UNIT – I

Environmental Studies: Ecosystems, Bio-diversity and its Conservation

ENVIRONMENT
(French word: environner or environ; meaning: “to surround”)
Environment is what surrounds us!!
Definition: It is the sum total of all social, economical, biological, physical and chemical
factors that surround, effect and influence the survival, growth and development of humans,
plants and animals who are both creators and modulators of the environment.

Environment is divided into two parts:

1. Natural Environment: It exists naturally. Example: air, water, soil, land, forest,
wildlife, flora, fauna, etc constitute the Natural Environment.
2. Anthropogenic Environment: It is manmade environment or alternation of the
natural environment to serve specific uses by the human beings. Example: agricultural
field, gardens and aquaculture farms.

Components of Environment:
1. Biotic Components: These are living components Example: microbes, plants,
animals and human beings.
2. Abiotic Components: These are non-living/physical components. Example: Air,
Water, Soil, Rocks etc.

Segments of Environment:
1. Lithosphere: It contains various types of soil and rocks on the earth. It includes crust
(silicates), mantle (Fe, Mg silicates) and core (Fe) of earth.
2. Hydrosphere: It is composed of various water bodies present on the earth’s surface.
The major importance of hydrosphere is that water sustains various life forms and
plays an important role in ecosystem. Example: Sea and Oceans (97 %), 2 % (Locked
in glaciers) and 1 % Fresh Water.
3. Atmosphere: It is the blanket of gases surrounding the earth, which constitutes 78 %
nitrogen, 21 % oxygen and 1 % other gases. It extends upto 500 km from earth and
the layers are divided according to the temperature variation.
a) Troposphere: It is the lowest layer of atmosphere. It extends upto 11 km from
sea level. All the weather changes occur here. 99 % water vapors are found in
troposphere.
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b) Stratosphere: It extends upto 50 km from the ground. Ozone layer is found in

this layer.
c) Mesosphere: It extends upto 85 km from the ground. Meteors or rock
fragments burn here and hence, temperature falls to -93 ˚C.
d) Thermosphere: It extends upto 500-1000 km from the ground. The very high
temperature of 1200 ˚C is observed due to presence of gases in the form of
ions.
e) Exosphere: The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere. It
extends from about 700 km above sea level to about 10,000 km, where it
merges into the solar wind.
4. Biosphere: It is composed of all living organism and their interactions with the
environment such us lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere. It is the earth’s zone of
air, soil, and water, which is capable of supporting life.

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ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

 Programs Under Environmental Studies

 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 Scope of Environmental Studies
 Importance and Objectives of Environmental Studies

Programs under Environmental Studies:

1. Environmental Education: It refers to organized efforts to teach how natural
environment function and particularly, how people can manage their behavior and
ecosystem.
2. Environmental Studies: It is a broad interdisciplinary field of study, which studies
the interaction of human beings with the environment.
3. Environmental Science: It is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates
physical, chemical and biological sciences to address the environmental problems.
4. Environmental Engineering: It is the application of science and engineering
principles to improve the quality of environment to provide healthy living conditions.

Aspects of Environmental Science:

1. Theoretical Aspects: It includes identification of scientific, social or economical
environmental threats to our survival and future generation.
2. Applied Aspects: It includes development of solution to the existing environmental
problems.

Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies: Environmental studies deal with

every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings
about an appreciation of our natural world and human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied
science as it seeks practical answers to making human civilization sustainable on the earth’s
finite resources. Its components include biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering,
sociology, health, anthropology, economics, statistics, computers and philosophy.

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Scope of Environmental Studies: The scope of environmental studies is wide and related to
every field.
Ecosystem structure and function Research and development
Natural resource conservation Social development
Environmental pollution control Environmental journalism
Environmental management Environmentalist
Industry Green advocacy and marketing

Importance of Environmental Studies:

1. It provides us basic knowledge of environment.
2. It helps in understanding current environmental problem.
3. It helps in conservation and management of natural resources.
4. It helps in maintaining ecological balance and controlling environmental pollution.
5. It helps in sustainable development.
6. It helps in educating people regarding their duties toward environment.
7. It is helpful in Environmental Management.
8. It aims to protect biodiversity.
9. It studies the agricultural and design of sustainable production.
10. It gives information related to population explosion, growth and development, impact
of population growth on the natural resources and national economy.
11. It helps in developing social responsibilities towards protection of environment.

Main Objectives of Environmental Studies:

(i) To acquire an awareness of the environment as a whole and its related problems.
(ii) To gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic understanding and knowledge about
the environment and its allied problems.
(iii) To acquire an attitude of concern for the environment.
(iv) To acquire the skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
(v) To participate in improvement and protection of environment.
(vi) To develop the ability to evaluate measures for the improvement and protection of
environment. To sum up, the objectives of environmental studies are to develop a world in
which persons are aware of and concerned about environment and the problems associated
with it, and committed to work individually as well as collectively towards solutions of
current problems and prevention of future problems.

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ECOLOGY
(Greek word: Okologie; meaning: “place to live”)
Ecology is concerned only about the place where a living organism is living, which can be
physical, biological and socio-cultural adaptations.
Definition: It is the branch of science that deals with the scientific study of the
interrelationship between living organisms with respect to each other and to their
surroundings.

Objective of Ecology:
• To know about the local and Geographical distribution and abundance of organisms
• To record the temporal changes in the occurrence, abundance and activities of
organisms
• To understand the interrelationship between organisms in population and community
• To understand the behavior of organisms under natural conditions
• To understand the biological productivity

Classification of Ecology based on the level of organization:

1. Autecology: The study of ecological relationships from the point of view of single
species.
2. Synecology: If all species are studies together, then the study of ecological
relationships is called synecology.

Levels of Organization in Ecology:

Individual → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere
1. Individual: It is a single living organism, which has the ability to act or function or
exist independently.
• Species: It is a group of similar living organisms or individuals which are capable
of exchanging genes and interbreeding to produce viable off springs. Example:
Homosapiens (Human Being) but Tiglion (Tiger + Lion) is not a species.
• Ecophene/ECAD: It is morphologically changed form of same species. When
a species is transported to a new environment, its first response will be to
develop abilities to survive there. These differences among ecophenes are
temporary to survive in the new environment. Ecophenes from different
habitats, when brought together become similar again.

