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Module 04

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ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

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Module 04 – Electronic Fundamentals

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o Copyright © 2015 by Aviotrace Swiss SA

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

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transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or

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other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the

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publisher.

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Table of contents

tr a 1.1 Semiconductors

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- Diodes
- Transistors

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- Multistage Amplifiers

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- OP-AMP

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1.2 Printed circuit boards (PCB)

a s
1.3 Servo mechanism

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- Open loop Configuration
- Closed loop Configuration

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a c s _
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ce
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Chapter 04.1

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SEMICONDUCTORS

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Diode

r a s
• The diode is an electronic passive component. It is made of a semiconductor

t is
crystal, generally silicon.

o w
• It can have high or low resistance, according to the voltage polarity

s
applied to its terminals: the current amplitude in the diode

e
depends on the diode polarization.

a c
• In the symbol, the triangle indicates the anode (positive) while the arrow under the

s
r is
diode symbol represents the verse of the current flow, when the diode conducts:

t
from higher to lower voltage.

i o w
• The vertical line indicates the cathode (negative).

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Semiconductors: electron properties

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The semiconductor used in electronic circuits are, in most cases,
s
o
the silicon (Si) or the germanium and, for particular

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applications, the gallium arsenide.

e s
The electric properties depend by the number of electrons that
are in the last shell of atomic structure. That shell is called

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“valence shell” and electrons that are inside it are called

a s
“valence electrons”.

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The valence electrons are very important since they influence

o
and they are influenced by surrounding atoms.

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Diode Characteristics

r a s s
• The diode Silicon has four valence electrons and it’s structure is

t i
a crystalline grid like a square based pyramid. Its valence

o
electrons are influenced by the surrounding atoms.

s w
• To increase the conductivity of semiconductors we can dope it

e
introducing another type of atoms in the crystalline grid of a
pure semiconductor.

a c s
• In diodes, silicon chemical structure incorporates a lot of

r is
impurities that have three or five valence electrons on their

t
outer shell.

i o w
• These impurities in the silicon crystal create an excess of
electrons on a side and a lack on the other side of the crystal.

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Semiconductors: P and N types

r a s
• The atoms used to create conductivity in a

t is
semiconductor are atoms trivalent (to insert more
holes) or pentavalent (to insert more electrons)

o w
that are atoms which have three or five valence
electron on their external shells.

e s
• A hole represents the lack of an electron in the

c
covalent bond, that become a free charge in the
material.

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Semiconductors: P and N types

tr a is s
The material in which we put on pentavalent atoms, become a n-type material. In a
n-type material the conductivity is mainly due to the movement of electrons and the

o w
material is negatively charged (cathode).

s
• The material in which we put on trivalent atoms, become a p-type material. In a p-

e
type material the conductivity is mainly due to the movement of the hole (anode).

c
•

s
The presence of holes in excess in p-side, and the excess of electrons in n-side,

a
causes an interaction between them in the junction zone.

tr is
• Generally, in a diode directly polarized, flows a current. When it happens, near the

i o w
junction, there is recombination of electrons and holes, and it causes the decrease of
electron energy.

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Semiconductors: PN junction

r a s
• Some electrons going from the n-side to the p-side through the junction, join the

t is
holes in p-side.

o w
• That electrons movement leaves the n-side and p-side, close to

s
the junction, without charge carriers. In this way, it creates a

e
positive charge in n-side near the junction, and negative charge
in p-side.

c s
• If a hole goes from the P to the N region, the area in which there are those

a
recombinations increases.

tr
• This area is called space charge region/depletion layer.

o is
i w
• The increase of the reverse bias, raises the potential barrier that offer opposition
to majority carriers in both regions, and leave minority carriers free to move.

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Diode Characteristics

r a s
In a diode, the current amplitude depends on the

t is
diode polarization.

o w
If the negative part of the circuit is connected to the

s
positive part of the diode, it doesn’t conduct.

e
In the right part of the curve there is the relation

c
between the voltage and the direct current: over a

s
positive voltage value named threshold voltage, a

a
lot of charge move through the crystal and create a

tr is
current flow.

