Dvorkin/RockPhysics

Rock
Physics
Jack P. Dvorkin
 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Preface

Interpretation of Seismic Data. The main geophysical tool for illuminating the
subsurface is seismic. Seismic data yield a map of the elastic properties of the
subsurface. This map is useful as long as it can be interpreted to delineate
structures and, most important, quantify reservoir properties. Rock physics
provides links between the sediment's elastic properties and its bulk properties
(porosity, lithology) and conditions (pore pressure and pore fluid).

What is Rational Rock Physics. Rock physics’ mission is to translate seismic

observables into reservoir properties, e.g., translate impedance into porosity. The
simplest approach is to compile a laboratory data set, relevant to the site under
investigation, where, e.g., impedance and porosity are measured on a set samples.
The resulting impedance-porosity trend can be applied to seismic impedance to
map it into porosity. The applicability of an empirical trend is as good as the data
set it has been derived from. Extrapolation outside of the data set range is possible
only if the physics is understood and theoretically generalized.

MISSION OF ROCK PHYSICS

Sediment Bulk Properties

Sediment Elastic Properties (Porosity, Lithology, Permeability)
(P-Impedance, Poisson’s Ratio) and
Conditions (Fluid, Pressure)

Transform Function
From
Rock Physics
•Measure
•Relate
•Understand

Controlled Experiment
k Sw Vs
Vp P Vsh φ

LAB LOGS
 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Methods of Rock Physics

Reflection and Inversion

Reflection amplitude carries information about elastic

contrast in the subsurface. Inversion attempts to translate
this information into elastic properties at a point in space.

Point properties are important because we are interested in

absolute values of porosity and saturation at a point in
space.

La Cira Norte. Courtesy Ecopetrol and Mario Gutierrez.

 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Basics
Elasticity

x1 Stress Tensor x1 Strain Tensor

n
T
u

x2 x2

Ti = σ ij n j 1 ∂ ui ∂ u j
ε ij = ( + )
x3 x3 2 ∂ x j ∂ xi
σ ij = σ ji i ≠ j; ε ij = ε ji i ≠ j.

Hooke's law: 21 independent constants

σ ij = cijkl ekl ; cijkl = c jikl = cijlk = c jilk , cijkl = cklij .
Isotropic Hooke's law: 2 independent constants (elastic moduli)

σ ij = λδ ij ε αα + 2 µε ij ; ε ij = [(1 + ν )σ ij − νδ ij σ αα ] / E.
λ and µ -- Lame's constants; ν -- Poisson's ratio; E -- Young's modulus.

Bulk Modulus Compressional Modulus Young’s Modulus

and
K = λ + 2µ / 3 M = λ + 2µ Poisson’s Ratio

E = µ (3 λ + 2 µ ) / ( λ + µ )
ν = 0.5 λ / ( λ + µ )

Young σ zz = Mε zz Compressional
Z
σ zz = Eε zz
σ yy = λε zz =
ν = − ε xx / ε zz
X Shear [ λ / ( λ + 2 µ )]σ zz =
Y σ xx = σ yy =
[ ν / (1 − ν )]σ zz
σ xy = σ xz =
σ xz = 2 µε xz ε xx = ε yy =
σ yz = 0
ε xx = ε yy = ε zz = ε xy = 0 ε xy = ε xz = ε yz = 0
 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 1

Basics
Dynamic and Static Elasticity

WAVE EQUATION

ε ~ 10-7
u(z)
Compressional σ(z) σ(z+dz) z
Experiment A dz

Adzρ u«« = A[ σ ( z + dz) − σ ( z)] = Adz∂σ / ∂ z ⇒ ρ∂ 2u / ∂ t 2 = ∂σ / ∂ z

σ = Mε = M∂ u / ∂ z ⇒ ∂ 2u / ∂ t 2 = ( M / ρ )∂ 2u / ∂ z 2 ≡ V p2 ∂ 2u / ∂ z 2

Vp = M / ρ = ( K + 4G / 3) / ρ ; V s = G / ρ;
Dynamic definitions:
M = ρ V p2 ; G = ρ V s2 ; K = ρ (V p2 − 4V s2 / 3); λ = ρ (V p2 − 2V s2 )