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• Ecotype: If ecophenes have to remain in the new habitat for long time, these
morphologically changed form (physical) will start becoming permanent,
which is called Ecotype.
2. Population: A group of organisms of the same species occupying a defined area at a
given time. Example: A population of elephants in Queen Elizabeth national park
• Population Density: Number of individuals per unit area at a given time is
known as population density.
3. Community: It is a collection of population of two or more different species
occupying the same geographical area in a particular time. It is also known as
Biocoenosis. These are named after dominated plant form. Example: Grassland
community is dominated by grasses and contain small amount of herbs, shrubs, trees,
animals, plants and insects.
4. Ecosystem: It is the community of organisms, which are interacting with each other
and with their environment such that energy is exchanged and system level processes
such as nutrient cycling emerge.
5. Biome: Biome is a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying
a major habitat. Example: Rainforest biome or tundra biome. Plants and animals in a
biome have common characteristics due to similar climates and can be found over a
range of continents. Biomes are distinct from habitats, because any biome can
comprise a variety of habitats (Habitat: the natural home or environment of an
organism).
6. Biosphere: The biosphere is the biological component of earth which includes the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The biosphere includes all living organisms
on earth, together with the dead organic matter produced by them.

ECOTONE
An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes [diverse
ecosystems]. It is where two communities meet and integrate. Example: the mangrove
forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Other examples
are grassland (between forest and desert), estuary (between fresh water and salt water) and
river bank or marsh land (between dry and wet land).

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Characteristics of Ecotone:
• It may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between forest and desert).
• As it is a zone of transition, it has conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems.
Hence it is a zone of tension.
• Usually, the number and the population density of the species of an outgoing
community decrease as we move away from community or ecosystem.
• Well-developed ecotones contain some organisms, which are entirely different from
that of the adjoining communities.

Edge Effect – Edge Species

• In ecology, edge effects refer to the changes in population or community structures
that occur at the boundary of two habitats (ecotone).
• Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in
the ecotone are much greater than either community. This is called edge effect.
• The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known
as edge species.
• In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds. For
example, the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between
the forest and the desert.

Ecological Niche: Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its
habitat or ecosystem.
• In nature, many species occupy the same habitat but they perform different functions.
• The functional characteristic of a species in its habitat is referred to as “niche” in that
common habitat.
• A niche is unique for a species while many species share the habitat. No two species
in a habitat can have the same niche. This is because of the competition with one
another until one is displaced.
• For example, a large number of different species of insects may be pests of the same
plant but they can co-exist as they feed on different parts of the same plant.
• A species niche includes all of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic factors of its
environment [habitat niche – where it lives, food niche – what is eats or decomposes
& what species it competes with, reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces,
physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other
requirement].
• Niche plays an important role in conservation of organisms. If we have to conserve
species in its native habitat we should have knowledge about the niche requirements
of the species and should ensure that all requirements of its niche are fulfilled.

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ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is defined as the natural unit, consisting of living and non living part which
interacts to form a stable system. It is an area within the natural environment and posses all
the characteristics required to sustain life. Examples: Pond, lakes, forest, grassland etc.
Balanced Ecosystem means that the nutrients are able to cycle efficiently and no community
or any natural phenomenon is interrupting the flow of energy and nutrients to other parts.

STRUCTURE/COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Abiotic Components: Inorganic Substances, Organic Substances, Climatic Factor
Biotic Components
(a) Autotrophs/ Producers: Photo-Autothrophs and Chemo-Autothrophs
(b) Heterotrophs/ Consumers
• Primary Consumers/Herbivores/Plant Eaters
• Secondary Consumers/Primary Carnivores/Meat Eaters
• Tertiary Consumers/Secondary or Top Carnivores
• Omnivores
(c) Decomposers/Saprotrophs

1. Abiotic Components: All non-living components of environment constitute abiotic

components.
 Inorganic Substances are involved in mineral cycle. Examples: C, S, N, P, K
 Organic Substances form the living body and influences the functioning of
ecosystem. Examples: Lipid, Protein, Carbohydrate
 Climatic Factor are air, temperature, soil, water, sunlight
2. Biotic Components: All living components of environment constitute biotic
components. These are further divided into three parts:
(a) Autotrophs or Producers: These organisms produce their own food
as they contain chlorophyll and capable of directly obtaining energy
from sun and convert, store it as chemical energy in their bodies by
conversion of CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates. This process is named
as photosynthesis.
6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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These are of two types:

• Photo-Autotrophs: These producers fix energy from the sun and store it in
the complex compounds. Example: Green Plants
• Chemo-Autotrophs: These are bacteria which oxidize reduced inorganic
substances such ammonia, sulphur in to complex compounds. Example:
Nitrifying Bacteria
(b) Heterotrophs or Consumers: These organisms are capable of
obtaining energy/food by consuming producers. These are of three
types:
• Primary Consumers/Herbivores/Plant Eaters: They depend on the
plants for food and energy. Examples: insect, rat, goat, deer, cow, horse
• Secondary Consumers/Primary Carnivores/Meat Eaters: They depend
on the herbivores for food and energy. Examples: Frog, bird, cat, snakes,
foxes
• Tertiary Consumers/Secondary or Top Carnivores: They depend on
the secondary consumers for food and energy. Examples: Tiger, Lion
(c) Decomposers/Saprotrophs: These organisms are capable of
consuming dead organisms, plants, animals and decomposing
producers and consumers into simple compounds. Examples: Bacteria
and Fungi

Importance of Decomposers in Ecosystem: Fallen leaves, parts of dead trees are called
DETRIUS and decomposers are called as DETRIVORES (Ant, termites). Decomposers are
essential for long term survival of a community. Their vital role is vital to complete the
nutrient cycle. They help in reducing the waste matter. Moreover, important nutrients would
remain in dead form. The producer would not get the nutrients and cyclic chain will get
stopped.