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Semiconductors: diode parameters

a s
• The diode is a non-linear, electronic passive device. In fact,

tr is
in the region where the voltage is positive, the curve has
an exponential trend and for this reason, is nonlinear.

o w
• In a diode directly polarized the current flow is due to the

s
charge majority carriers and then it increases very quickly

e
as the voltage increase; the voltage is normally 0,7 V.

c
• If the diode is in the state of reverse polarization and we

a s
increase diode voltage until a certain value called

r is
“breakdown value”, reverse current Id quickly increases

t
and diode breakdown occur.

i o w
• This is not always a destructive phenomenon. In fact, the
Zener diode can work normally in the breakdown region.

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Diode symbols

tr a
• There are many types of diodes:

is s
o
a) Shottky diode

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b) Varicap diode

s
c) Light Emitting Diode

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d) Photo-diode
• We can see that the part of the symbol

c
that changes is that of the negative

a s
terminal.

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Diode in parallel

r a s s
To limit the voltage peak value the diode must

t i
be connected in parallel with the output

o
terminals.

The diode is in the state of direct polarization

s w
e
only if the input voltage Vi is higher than the
reference voltage Vr: in that way, the input

c
current flows through the diode thanks to its

a s
low resistance and then it makes the parallel

r is
branch like a short circuit.

o t
The value over which it’s possible to cut the

i w
wave depends on the value given by the
reference battery.
This kind of circuit is named CLIPPER.

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Diode in series

r a s s
The diode can be used like a passive switch in AC

t i
circuit to rectify a current wave.

o w
To use the diode as a rectifier, we must connect it in

s
series with the output branch of the circuit.

ce
In this case, if the input voltage Vi is lower than
reference voltage Vr , the diode cannot conduct and

a s
so the output Vo is steadily equal to Vr.

tr is
When the input voltage value goes over reference

o w
value, the diode becomes directly polarized and

i
then the output voltage will be almost equal to Vi.

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Voltage rectifier

r a s s
If we want to rectifier the entire sin wave,

t i
we must only put another diode in
opposition with the first one and split the

o w
secondary voltage in two equal parts by a

s
central pin.

e
When the voltage wave is positive the

c
diode D1 is directly polarized and the

s
diode D2 is in the state of reverse

a
polarization and vice versa when the wave

r is
is negative.

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Graetz's bridge circuit

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The rectifier circuit converts a voltage wave with an average value of 0 into an

c
always-positive voltage wave with an average value diverse from 0.

a s
There are three types of rectifier circuits: one diode rectifier, two diodes rectifier and

tr is
the Graetz’s bridge rectifier.

i o w
The Graetz’s bridge rectifier is a full wave rectifier: during one half voltage wave,
there are only two opposite diodes directly polarized. When the voltage inverts its
polarity, the conducting diodes will be the other ones. Then, we can understand that
the output voltage is the same of the two diodes rectifier.
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Rectifier with capacitive filter

r a s s
A capacitive filter equalize the pulsing voltage that comes from a rectifier circuit: during

t i
the first quarter of the voltage wave, the diode is directly polarized and so, the capacitor

o
can charge itself. Instead, when the voltage begins to decrease, the capacitor connected

w
in parallel to the load discharges on the load, until the next positive half wave, where it

s
restarts to charge.

ce
tr a is s
i o w
Then, we can see that the continuous charge and discharge of the capacitor, permits to
equalize a variable voltage signal.

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Clamper circuits

r a s s
A clamping circuit will bind the

t i
upper or lower extreme of a

o
waveform to a fixed DC voltage

w
level.

e s
These circuits are also known as
DC voltage restorers.

a c s
Clampers can be constructed

r is
with both positive and negative

t
polarity as well as biased and

o
unbiased version.

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Thyristor(SCR)

r a s s
• A thyristor is a controlled device, also called silicon

t i
controlled rectifiers(SCR). It works like a diode

o
controlled by a current impulse; when it is switched off

w
it has very high resistance, when it is switched on, it

s
has very low resistance.

e
• It’s made by three terminals named anode and

c
cathode, like a diode, and the third is named gate.

r a is s
• This device conducts only if an electric current flows

t
through the gate. Then, the gate is the device control

o
terminal.