STATIC UNIAXIAL EXPERIMENT

ε ~ 10-2
Sample 10156-58
70

60
Axial Stress (MPa)

50 Pc = 2000 psi = 14.1 MPa

40

30 Pc = 500 psi = 3.52 MPa

Pc = 0
20

10
Courtesy Ali Mese
RADIAL AXIAL
0
-0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Strain
 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 2

Velocity and Saturation

Gassmann’s Equations

In static (low-frequency) limit, pore fluid affects

only the bulk modulus of rock

Gassmann's Equations -- Basis of Fluid Substitution

Bulk Modulus of Bulk Modulus of

Dry Rock Pore Fluid
Bulk Modulus of
Rock w/Fluid K Dry Kf
KSat
= +
Ks − KSat Ks − K Dry φ ( Ks − K f )
Bulk Modulus of
Mineral Phase Porosity

Shear Modulus of Shear Modulus of

Rock w/Fluid GSat = GDry Dry Rock

The bulk modulus of rock saturated with a fluid is

related to the bulk modulus of the dry rock and
vice versa

φ K Dry − (1 + φ )K f K Dry / Ks + K f
KSat = Ks
(1 − φ )K f + φ Ks − K f K Dry / Ks
1 − (1 − φ )KSat / Ks − φ KSat / K f
K Dry = Ks
1 + φ − φ Ks / K f − KSat / Ks

Velocity depends on the elastic moduli and density

4
V p = ( KSat + GDry ) / ρ Sat
3
Vs = GDry / ρ Sat
ρSat = ρ Dry + φρ Fluid > ρ Dry
 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 3

Velocity and Porosity

Summary of Theories
 Rock Physics Models: Velocity-Porosity

Wyllie et al. (1956) Time Average (Empirical) Total Porosity

1 φ 1− φ
Recommended Parameters
= + P-wave Velocity
V p V Fluid V Solid in Solid Phase
Rock Type Vsolid (km/s)
Sandstone 5.480 to 5.950 P-wave Velocity
Limestone 6.400 to 7.000 Sound Speed
Dolomite 7.000 to 7.925 In Pore Fluid

Raymer et al. (1980) Equations (Empirical) V p = (1 − φ )2 V Solid + φ V Fluid ⇐ φ < 0.37

6 6
Raymer’s equation is more
accurate than Wyllie’s. Consolidated CLEAN
SANDSTONES
Sands SANDSTONES
w/CLAY

Vp Raymer Predicted (km/s)

Neither one of the two 5
Raymer
should be used to model 5
soft slow sands.
Wyllie
Vp (km/s)

4 Fast
Sands

4
Examples of applying 3
Wyllie’s and Raymer’s
equation to sandstone Soft Slow
Sands
lab data
2 3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 3 4 5 6
Porosity Vp Measured (km/s)

Han (1986) Equations for Consolidated Sandstones (Empirical, Ultrasonic Lab Measurements)

Pressure Saturation Equations Comments

40 MPa 100% Water Vp=6.08-8.06φ Vs=4.06-6.28φ Clean Rock

40 MPa 100% Water Vp=5.59-6.93φ-2.18C Vs=3.52-4.91φ-1.89C Rock w/Clay

30 MPa 100% Water Vp=5.55-6.96φ-2.18C Vs=3.47-4.84φ-1.87C Rock w/Clay
20 MPa 100% Water Vp=5.49-6.94φ-2.17C Vs=3.39-4.73φ-1.81C Rock w/Clay
10 MPa 100% Water Vp=5.39-7.08φ-2.13C Vs=3.29-4.73φ-1.74C Rock w/Clay
5 MPa 100% Water Vp=5.26-7.08φ-2.02C Vs=3.16-4.77φ-1.64C Rock w/Clay