Structure of an Ecosystem:
Producers (Grass) → Primary Consumers (Grass Hopper) → Secondary Consumers (Snake)
→ Tertiary Consumers (Eagle) → Decomposers (Fungi) → Nutrients → Producers

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FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEM

1. Ecological succession or ecosystem development
2. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms
3. Regulation of Energy flow through food chain
4. Nutrient cycling within trophic levels (Biogeochemical cycles)

1. Ecological Succession: Biotic communities are dynamic in nature and change over a
period of time. Ecological Succession is an orderly change in the composition or
structure of an ecological community over time. A community begins with relatively
few living organisms, and become complex over a period of time and hence, become
stable. The first plant to colonize an area is called the Pioneer Community. Example:
lichen (symbiotic association of algae and fungi), mosses, microbes. The final stage of
succession is called the Climax Community. The stages leading to the climax
community are called Successional Stages or Seres. Each transitional (temporary)
community that is formed and replaced during succession is called a stage in
succession or a seral community.
Characteristics of Ecological Succession:
 Increase productivity,
 Shift of nutrients from the reservoirs,
 Increase diversity of organisms with increased niche development
 Gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.
Types of ecological succession:
a) Primary succession takes place an over a bare or unoccupied areas such as
rocks outcrop, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands
and lava flows as well as glacial moraines (muddy area exposed by a
retreating glacier) where no community has existed previously.
b) Secondary succession occurs when plants recognize an area in which the
climax community has been disturbed. Secondary succession is the sequential
development of biotic communities after the complete or partial destruction
of the existing community.
Difference between Primary and Secondary Succession: Unlike in the primary succession,
the secondary succession starts on a well-developed soil already formed at the site. Thus,
secondary succession is relatively faster as compared to primary succession, which may
often require hundreds of years.

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2. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable equilibrium, especially through

physiological processes (through bodily part functions. Examples: Cooling your body
through sweating). Organisms try to maintain the constancy of its internal
environment (a process called homeostasis) despite varying external environmental
conditions that tend to upset its homeostasis. For humans, it could be achieved at
home by using an air conditioner in summer and heater in winter. Here the person’s
homeostasis is accomplished, but not through physiological, but artificial means.
3. Regulation of Energy flow through Food Chains: Flow of Energy in an ecosystem
is always unidirectional i.e. one way in nature and continuous from one trophic level
to another.

Reason: The energy enters the plants (from the sun) through photosynthesis during the
making of food. This energy is then passed from one organism to another in a food chain.
Energy given out by the organisms as heat is lost to the environment, it does not return and
not to be used by the plants again. This makes the flow of energy in ecosystem
'unidirectional'.

This energy flow is based on two important Laws of Thermodynamics:

(1) The first law of Thermodynamics: It states that the amount of energy in the universe is
constant. It may change from one form to another, but it can neither be created nor destroyed.
Light energy can be neither created nor destroyed as it passes through the atmosphere. It may,
however, be transformed into another type of energy, such as chemical energy or heat energy.
These forms of energy cannot be transformed into electromagnetic radiation.
(2) The second law of Thermodynamics: It states that non-random energy (mechanical,
chemical, radiant energy) cannot be changed without some degradation into heat energy. The
change of energy from one form to another takes place in such a way that a part of energy is
utilized (heat energy). In this way, after transformation the capacity of energy to perform
work is decreased. Thus, energy flows from higher to lower level.

Main source of energy is Sun. Approximately 57% of sun energy is absorbed in the
atmosphere and scattered in the space. Some 35% is spent to heat water and land areas and to
evaporate water. Of the approximately 8% of light energy striking plant surface, 10% to 15%
is reflected, 5% is transmitted and 80 to 85% is absorbed; and an average of only 2% (0.5 to
3.5%) of the total light energy striking on a leaf is used in photosynthesis and rest is
transformed into heat energy.

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To understand the energy flow through the ecosystem we need to study about the trophic
levels.
Trophic level: It is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem. The trophic level of an
organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. Trophic level interaction deals with the
members of an ecosystem, which are interconnected based on their nutritional needs.

Producers (T1) → Primary Consumers (T 2) → Secondary Consumers (T 3) → Tertiary

Consumers (T4) → Decomposers (T5)

 Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss of energy in the
form of heat at each trophic level. This energy loss at each tropic level is quite
significant. Hence, there are usually not more than four-five trophic levels [beyond this
the energy available is negligible to support an organism].
Producers (100 %)→ Primary Consumers ( 10 %)→ Secondary Consumers ( 10 %)→
Tertiary Consumers (0.1 %)

The trophic level interaction involves three concepts:

1. Food Chain
2. Food Web
3. Ecological Pyramids

FOOD CHAIN: The transfer of food energy from producers to consumers through a series
of trophic level is known as food chain. Example: Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake
→ Hawk/Eagle. Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. A food chain starts with
producers and ends with top carnivores. The trophic level is the position of an organism, it
occupies in a food chain.

TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS:

a) Grazing Food Chain: It starts from producers/green plants and goes to
decomposers. The grassland and forest ecosystem follow this food chain.
Grass → Grass Hopper → Snake → Eagle→ Decomposers
Green Plants → Goat → Wolf → Lion
Phytoplankton → zooplankton → small fish → large fish→ Man (Aquatic
Ecosystem)
b) Detritus/Parasitic Food Chain: It starts from dead organic matter of
decaying animals and plant bodies. Dead organic matter or detritus feeding

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organisms are called detrivores or decomposer. The detrivores are eaten by

predators. The two food chains are linked as the initial energy source for
detritus food chain is the waste materials and dead organic matter from the
grazing food chain.
Dead plants → soil mites → insects → lizard
Dead organic matter → bacteria → protozoa – rotifers (minute aquatic species)
In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing food chain is the major conduit for energy flow. As
against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the
detritus food chain than through the grazing food chain.

c) Parasitic food chain: It goes from large organisms to smaller ones without
outright killing as in the case of predator.

FOOD WEB: The interlocking pattern of various food chains in the ecosystem is known as
food web. Many food chains are connected and overlapped because most consumers feed on
multiple species and in turn are fed upon by multiple species. It is graphical representation of
what-eats-what or who is eaten by whom in an ecological community.
Energy Flow in Food Web:
 Grass → insects → fishes → birds → tigers
 Grass → insects → birds → tigers
 Grass → deer → tigers
 Grass → cattle → tigers
 Grass → rats → snakes→ eagles → tigers
 Grass → rats → eagles → tigers
Difference between food chain and food web: If any of the intermediate food chain is
removed, the succeeding links of the chain will be affected largely. The food web provides
more than one alternative for food to most of the organisms in an ecosystem and therefore
increases their chance of survival.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID: It is the graphical representation of structure and function of

trophic level of an ecosystem in the form of pyramid. In ecological pyramids, producers form
the base and top carnivores form top of the pyramid. Other consumer trophic levels are in
between. The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars depicting specific trophic
levels. The length of each bar represents the total number of individuals or biomass or energy
at each trophic level in an ecosystem.