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Light Emitting Diode

tr a s
• Led is the acronym for light emitting diode. It is a junction

i
electronic device, realized with particular kinds of
s
o
semiconductor materials, that emits light when a current

w
flows in them.

s
• When reversed biased, normal silicon diodes emits thermal

e
energy, instead in led there is emission of light energy.

c s
• Doping material in the junction determines the colour.

tr a
• The maximum reverse voltage is smaller than the normal
diodes reverse voltage and it is in the range of 3-5 volts, while

is
i o w
the current range from 5 to 20 milliampere.

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Photo-Diode

tr a is
• The photo-diode is a kind of diode that works in

s
o
the state of reverse polarization.

w
• When light, run over the photodiode reverse

s
biased, creates a lot of free charge carriers, that

e
causes a tangible value of reverse current.

c
• That current, depends on the light intensity, and

a s
on the wave length.

o tr is
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Varistor

tr a
• The varistor is a voltage depended resistor.

is s
o
• It is generally used to protect another device from an unexpected

w
voltage peak. Its resistance value decrease when tension increases,

s
in this way it makes the current flows through itself bypassing the
other electronic device in order to protect it.

ce
• Varistor curve is a symmetric curve and it seems like two curve of
two diodes that are in the state of reverse polarization.

r a is s
• For that reason, its electrical symbol is like two opposite diodes.

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Semiconductors: Varicap and Schottky diode

r a s s
The varicap diodes are not used as normal silicon diodes, but

t i
as variable capacitors, which change their capacity in relation

o
to reverse voltage. For that reason, the varicap diode symbol

w
is like a diode in series with a variable capacitor. They can have

s
a capacity, that is between few picofarad and hundreds
picofarad.

ce
A schottky barrier is a potential barrier created by a metal-

a s
semiconductor junction. It gives to the schottky diode a very

r is
low forward-voltage drop, that is about 0.15-0.45 volt, and the

t
possibility to work a very high frequencies. The biggest
limitation of Schottky diodes is the relatively high reverse

i o w
leakage current.

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Semiconductors: Zener diode

tr a
• Zener diodes are able to work in breakdown zones and

is
have a particularly steady reverse breakdown voltage that
s
o w
is not over 5-6 V: this allows to use Zener as a voltage
stabilizer.

e
• The Zener voltage value depends on the material

s
c
resistivity and you can set it by controlling the
semiconductor doping.

r a
• If It is connected in parallel to the load, on the output

t
branch of the circuit Zener diode works as voltage

is s
o w
stabilizer.

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Digital and Analog Multimeter

tr a i
To identify the cathode and the anode of a diode,

s s
o
you can perform a diode functional test with a

w
multimeter.

s
A multimeter is a digital and analog electronic

e
measuring instrument able to measure current,

c
voltage, and resistance.

r a is s
The forward bias of a diode can be tested placing

t
the positive lead of the ohmmeter on the anode.

o
A multimeter can also be used to verify possible

i w
diode damages.

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BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor

r a s s
BJT is made using silicon as semiconductor material, and is

t i
characterized by an input resistance different from the

o
output one. The three elements of the two-junction

w
transistor are:

s
the EMITTER, gives off, or emits, "current carriers” (electrons

e
or holes);

c s
the BASE, controls the flow of current carriers;

r a is
the COLLECTOR, collects the current carriers.

o t
BJT are able to control, with a very low input current, a

i w
higher output current. Transistors are classified as PNP and
NPN, both the two types of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) permits the current to flow.

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NPN junction interaction

r a s s
• The emitter current is separated into base and collector

t i
current.

o w
• Usually no more than 2 to 5 percent of the total current is

s
base current (IB) while the remaining 95 to 98 percent is
collector current (IC).

ce
Since the collector receives most of this current, a small

a s
variation in emitter-base bias will have a far greater effect

r is
on the magnitude of collector current, and the relatively

t
small emitter-base bias controls the relatively large
emitter-to-collector current.