40 MPa Room-Dry Vp=5.41-6.35φ-2.87C Vs=3.57-4.57φ-1.83C Rock w/Clay

Vp and Vs are in km/s; the total porosity φ is in fractions; volumetric clay content
in the whole rock (not in the solid phase) C is in fractions.
 Tosaya (1982) Equations for Shaley Sandstones (Empirical, Ultrasonic Lab Measurements)

Pressure Saturation Equations Comments

40 MPa 100% Water Vp=5.8-8.6φ-2.4C Vs=3.7-6.3φ-2.1C Rock w/Clay

Vp and Vs are in km/s; the total porosity φ is in fractions; volumetric clay content
in the whole rock (not in the solid phase) C is in fractions.

Eberhart-Phillips (1989) Equations for Shaley Sandstones (Empirical, Based on Han’s Data)

100% Water V p = 5.77 − 6.94φ − 1.73 C + 0.446[P − exp(−16.7P)]

Saturation
V s = 3.70 − 4.94φ − 1.57 C + 0.361[P − exp(−16.7P)]

Vp and Vs are in km/s; differential pressure P is in kilobars. 1 kb = 100 MPa.

Nur’s (1998) Critical Porosity Concept (Heuristic)

Solid-Phase Solid-Phase
Bulk Modulus Total Porosity Critical Porosity
Shear Modulus

K Dry = KSolid (1 − φ / φ c ) GDry = GSolid (1 − φ / φ c )

Dry-Rock Dry-Rock
Bulk Modulus Shear Modulus

Critical Porosity of Various Rocks

Sandstones 36% - 40% 1

Limestones 36% - 40% Basalt
Dolomites 36% - 40%
Dolomite
Pumice 80%
Chalks 55% - 65% Foam
Elastic Modulus / Mineral Modulus

0.8
Rock Salt 36% - 40% Glass Beads
Cracked Igneous Rocks 3% - 6% Limestone
Oceanic Basalts 20%
Rock Salt
Sintered Glass Beads 36% - 40%
Glass Foam 85% - 90% 0.6 Clean Sandstone

80 Cracked
0.4
Compressional Modulus (GPa)

Igneous Rocks
with
Percolating
60
Cracks
0.2
40
Pumice
with
Honeycomb 0
20 Structure 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Porosity/Critical Porosity
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Examples of using Critical Porosity Concept
Porosity to mimic lab data
 Contact Cement Model (Theoretical)

Cement's Cement's
Critical Porosity Compressional Shear
Coordination Modulus Modulus
Number
n(1 − φ c )Mc Sn 3K Dry 3n(1 − φ c )Gc Sτ
K Dry = GDry = +
6 5 20
Dry-Rock Dry-Rock
Bulk Modulus Shear Modulus

Sn = An (Λ n )α 2 + Bn (Λ n )α + Cn (Λ n ), An (Λ n ) = −0.024153 ⋅ Λ n −1.3646 ,
Bn (Λ n ) = 0.20405 ⋅ Λ n −0.89008 , Cn (Λ n ) = 0.00024649 ⋅ Λ n −1.9864 ; Contact
Cement
Sτ = Aτ (Λ τ , ν s )α 2 + Bτ (Λ τ , ν s )α + Cτ (Λ τ , ν s ), Model