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The ecological pyramids are of three categories.

a) Pyramid of numbers,
b) Pyramid of biomass, and
c) Pyramid of energy or productivity.

a) Pyramid of Number: It represents the total number of individuals of different species at

each trophic level. It may be upright and inverted in nature depending upon size of
ecosystem. It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the
pyramid of number does not completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.
* Pyramid of numbers – Upright: In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased
from lower level to higher trophic level. This type of pyramid can be seen in Grassland
ecosystem and Pond ecosystem. The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) because
of their abundance. The next higher trophic level is primary consumer – herbivore
(grasshopper). The individual number of grasshopper is less than that of grass. The next
energy level is primary carnivore (rat). The number of rats are less than grasshopper, because,
they feed on grasshopper. The next higher trophic level is secondary carnivore (snakes). They
feed on rats. The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore (Hawk).
* Pyramid of numbers – Inverted: In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased
from lower level to higher trophic level. E.g. Tree ecosystem.

b) Pyramid of Biomass: Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all

organisms occupying each trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight.
Pyramid of Biomass represents the total biomass available per unit area in each trophic
level. It may be upright and inverted in nature. There is a decrease or increase in the
biomass from lower trophic level to higher trophic level. This overcomes the size
difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed.

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Biomass is measured in g/m2 or kg/m2. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of

fresh or dry weight. Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate.

Pyramid of Biomass – Upright

• For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary
producers with a smaller trophic level perched on top.
• The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum. The biomass of next trophic
level i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of next higher
trophic level i.e. secondary consumers is less than the primary consumers. The top, high
trophic level has very less amount of biomass.
Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted

• In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an

inverted form. [Pyramid of numbers for aquatic ecosystem is upright]
• This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and reproduce rapidly.
• Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant
actually exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid assumes inverted shape.

c) Pyramid of Energy: To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an

ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable. It represents the amount of energy
available in each trophic level and loss of energy at each transfer to another trophic level.
Hence, the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.

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It follows a single channel

energy flow model. At each
trophic level, there is heavy
loss of energy. Hence, there
is a sharp decrease in
energy at all level.

• Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a given day. Most of the
energy is not absorbed; some is reflected back to space; of the energy absorbed only a
small portion is utilized by green plants, out of which the plant uses up some for
respiration and of the 1000 calories, therefore only 100 calories are stored as energy rich
materials. Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant containing 100 calorie of
food energy. The deer uses some of it for its own metabolism and stores only 10 calorie
as food energy. A lion that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus
usable energy decreases from sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore,
the energy pyramid will always be upright.
• Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the phenomenon of biological
magnification – the tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration
progressively with higher trophic levels.

ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY
Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the next. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted
as the transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is
transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level.
The decreases at each subsequent trophic level are due to two reasons:

1. At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in

metabolism.
2. A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when it moves from lower to higher
trophic level as heat.

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Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:

• It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
• It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost never exists in nature; it does not
accommodate a food web.
• Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter)
are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
ecosystem.

POLLUTANT AND TROPHIC LEVEL

Bioaccumulation: It refers to the increase in the concentration of pollutant from environment
to the first organism in a food chain.
Bioconcentration: It is defined as the process by which a chemical concentration in an
aquatic organism exceeds that in water as a result of exposure to waterborne chemicals.
Biomagnification: It refers to the tendency of pollutant to concentrate as they move from one
trophic level to the next. In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be long
lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. Example: DDT

If a pollutant is short lived, it will be broken down before it can become dangerous. If it is not
mobile, it will stay in one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organism. If the pollutant is
soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organisms. Pollutants which are soluble in fats
however may be retained for long time. It is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in
fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals, we often test the milk produced by
females, since the milk has a lot of fat in it and is often more susceptible to damage from
toxins (poisons).

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BIO-GEOCHEMICAL CYCLING/NUTRIENT CYCLING

(bio for living; geo for atmosphere)

• Energy is lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of the system. On the other hand,
nutrients of food matter never get used up. They can be recycled again and again
indefinitely.
• Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as elements and compounds
make up 97% of the mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all living
organisms.
• In addition to these, about 15 to 25 other elements are needed in some form for the
survival and good health of plants and animals.
• These elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living to
living and then back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more or less
circular fashion. This circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling . Among the
most important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle and the nitrogen nutrient
cycle. There are many other nutrient cycles that are important in ecology, including a
large number of trace mineral nutrient cycles.

Based on the replacement period, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle:
1. A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are
utilized. Most gaseous cycles are generally considered as perfect cycles.
2. In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect, as some nutrients
are lost from the cycle and get locked into sediments and so become unavailable for
immediate cycling.

Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two types of cycles namely:
• Gaseous Cycle — where the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere —
water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc.
• Sedimentary Cycle — where the reservoir is the earth’s crust [elements mostly
found in earth’s crust] — phosphorous cycle, sulphur cycle, calcium cycle,
magnesium cycle etc.

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TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

1. Natural Ecosystem (Controlled by nature)

 Aquatic Ecosystem
a) Marine Ecosystem (Sea and sea shores)
b) Fresh Water Ecosystem
• Lotic (running water): river, streams, spring
• Lentic (standing water): lake, pond
c) Estuary Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
a) Desert Ecosystem
b) Forest Ecosystem
c) Grassland Ecosystem
2. Artificial Ecosystem (Controlled by man)
 Agriculture and Aquaculture

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

A forest is a community of trees, hurbs, shrubs, and organism that use oxygen, water and soil
nutrients. A forest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and dense trees grow which support
many animals and birds.
Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem:
• Moderate Temperature
• Adequate rainfall
• Support many wild animals and protect biodiversity
• Minerals in soil support the growth of trees
• Poor penetration of light so conversion of organic matter is fast
Structure of Forest Ecosystem:
• Abiotic Components: Minerals (basic inorganic and organic are present in soil and
atmosphere), moderate temperature, high rainfall, proper soil conditions, proper water
availability, no sunlight
• Biotic Components:
a) Producers: Big trees, medium sized bushes, small plants
b) Consumers: Wild animals
c) Decomposers: Earthworm, bacteria, fungi, protozoa

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Types of Forest Ecosystem:

1. Temperate rain forests
2. Tropical rain forests
3. Temperate deciduous forests
4. Tropical deciduous forests
5. Tropical Scrub Forests

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and non-woody plants.
Grasslands make up 25 percent of the Earth's land surface and dominate in regions with
limited rainfall, which prevents forest growth.
Structure of Grassland Ecosystem:
• Abiotic Components: Essential elements C,H,O,P and S are supplied by soil,
seasonal temperature, low rainfall, proper sunlight
• Biotic Components:
a) Producers: Grasses, herbs, shrubs
b) Consumers: Grazing animals, few wild too
c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi
Types of Grassland Ecosystem:
1. Temperate grassland
2. Tropical grassland
3. Polar grassland

DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Desert refers to a region according to low rainfall and extreme temperature. It has less flora
and fauna. Deserts receive less than 25 cm of rainfall each year and rainfall is very irregular.
Parts of the Sahara can go years without any rain at all. Deserts experience a wide range of
temperature from day to night. There is little to absorb the sun's radiation, so it all goes to the
soil or sand. Similarly, there is nothing cloud cover, vegetation, water to hold the warmth, so
it quickly goes away. The soil is very dry (sand) and is low in organic nutrients, as few plants
live, die and decay there. Desert animals and plants are adapted to reproduce quickly during
the brief moist period.