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Transistor

tr a is
In PNP and NPN the first letter is the polarity of the emitter,
s
o
the second one is the one of the base and the last one refers

w
to the collector.

e s
To conduct and be able to work as amplifier the transistor
must have the first junction ( the emitter-base junction)

c
forward biased and the second junction (collector-base

a s
junction) reverse biased.

tr is
In NPN the emitter is connected with thee negative side of

o
the battery.

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Transistor

a s
PNP forward-biased junction

r s
The positive terminal of the battery repels the emitter holes

t i
toward the base, while the negative terminal drives the base

o
electrons toward the emitter.

w
This movement of electrons into the base and out of the emitter

s
constitutes the base current IB flow and the path these electrons
take is referred to as the emitter-base circuit.

e
PNP reverse-biased junction

c
The negative voltage on the collector and the positive voltage on

a s
the base block the majority charge carriers from crossing the

r is
junction.

t
Electrons that flow from the negative terminal of the battery fill

o
the holes in the collector.

i w
Although there is only a minority current flow in the reverse-
biased junction, it remains very small because of the limited
number of minority charge carriers.

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Transistors: PNP

r a s s
The PNP transistor works in the same way but the

t i
majority charge carriers are holes and, consequently, the

o
bias batteries are reversed: the base of the PNP transistor

w
must be negative with respect to the emitter, and the

s
collector must be more negative than the base.

e
In PNP the base is negative respect to the emitter. The

c
current start flowing conventional when the emitter is

a s
more positive than the base. In this device, the

r is
predominant type of current flowing is direct current flow

t
due to the holes.

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Configurations common base/emitter

tr a• The most common configuration for transistor

i
amplifiers is the common emitter configuration,

s s
o w
because it allows to obtain a great current gain
and a relevant Av voltage gain, so it also has a

s
high power gain.

ce
• The current gain of this circuit configuration is
indicated by the letter beta (β) and corresponds

a s
to the ratio of the collector current Ic to the base

r is
one Ib.

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Configurations common base/collector

r a s
•

s
Common base configuration permits a high voltage gain, but it’s characterized

t i
by a low current gain. Current gain is calculated as Ioutput/Iinput which is, in this
configuration, the ratio of collector and emitter current (α = Ic / Ie).

o w
• As said before, the collector current is about 99% of the emitter current. So that

s
gain is inferior to one.
• To find the voltage gain you must find the ratio Vo / Vi. To do that, you have to

e
identify the input and output circuit resistances.

c s
• The common collector configuration is the least used, because has a voltage

a
gain Av, always less than the unit, even if it produces a good current

tr is
amplification.
• The current gain of this circuit configuration is usually indicated with γ.

i o w
• In direct current, γ corresponds to the ratio of the emitter IE current to the base
IB one.

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FET transistor

tr a
•

is s
The BJT operation is based on the combination of both types of
electrical charges: electrons and holes.

o w
• There are other types of transistors, called unipolar transistors, where

s
only electrons or holes flow: the FET and the MOS.

e
• FET and MOS are commonly used to amplify voltage signals.

c
• The MOS technology devices are a particular category of field-effect

a s
transistors .

tr is
• These transistors also called MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field-Effect Transistors) may be considered as junction FETs with gate

o w
electrode (G) having a small capacitor in series.

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FET transistor

r a s s
• FET transistors base their operation on the semiconductors ability to modify

t i
the number of electrical charges in movement under the effect of a transversal

o
electrical field. In this way, it is possible to vary the current conductance (which

w
is the reverse of the resistance) in the output circuit by applying a voltage to

s
the input circuit of the device.

e
• The FET transistor consists of a doped semiconductor bar with N or P charges

c
in which a more doped area with opposite charges, respectively P positive or N

s
negative, is inserted.

tr a
Three electrodes are connected: source (S), drain (D) and gate (G)

is
i o w
• The ID current initially increases quite proportionally to the voltage VDS, but
every further increment does not provoke a relevant variation in the current
value.

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MOS transistor

a s
•

r
MOS transistors, like junction FET, are unipolar devices; in fact, only one type

t is
of charge flows inside them: electrons or holes.

o w
• An important characteristic of the MOS transistor is its very high input

s
resistance.

e
• Depletion-mode MOS transistors present, a part from three electrodes,

c
source (S), gate (G) and drain (D) - as seen for FET - a fourth electrode called

s
bulk gate (BG). The bulk is placed in the silicon substrate and usually

a
connected to the source electrode inside the device, so the MOS still has

tr is
three electrodes.

i o w
• In enhancement-mode MOS the source is connected to the substrate
through a metallic connection.