Elastic Modulus
2
Aτ (Λ τ , ν s ) = −10 −2 ⋅ (2.26 ν s 2 + 2.07 ν s + 2.3) ⋅ Λ τ 0.079 ν s + 0.1754 ν s −1.342
,
2
Bτ (Λ τ , ν s ) = (0.0573ν s 2 + 0.0937 ν s + 0.202) ⋅ Λ τ 0.0274 ν s + 0.0529 ν s − 0.8765
,
2
Cτ (Λ τ , ν s ) = 10 −4 ⋅ (9.654 ν s 2 + 4.945ν s + 3.1) ⋅ Λ τ 0.01867 ν s + 0.4011 ν s −1.8186
;
Λ n = 2Gc (1 − ν s )(1 − νc ) / [ π Gs (1 − 2 νc )], Λ τ = Gc / ( π Gs );
α = [(2 / 3)(φ c − φ ) / (1 − φ c )]0.5 ; 0.30 0.35 0.40
Porosity
νc = 0.5(Kc / Gc − 2 / 3) / (Kc / Gc + 1 / 3);
ν s = 0.5(Ks / Gs − 2 / 3) / (Ks / Gs + 1 / 3).

Uncemented Sand Model or Modified Lower Hashin-Shtrikman (Theoretical)

φ / φc 1 − φ / φ c −1 4 Uncemented Sand
K Dry = [ + ] − GHM , Model
K HM + 3 GHM K + 43 GHM
4
3
Elastic Modulus

φ / φc 1 − φ / φ c −1 G  9K + 8GHM 
GDry = [ + ] − z, z = HM  HM ;
GHM + z G+z 6  K HM + 2GHM 
1 1
n 2 (1 − φ c )2 G 2 3 5 − 4 ν 3n 2 (1 − φ c )2 G 2 3
K HM =[ P] , GHM = [ P] .
18π 2 (1 − ν )2 5(2 − ν ) 2 π 2 (1 − ν )2
0.30 0.35 0.40
Porosity

In the above equations, K stands for bulk modulus and G stands for shear modulus. ν is
Poisson’s ratio. Subscript ”c” with a modulus means “cement” and subscript ”s” means
grain material. φ is the total porosity, and φc is critical porosity. P is differential pressure.
All units have to be consistent.
 Constant Cement Model (Theoretical)
Constant
Cement
φ / φb 1 − φ / φ b −1 Model
Kdry = ( + ) − 4Gb / 3,

Elastic Modulus
Kb + 4Gb / 3 Ks + 4Gb / 3
φ / φ b 1 − φ / φ b −1 G 9Kb + 8Gb
Gdry = ( + ) − z, z = b .
Gb + z Gs + z 6 Kb + 2Gb

φb is porosity (smaller than φc) at which contact cement trend turns into constant
cement trend. Elastic moduli with subscript “b” are the moduli at porosity φb. φ
b
These moduli are calculated from the contact cement theory with φ = φb. 0.30 0.35 0.40
Porosity

Model for Marine Sediments (Theoretical) 60

Depth (mbsf)
80
(1 − φ ) / (1 − φ c ) (φ − φ c ) / (1 − φ c ) −1 4
K Dry = [ + ] − GHM ,
K HM + 43 GHM 4
3 GHM 3 100

(1 − φ ) / (1 − φ c ) (φ − φ c ) / (1 − φ c ) −1
GDry = [ + ] − z, 120
Data
GHM + z z This Model
Suspension

GHM  9K HM + 8GHM  a 0.5 0.55 0.6

Neutron Porosity
0.65 1.5 1.6 1.7
P-Wave Velocity (km/s)
1.8
z=   ; φ > φc .
6  K HM + 2GHM 

Consolidated Sand Model or Modified Upper Hashin-Shtrikman (Theoretical)

Ks
φ / φb 1 − φ / φ b −1 4 60
K Dry =[ + ] − Gs , Modified Upper
Bulk Modulus (GPa)

Kb + 3 Gs Ks + 43 Gs
4
3 50 Hashin-Shtrikman

φ / φ b 1 − φ / φ b −1 G 9Ks + 8Gs 40
GDry = [ + ] − z, z = s .
Gb + z Gs + z 6 Ks + 2Gs 30

20 (K Phi )
Elastic moduli with subscript “b” are the moduli at porosity φb. These moduli can b b
be calculated from the contact cement theory with φ = φb, or chosen at some initial
10
point as suggested by data.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Porosity