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Structure of Desert Ecosystem:

• Abiotic Components: No organic matter in soil, still rich in C,H, N, low rainfall,
high temperature, proper sunlight, sandy areas
• Biotic Components:
a) Producers: Bushes, shrubs
b) Consumers: Xeric species (reptiles)
c) Decomposers: Thermophilic bacteria

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Aquatic ecosystems refer to plant and animal communities occurring in water bodies.
Structure of Aquatic Ecosystem:
• Abiotic Components: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, Rocks, calcium, moderate/cool
temperature, no sunlight
• Biotic Components:
a) Producers: Phytoplankton, see weeds
b) Consumers: Zooplankton, fishes, shark
c) Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi

Types of Aquatic ecosystems:

• Fresh water ecosystems — Water on land which is continuously cycling and has low
salt content (always less than 5 ppt/parts per thousand) is known as fresh water. There
are two types of fresh water ecosystems: (i) Static or still water (Lentic) ecosystems
e.g. pond, lake, bogs and swamps. (ii) Running water (Lotic) ecosystems e.g. springs,
mountain brooks, streams and rivers.
• Marine ecosystems — the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or
above that of sea water (i.e., 35 ppt or above). Eg: shallow seas and open ocean.
• Brackish water ecosystems — these water bodies have salt content in between 5 to
35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats: Sunlight and oxygen are the most
important limiting factors of the aquatic ecosystems whereas temperature and precipitation
(rainfall) are the most important limiting factors of the terrestrial ecosystems due to which
they are divided into 11 biomes.

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1. Sunlight
• Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes down the column of water. The
depth to which light penetrates a lake determines the extent of plant distribution.
• Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc. make the water
turbid. Turbidity also limits the extent of light penetration and the photosynthetic
activity in a significant way.
Based on light penetration and plant distribution they are classified as photic and aphotic
zones.
Photic zone: Photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the portion that extends from the lake surface
down to where the light level is 1% of that at the surface. The depth of this zone depends on
the transparency of water. It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems within which
photosynthetic activity is confined. Both photosynthesis and respiration activity takes place.
Aphotic zone: The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant
growth are restricted form the aphotic zone (profundal zone). Only respiration activity takes
place in this zone. Aphotic zone extends from the end of the photic zones to bottom of the
lake.
2. Dissolved oxygen
• In fresh water the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 10 parts per
million/ppm by weight. This is 150 times lower than the concentration of oxygen in
an equivalent volume of air. Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air
water interface and by the photosynthetic activities of aquatic plants. Dissolved
oxygen escapes the water body through air-water interface and through respiration of
organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc.).
• The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by
temperature. Oxygen is less soluble in warm water. Warm water also enhances
decomposer activity. Therefore, increasing the temperature of a water body increases
the rate at which oxygen is depleted from water.
• When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic organisms are
likely to die.
Temperature: Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms
have narrow temperature tolerance limit. As a result, even small changes in water
temperature are a great threat to the survival of aquatic organisms when compared to the
changes in air temperatures in the terrestrial organisms.

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Lake Ecology: Anybody of standing water, generally large enough in area and depth is
known as lake. The largest lake in the world is Lake Superior in North America. Lake Baikal
in Siberia is the deepest. Chilka lake of Orissa is largest lake in India.
Three main zones can be differentiated in a lake:-
1. Peripheral zone (littoral zone) with shallow water.
2. Open water beyond the littoral zone where water is quite deep.
3. Benthic zone (bottom) or the floor of the lake.
• Lakes receive their water from surface runoff (sometimes also groundwater discharge)
and along with it various chemical substances and mineral matter eroded from the
land. Over periods spanning millennia, ageing occurs as the lakes accumulate mineral
and organic matter and gradually, get filled up.
• The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants and
various fauna. This process is known as natural ‘eutrophication’. Eutrophic water
body is rich in nutrients and so supporting a dense plant population, the
decomposition which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen. Eutrophication is the
response to the addition of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or
artificially, fertilizing the aquatic ecosystem. Algal blooms are the consequence of
Eutrophication
• Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human
activities (discharge of wastewaters or agricultural runoff) and the consequent ageing
phenomenon is known as ‘cultural eutrophication’.
• On the basis of their nutrient content, lakes are categorized as Oligotrophic (very low
nutrients), Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich).
Vast majority of lakes in India are either eutrophic or mesotrophic because of the
nutrients derived from their surroundings or organic wastes entering them.

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BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is made up of two words: Bio means life and diversity means variety and
variability. Biodiversity is the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms
and ecosystem in which they occur. It refers to the study of all living organisms. A significant
level of biodiversity must be present for species to adapt to an ever-changing ecosystem.
Example:
i) Unicellular: Fungi, Bacteria
ii) Multicellular: Birds, fishes, plants

2010: International Year of Biodiversity

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Genetic Biodiversity: It is the variation in the genes within same species. Genes are
the information packet of living cells. Example: Rose varieties, Indian, European.
• A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level [E.g. Man:
Chinese, Indian American, African etc]. India has more than 50,000
genetically different strains of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango.
• Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments. This
diversity aims to ensure that some species survive drastic changes and thus
carry on desirable genes.
2. Species Biodiversity: It is the variety and variability among the species within an
ecological community. Example: Plant species (Apple, mango, grapes) and animal
species (Lion, tiger, elephant). It incorporates both species richness and the evenness
of species.
• Species richness: It is the measure of number of species found in a community
• Species evenness: It measures the proportion of species at a given site. Example:
low evenness indicates that a few species dominate the site.
Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an ecological community that For
example, the Western Ghats have greater amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.
There are more than 2,00,000 species in India of which several are confined to India
(endemic).
Species Biodiversity for a particular ecosystem is expressed as follows:
Diversity: Origination – Extinction + Immigration
Ecosystem near the equator i.e. tropical region has more species biodiversity.