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Amplifiers

tr a
•

is s
Amplifiers may be classified as voltage amplifiers or power amplifiers.

o w
• The classification of different power amplifiers classes is done according to the

s
period interval of an input signal during which a single transistor amplifies the
signal.

ce
Mainly, there are the three following power classes of amplifiers:

s
• Class A ( amplifying over the whole input period, that is for 360°)

r a
• Class B (amplifying half of the input period, that is 180°)

t is
• Class AB (amplifying for a period between 180° and 360°)

o
• Class C (amplifying less than 50% of the input signal, that is < 180°).

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Amplifiers

tr a is s
o s w
ce
tr a is s
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Amplifiers

tr a is s
In most application a single amplifier stage is not sufficient, thus we connect in
series more amplifiers as a cascade. The most important coupling circuits that is

o w
used to connect more amplifier stage are:

s
• RC coupling circuit (resistor, capacitor)

e
• LC coupling circuit (inductor, capacitor)
• Transformer coupling circuit

c
• Direct coupling circuit.

tr a is
In this coupling circuits, we use resistors and capacitors to couple stages of
amplifiers in order to apply only AC and bypass the DC.
s
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Oscillators

r a s s
An oscillator is a circuit able to create a signal with a particular

t i
frequency. All transistor oscillators need a DC current that

o
feeds the device and do not need input signal.

s w
An oscillator circuit can be represented as a dynamic circuit

e
having three impedances, each of which is connected to two
transistor terminals .

a c s
The oscillator circuit can be made in various constructive

r is
solutions:

t
1. The Hartley oscillator can be realized with a bipolar

o
junction transistor, two inductors and a capacitor.

i w
2. The Colpitts oscillator has two capacitors and one inductor.

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Monostable and Bistable Multivibrators

r a s s
• The monostable multivibrator is a device with two

t i
possible states: a completely stable state and an
almost stable state.

o s w
• The bistable multivibrator is a circuit that has two
stable states and in each of them can remain for an

e
indefinite period.

c s
• Since the possible state are only two, the device is

r a
mainly used as a component of a binary memory cell.

t is
This device is also named flip-flop or latch.

i o w
• The simplest flip-flop is made of two silicon bipolar
junction transistors (BJTs), coupled by a resistor in the
common emitter configuration.

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NOT Gate

r a s s
• A logic circuit can have 2 states, high or low.

o t• The NOT gate has one single input and one

single output: it produces an inversion or

wi
s
negation of the input signal. Conventionally

e
a logic status inverted or denied is
symbolized by a bar on top of it, which

c
generally corresponds to the output signal.

r a is s
• The table or truth table of the not logic gate

t
consists of two rows and two columns,

o
because the possible input logic signals are

i w
essentially two: 0 (low) and 1 (high).

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AND Gate

r a s s
• The AND gate has two or more logic inputs A and

t i
B, and only one output S.

o w
• The mathematical expression defining the logic

s
product is:

e
A*B=S

c
•

s
The AND logic gate can have two or more inputs.

a
The operating principle still remains the same also

r is
with three logic inputs: A, B and C.

i o t
The truth table value corresponds to the output S
and is 1 only when all inputs are 1

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OR Gate

r a s s
• The OR logic gate has at least two

t i
inputs, A and B, and only one

o
output S. The OR logic gate

w
produces the sum of the input

s
signals.

e
• The mathematical expression

c
defining the logic sum is: A + B = S

tr a is s
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NAND Gate

tr
•

a The NAND logic gate has at least

is s
o
two inputs, A and B, and only one

w
output S.

e s
• We can be immediately seen that
it seems as the composition of a

c
gate AND and a gate NOT. The

a s
mathematical Expression, to

r is
define it, is: Not A * Not B = S

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NOR Gate

r a s s
• The NOR gate has two logic inputs

t i
A and B, and only one output S.

