1818)
= -8.18 (moving upstream)
t = 5/60 = 1/12 hr
Therefore queue length = 1/12 (8.18)
= 0.68 mi
The number of vehicles in the line = (0.68)(220)
= 150

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Solution (c)
• Shock wave causing by start
Uw = - vf(1-v2/vf) = - vf + v2 = - (vf – v2)
= - (50 – 25)
= - 25 mph upstream
• The starting wave will overtake the stopping wave
at relative speed of -25.0 – (-8.18) = -16.82 mph
• Time to dissipate the line of 0.68 miles =
0.68/16.82 = 0.041 hr = 2.43 minutes
• Point on the roadway will be 0.68 x 0.041 = 1.01
miles upstream from the point of incidents

Try this
• Studies have shown that the traffic flow on a
single-lane approach to a signalised intersection
can be described by the Greenshiled model. If the
jam density on the approach is 130 veh/mi,
determine the velocity of the stopping wave
when the approach signal changes to red if the
density on the approach is 45 veh/mi and the
space mean speed is 40 mi/h. at the end of the
red interval, what length of the approach
upstream from the stop line will vehicles be
affected if the red interval is 35 sec

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References
• http://www.webs1.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanu
al/Chapters/trafficflowtheory/Glossary/index.
htm
• Traffic and Highway Engineering : Nicholas
Garber and Lester A. Hoel (2010)

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