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3. Ecosystem Biodiversity: It indicates the variation in the structure and function of

ecosystem. It tells about the food and energy flow, and stability of ecosystem.
Example: River ecosystem, Forest Ecosystem. It is considered as a most complex
level of biodiversity.

Alpha diversity: It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, and is usually
expressed by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
Beta diversity: It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually measured as the
change in amount of species between the ecosystems.
Gamma diversity: It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within
a region.

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VALUES/BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY
DIRECT VALUES: The direct values include the consumptive use and productive use
values. The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature’s products that are
consumed directly, without passing through a market. When direct consumption involves
recreation, as in sport fishing and game viewing, the consumptive use value is the whole
recreational experience. The productive use value, on the other hand, refers to products
which are commercially harvested or used. Productive use of resources such as timber, fish,
medicinal plants, honey, construction materials, mushrooms; fruits and so forth have a major
impact on the national economy
• Consumptive use: The direct utilization of timber, food, fuel and wood by local
communities. The biodiversity held in the ecosystem provides forest dwellers with all
their daily needs, food, building material, medicines and a variety of other products.
They know the qualities and different uses of wood from different species of trees,
and collect a large number of local fruits, roots and plant material that they use as
food, construction material or medicines. Fisher folk are highly dependent on fish and
know where and how to catch fish and other edible aquatic animals and plants.
• Productive use: The biotechnologist uses bio-rich areas to ‘prospect’ and search for
potential genetic properties in plants or animals that can be used to develop better
varieties of crops that are used in farming and plantation programs or to develop
better livestock. Examples: Textile, leather, silk, paper and pulp industry etc.
• To the pharmacist, biological diversity is the raw material from which new
drugs can be identified from plant or animal products.
• To industrialists, biodiversity is a rich store-house from which to develop new
products.
• For the agricultural scientist the biodiversity in the wild relatives of crop
plants is the basis for developing better crops.
Preservation of biodiversity has now become essential for industrial growth and economic
development. A variety of industries such as pharmaceuticals are highly dependent on
identifying compounds of great economic value from the wide variety of wild species of
plants located in undisturbed natural forests. This is called biological prospecting.

INDIRECT VALUES: Biodiversity provides indirect benefits to human being, which

supports the existence of biological life and other benefits which are difficult to quantify.
These include social, cultural, ethical, aesthetic, option and environmental service values.

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• Social Values: While traditional societies which had a small population and required
less resources had preserved their biodiversity as a life supporting resource, modern
man has rapidly depleted it even to the extent of leading to the irrecoverable loss due
to extinction of several species. Thus, apart from the local use or sale of products of
biodiversity there is the social aspect in which more and more resources are used by
affluent societies. The biodiversity has to a great extent been preserved by traditional
societies that valued it as a resource and appreciated that its depletion would be a
great loss to their society.
The consumptive and productive value of biodiversity is closely linked to
social concerns in traditional communities. ‘Ecosystem people’ value biodiversity as a
part of their livelihood as well as through cultural and religious sentiments. A great
variety of crops have been cultivated in traditional agricultural systems and this
permitted a wide range of produce to be grown and marketed throughout the year and
acted as an insurance against the failure of one crop. In recent years farmers have
begun to receive economic incentives to grow cash crops for national or international
markets, rather than to supply local needs. This has resulted in local food shortages,
unemployment (cash crops are usually mechanized), landlessness and increased
vulnerability to drought and floods.
• Ethical and Moral Values: Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation are
based on the importance of protecting all forms of life. All forms of life have the right
to exist on earth. Apart from the economic importance of conserving biodiversity,
there are several cultural, moral and ethical values which are associated with the
sanctity of all forms of life. Indian civilization has over several generations preserved
nature through local traditions. This has been an important part of the ancient
philosophy of many of our cultures.
• Aesthetic: Knowledge and an appreciation of the presence of biodiversity for its own
sake is another reason to preserve it. Quite apart from killing wildlife for food, it is
important as a tourist attraction. Biodiversity is a beautiful and wonderful aspect of
nature
Symbols from wild species such as the lion of Hinduism, the elephant of
Buddhism and deities such as Lord Ganesha, and the vehicles of several deities that
are animals, have been venerated for thousands of years. Valmiki begins his epic story

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with a couplet on the unfortunate killing of a crane by a hunter. The ‘Tulsi’ has been
placed at our doorsteps for centuries.
• Option values: Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called option value.
It is impossible to predict which of our species or traditional varieties of crops and
domestic animals will be of great use in the future. To continue to improve cultivars
and domestic livestock, we need to return to wild relatives of crop plants and animals.
Thus the preservation of biodiversity must also include traditionally used strains
already in existence in crops and domestic animals.
• Ecological value of Biodiversity: These services also support human needs and
activities such as intensely managed production ecosystems. Ecosystem service
includes:
• The production of oxygen by land based plants and marine algae;
• The maintenance of fresh water quality by vegetation slowing run off, trapping
sediment and removing nutrients and by soil organisms breaking down
pollutants;
• The production and maintenance of fertile soil as a result of many interacting
processes;
• The provision of foods such as fish, pastures for cattle and sheep, timber, fire
wood and harvested wildlife such as kangaroos and native cut flowers;
• The provision of native species and genes used in industry research and
development, for instance, in traditional breeding and biotechnology
applications in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, mariculture, pharmacy,
chemicals production and bioremediation;
• Pollination of agricultural crops, forest trees and native flowering plants by
native insects, birds and other creatures;
• Pest control in agricultural land by beneficial native predators

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BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVEL

GLOBAL LEVEL
• There are at present 1.8 million species known and documented by scientists in the
world. However, scientists have estimated that the number of species of plants and
animals on earth could vary from 1.5 to 20 billion! Thus the majority of species are
yet to be discovered.
• Most of the world’s bio-rich nations are in the South, which are the developing
nations. In contrast, the majority of the countries capable of exploiting biodiversity
are Northern nations, in the economically developed world. These nations however
have low levels of biodiversity. Thus, the developed world has come to support the
concept that biodiversity must be considered to be a ‘global resource’. However, if
biodiversity should form a ‘common property resource’ to be shared by all nations,
there is no reason to exclude oil, or uranium, or even intellectual and technological
expertise as global assets. India’s sovereignty over its biological diversity cannot be
compromised without a revolutionary change in world thinking about sharing of all
types of natural resources.
• Countries with diversities higher than India are located in South America such as
Brazil, and South East Asian countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. The species
found in these countries, however, are different from our own. This makes it
imperative to preserve own biodiversity as a major economic resource. While few of
the other ‘megadiversity nations’ have developed the technology to exploit their
species for biotechnology and genetic engineering, India is capable of doing so.
• Throughout the world, the value of biologically rich natural areas is now being
increasingly appreciated as being of unimaginable value. International agreements
such as the World Heritage Convention attempt to protect and support such areas.
India is a signatory to the convention and has included several protected Areas as
World Heritage sites. These include Manas on the border between Bhutan and India,
Kaziranga in Assam, Bharatpur in U.P., Nandadevi in the Himalayas, and the
Sunderbans in the Ganges delta in West Bengal.
• India has also signed the Convention in the Trade of Endangered Species
(CITES), which is intended to reduce the utilization of endangered plants and
animals by controlling trade in their products and in the pet trade.