Dry
Non-Load-Bearing Clay Clay < 35% 3% < Clay < 18% All Samples
Model (Theoretical)
No Clay
5

The velocity (or elastic moduli) are

Vp (km/s)

plotted versus the load-bearing frame

porosity φF = φt + C(1- φclay ) instead of
total porosity φt. C is the volume of clay 4

in rock, and φclay is the internal

porosity of clay.
18% < Clay < 37%
A scatter collapses onto a single trend 3
(right frame). 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Porosity Porosity Load-Bearing Frame Porosity
 Examples: Velocity-Porosity

Quartz Contact
Cement Cement Constant Contact 3.5 Constant
4
Cement Cement Cement
Contact
P-WAVAE VELOCITY (km/s)

Clay Cement

Elastic Modulus

Vp (km/s)
Cement
3.0
CORE DATA
Friable Sorting #2
3 SATURATED

Initial
Friable Sand 2.5
Pack #1
Non-Contact
Cement
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
2
Porosity Porosity
0.2 0.3
POROSITY

35

Friable
30 8 Contact
Cement
M-Modulus (GPa)

Equation
25
Contact
Cement
7
20
P-Impedance

15 6

10

14 Unconsolidated
Shale
12 4
Equation

Friable 0.2 0.3 0.4

Shear Modulus (GPa)

10
Total Porosity
8
Contact
6 Cement

Han Clean Han Clean

2 Han 3-8% Clay Han 3-8% Clay
Han >18% Clay Han >18% Clay
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 5 5 Acae_8
Porosity Depth > 9.5 kft
Caliper < 9.5
Vp (km/s)

Vp (km/s)

4 4

Acae_7
Depth > 9.5 kft
Caliper < 9.5

0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2

Density-Porosity Density-Porosity
 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 4

Velocity and Porosity

Fluvial Sandstones -- La Cira Case Study

Interpreting Impedance Inversion

11
SHALE
10

P-Wave Impedance
9

5
SAND 4
SAND

CHANNEL 0 0.1 0.2

Total Porosity
0.3

SHALE

ALL DATA COURTESY ECOPETROL and MARIO GUTIERREZ

 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 5

Vp and Vs
Summary of Theories
 Dvorkin/RockPhysics 5

Rock Physics Models: Vp and Vs

S-wave Velocity (km/s) P-wave Velocity (km/s)

Castagna et al. (1985) Mudrock -- Empirical
Sand/Shale -- SW = 100%
V S = 0.862 ⋅ V P − 1.172

S-wave Velocity (km/s) P-wave Velocity (km/s)

Castagna et al. (1993) -- Empirical
Sand/Shale -- SW = 100%
V S = 0.804 ⋅ V P − 0.856

Krief et al. (1990) -- “Critical Porosity’

V P2 _ Saturated − V Fluid
2
V P2 _ Mineral − V Fluid
2
Any mineral
2
=
Any fluid
V S _ Saturated V S2_ Mineral

S-wave Velocity (km/s) P-wave Velocity (km/s)

Grinberg/Castagna (1992) 4 2 4 2
1
Empirical V S = {[∑ Xi ∑ aij V P ] + [∑ Xi ( ∑ aij V Pj )−1 ]−1}
j

2 i =1 j = 0 i =1 j =0
Any mineral
4
SW = 100%
∑X
i =1
i =1

i Mineral ai2 ai1 ai0

1 Sandstone 0 0.80416 -0.85588
2 Limestone -0.05508 1.01677 -1.03049
3 Dolomite 0 o.58321 -0.07775
4 Shale 0 0.76969 0.86735

Willimas (1990) -- Empirical

SW = 100% S-wave Velocity (km/s) P-wave Velocity (km/s)

Sand V S = 0.846 ⋅ V P − 1.088

Shale V S = 0.784 ⋅ V P − 0.893