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INDIA AS A MEGADIVERSIRY NATION

India is a recognized as one of the mega-diverse countries, which is rich in biodiversity at
all three levels e.g. species, genetic and ecosystem. Its richness may be addressed from the
fact that it represents almost all the bio-geographic regions of the world. The unique richness
of biodiversity covers wide spectrum of habitats. Due to having very large number of species,
India is referred as mega diversity nation. India’s biodiversity may be enumerated as follows:

• It ranks 12th amongst the list of mega-diversity nations in the world.

• 4th in plant diversity in Asia and 10th in world.
• India has 23.39 % of its geographical area under forest and tree cover.
• With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7 % of the recorded species
even while supporting almost 18% of human population.
• In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in birds and fifth in
reptiles.
• In terms of endemism of vertebrate groups, India’s position is tenth in birds with 69
species, fifth in reptiles with 156 species and seventh in amphibians with 110 species.
• India’s share of crops is 44% as compared to the world average of 11%.
• India represents 2 Realms, 5 Biomes, 10 bio-geographic zones, and 25 bio-geographic
provinces.
 REALMS: Bio-geographic realms are large spatial regions within which
ecosystems share a broadly similar biota. Realm is a continent or sub-continent
sized area with unifying features of geography and fauna & flora. Examples:
Palearctic Realm, Malayan Realm.
 BIOMES: The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living
in areas of certain climate patterns. It includes the way in which animals,
vegetation and soil interact together. The plants and animals of that area have
adapted to that environment. Examples: Tropical Humid Forests, Tropical Dry or
Deciduous Forests (including Monsoon Forests), warm deserts and semi-deserts,
coniferous forests and Alpine meadows.
 BIO-GEOGRAPHIC ZONES: Biogeography deals with the geographical
distribution of plants and animals. Bio-geographic zones were used as a basis for
planning wildlife protected areas in India. Examples: Trans Himalays,
Himalayas, Desert, Semi arid, Western ghats, Deccan peninsula, Gangetic plain,
North east India, Islands, and Coasts.

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 BIO-GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES: Bio-geographic Province is an

ecosystematic or biotic subdivision of realms. Examples: Ladakh Mountains,
Thar, Punjab plain etc.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

Our country can be conveniently divided into ten major regions, based on the geography,
climate and pattern of vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibia, insects and other invertebrates that live in them. Each of these regions contains a
variety of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers, wetlands, mountains and hills,
which have specific plant and animal species. India’s Biogeographic Zones:
1. The cold mountainous snow covered Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh
2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam
and other North Eastern States
3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan Rivers flow into the plains
4. The Gangetic and Bhramaputra plains
5. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan
6. The semi arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
7. The Northeast States of India
8. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala
9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands
10. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests and mangroves

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HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

The areas on earth, which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are
termed as HOT SOPTS. To qualify for such region:
a) It must contain 0.5 % of global plant species as endemic.
b) It must have occupied 70 % of its land with plant and animal species.
 The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions. There are over a
thousand major ecoregions in the world. Of these, 200 are said to be the richest, rarest
and most distinctive natural areas. These areas are referred to as the Global 200.
 It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global plant
life, probably occur in only 34 ‘hot spots’ in the world. Countries which have a
relatively large proportion of these hot spots of diversity are referred to as
‘megadiversity nations’. 2 hot spots are present in India.
a) Western Ghats: A major proportion of amphibian and reptile species, especially
snakes, are concentrated in the Western Ghats, which is also a habitat for 1,500
endemic plant species.
b) Eastern Himalayas: It contains 30 % of endemic species.

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RET SPECIES
1. Rare Species: Species which are already less in number and need to be preserved are
called rare species. These are neither endangered nor vulnerable, but are at risk. These
species are usually localized within restricted area i.e. they are endemic species.
Examples: Himalaya brown beer, Hornbill
2. Threatened Species: Species which are considerably becoming less in number due to
natural reason or human activities. Examples: White tiger, Rhinos, Sparrow
3. Vulnerable Species: A vulnerable species is one which has been categorized by
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as likely to
become endangered unless the circumstances that are threatening its survival
and reproduction improve. Vulnerability is mainly caused by habitat loss or
overexploitation.
4. Endangered species: A species is said to be endangered when its number has been
reduced to critical level or whose habitat have been drastically reduced and if such
species are not protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
5. Extinct Species: Species are said to be extinct if they have not been observed in last
10 to 15 years. Examples: Dodo, Dinosaurs
 THE RED DATA BOOK is a type of a public document published by IUCN, which
is created for the recordings of endangered species including plants, animals, fungi as
well as some local subspecies, which are present within the region of the state or
country. The red data book helps us in providing complete information for research,
studies and also for monitoring the programs on rare and endangered species and their
habits. This book is mainly created to protect those species, which are on the verge
of extinction, lost, harmed or not able to continue their life cycle. These species can
either be animals, birds or plants.
 GREEN BOOK has been published by Botanical survey of India (BSI) and lists
rare plant species growing in protected area such as botanical gardens.

In India, there are 450 plant species, 150 mammals and 150 species of birds are estimated to
be threatened and identified in the categories of endangered or rare while an unknown
number od species of insects are endangered.

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THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

1. Climate Change: Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of course,
altered life on Earth in the long run — ecosystems have come and gone and species
routinely go extinct. But rapid, manmade climate change speeds up the process,
without affording ecosystems and species the time to adapt. For example, rising ocean
temperatures and diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift
vegetation zones, having global implications. Overall, climate is a major factor in the
distribution of species across the globe; climate change forces them to adjust. But
many are not able to cope, causing them to die out.

2. Habitat loss: Urbanization is a real cause of decrease in number of species and

deforestation. Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity. An
estimated 18 million acres of forest are lost each year, due in part to logging and other
human practices, destroying the ecosystems on which many species depend.
Tropical rainforests in particular, such as the Amazon, hold a high percentage of the
world's known species, yet the regions themselves are in decline due to humans.
3. Poaching of wildlife: Poaching is the illegal killing of wild life for sale in trade
market. Skin and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos and the
perfume from the must deer are extensively used abroad. Bears are killed for their gall
bladders. Corals and shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of
Chennai and Kanyakumari. A variety of wild plants with real or at times dubious
medicinal value are being over harvested.
4. Man-wildlife conflicts: It refers to the interaction between wild animals and people
and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their
habitat. It occurs when growing human populations overlap with established wildlife
territory, creating reduction of resources or life to some people and/or wild animals.
The conflict takes many forms ranging from loss of life or injury to humans, and
animals both wild and domesticated, to competition for scarce resources to loss
and degradation of habitat.
5. Imbalanced Food chain: Lesser number of rare species may lead to change in
biodiversity.
6. Pollution: It is responsible for global climatic change and extinction of many species.
From the burning of fossil fuels (releasing dangerous chemicals into the atmosphere
and, in some cases, depleting ozone levels) to dumping 19 billion pounds of
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plastic into the ocean every year, pollution completely disrupts the Earth's
ecosystems. While it may not necessarily cause extinction, pollutants do have the
potential to influents species' habits. For example, acid rain, which is typically caused
by the burning of fossil fuels, can acidify smaller bodies of water and soil, negatively
affecting the species that live there by changing breeding and feeding habits.
7. Over exploitation of resources: Some of the species gets extinct due to over-
exploitation of resources. Overhunting, overfishing and over-harvesting contribute
greatly to the loss of biodiversity, killing off numerous species over the past several
hundred years. Poaching and other forms of hunting for profit increase the risk of
extinction; the extinction of an apex predator — or, a predator at the top of a food
chain — can result in catastrophic consequences for ecosystems.
8. Invasive Species: The introduction of non-native species into an ecosystem can
threaten endemic wildlife (either as predators or competing for resources),
affect human health and upset economies.

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BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Today we are losing about 750 species per month. It is impossible for nature to compensate
for this rapid loss and therefore, it becomes extremely important to conserve this threatened
biodiversity. Biodiversity conservation is the scientific management at its optimum level and
derives sustainable benefits for both the present and future. There are two major approaches
for conservation of biodiversity: In-situ (on site) and Ex-situ (off site)

Aim: Protection, preservation, management or restoration of natural resources

Objectives: a) To protect all critically endangered and rare species
b) To protect natural habitat for preserving all varieties
c) To increase public awareness
d) To maintain ecological balance

1. In-situ Conservation (Within Habitats): In-situ conservation means the

conservation of species within their natural habitats, this way of conserving
biodiversity is the most appropriate method for biodiversity conservation. In this
strategy you have to find out the area with high biodiversity means the area in which
number of plants and animals are present. After that this high biodiversity area should
be covered in the form of National Park/Wild life sanctuary/Biosphere reserve etc.
Such a network would preserve the total diversity of life of a region. There are 769
protected area and occupy 4.93 % of geological graphical area.
a) Wild Life Sanctuaries:
• They conserve animals and birds only.
• Conservation of species and habitat by manipulative management
• No person resides on the park other than public servants on duty and
persons permitted by the chief wildlife warden
• Core, Buffer (outside core and dedicated to research and educational
activity), Restoration
• 544 wild life sanctuaries in India and occupy 3.62% of geological
graphical area
• Grazing and collection of products are allowed
• Examples: Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary, Wild ass Sanctuary, Bhadra Wildlife
Sanctuary, Ghana Bird Sanctuary

Dr. MONA
 Environmental Studies

b) Biosphere Reserves:
• They cover more than 5000 sq. km.
• They protect endangered species for a long time.
• These are less protected.
• They are useful for educational and research purpose. But no tourism and
explosives are permitted.
• Conservation of natural resources and improvement of the relationship
between human and environment.
• Both natural and human influenced ecosystem, substantial human
settlement
• Core, Buffer, Restoration and transition (Outermost region where
inhabitation, agricultural and recreational activity occurs)
• 18 biosphere reserves in India
• Examples: Nanda Devi (UP), Nilgiri (Kerala), Manas (Assam),
Sunderbans (West Bengals), Gulf of Munnar (TN)
c) National Park:
• They cover are of about 100 to 500 sq. km and conserve wild life and their
environment.
• Conservation of species and habitat with minimal or very low intensity of
human activities.
• No person resides on the park other than public servants on duty and
persons permitted by the chief wildlife warden.
• Human activities are not allowed, only tourism is allowed
• Core (undisturbed and legally protected zone)
• 105 national parks in India and occupy 1.23 % of geological graphical area
• Examples: Gir national park, Periyar, Kaziranga, Ranthambore

Advantages: Long term protection, Better opportunity for conservation and evolution and
cheaper
Disadvantages: Proper protection against environmental pollution may not be enough in
natural ecosystem, require large area
Buffer Zones are the area adjoining existing protected area which are of ecological value and
act as migration corridor. It includes conservation and community reserves.

Dr. MONA
 Environmental Studies

2. Ex-situ Conservation (Outside habitat): There are situations in which an

endangered species is so close to extinction that unless alternate methods are
instituted, the species may be rapidly driven to extinction. This strategy is known as
ex-situ conservation, i.e. conservation of biological diversity outside of their natural
habitat in a carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or a
zoological park for animals, where there is expertise to multiply the species under
artificially managed conditions. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as
well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and
facilities. Ex-situ Biodiversity conservation can be done as following:
• By forming Gene banks: In this store seeds, sperm & ova at extremely low
temperature and humidity (cryopreservation).
• It is very helpful to save large variety of species of plants & animals in a very
small space. e.g. sperm and ova banks, seed banks.
• Forming Zoo and botanical garden: for research purpose and to increase
public awareness collecting living organisms for aquaria, zoos and botanic
gardens.
• Collections of In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture.
• Aquaria
• Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible
reintroduction into the wild.

Advantages: Long term protection, species may survive longer and may produce offspring’s
than usual. The quality of offspring may be improved by genetic techniques. Breeding of
hybrid species is possible.

Disadvantages: Not a viable option for preserving rare species due to interference of human
being, can adopt only very few species, overprotection may result in loss of natural
occurrence.

OTHER METHODS for BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

1. Afforestation
2. Regulation of Forest fire
3. Regulation of Hunting by government programs such as seminars

Dr. MONA