o • The mathematical expression

s w
e
defining the logic product is:

c
notA +not B = S

tr a is s
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Operational amplifier

r a s s
An operational amplifier is a special type of high-gain amplifier; it is basically a

t i
multistage amplifier and can have either a closed-loop or an open-loop operation.

o w
To be classified as an operational amplifier, the circuit must have certain

s
characteristics. The three most important characteristics of an operational amplifier
are:

ce
• Very high gain

a s
• Very high input impedance

r is
• Very low output impedance.

i o t w
In circuital symbols there are two input, called inverting input (indicated by -), non-
inverting input (indicated by +) and an output terminal. Moreover It needs two
feeding voltage whose polarity is opposite.

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Operational amplifier

tr a is s
o
The first stage of the OP AMP is represented by a

w
differential amplifier with high input resistance.

e s
The second stage is the voltage amplifier and it is
the stage which provide the highest gain.

a c
The last stage is the output amplifier that provides

s
r is
low output impedance.

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Operational amplifier

r a s s
Referring to the figure, the relation between the output voltage and the ones at the

t i
input, is as follows:
𝑉0 = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 ∗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2)

o w
Aol is the open-loop operational amplifier gain, that means the absence of every

s
external connection between output and input.

e
It's usual to indicate with Vi (differential input voltage), the voltage between the

c
inverting input and the non-inverting input, so that the previous relation becomes:

r a is s
𝑉0 = −𝐴𝑂𝐿 ∗ 𝑉𝑖

t
Where: 𝑉𝑖 = −(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

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Operational amplifiers in Open Loop

a s
The open-loop operational amplifier does not present a linear behaviour due to

tr is
the high AOL gain that even for little values of input differential voltage causes the
operational saturation.

o s w
To use it as amplifier it can be necessary to apply a negative feedback net to have
a closed loop operation, that is the most used. We can specify some

e
consequences of the OP AMP characteristics:

c
•

s
As the input resistance Ri is very high, the current flowing through the

a
operational amplifier input is almost negligible.

tr
As the open-loop gain AOL is always very high for every value of the output

o is
i w
voltage in the linear zone, that is for -Vsat< Vo < Vsat, this implies that the
voltage Vi between the inverting input and the non-inverting one is very small
and consequently negligible: it is call virtual grounding.

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Closed-loop operational amplifiers

r a s s
Closed-loop circuits make the answer of an OP

t i
AMP linear, and it can have inverting or non-

o
inverting configuration, but the inverting

w
configuration is more often used.

e s
In the inverting configuration, the output
signal is 180°out of phase with the input

c
signal. The feedback signal is a portion of the

a s
output signal and therefore it is negative,

r is
180°out of phase with the input signal too.

o t
The inverting input is the virtual mass and so it is virtual ground and consequently

i w
there will be no current flowing into the operational amplifier. The gain of the whole
amplifier doesn't depend on AOL, but on the relation between the feedback (Rf) and
R values.
Av = - (Rf/R)
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Inverting adder

tr a
By adding another input, with the

is s
o
corresponding resistor at the inverting input,

w
we can create a circuit with at the output the

s
sum of the signals applied, but with opposite
sign.

e
If Rf = R1 = R2, we get:

a c s
V0 = - (V1+V2)

tr
By adding another input, with the corresponding resistor at the inverting input, we

o is
i w
can create a circuit with at the output the sum of the signals applied, but with
opposite sign. it is possible to amplify the input signal sum of an arbitrary factor, by
choosing correctly the Rf value

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OA non-inverting configuration

t
To

r a increase only the

amplitude of a signal, we use

is s
o w
the non-inverting amplifier.
The signal is applied to the

s
non-inverting input, so that

e
the gain AV of the amplifier is
positive.

c
The input signal, output

a s
signal, and feedback signal

r is
are all in phase.

o t
The inverting input voltage can be expressed in function of the VO, being I = If.

i w
Considering the presence of the virtual short circuit among the input, we have:
V- = Vs From which we obtain the gain
Av = V0 / Vs=(Rf+R) / R=1+ (Rf/R)

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Non-inverting adder and Differential Amplifier

r a s s
• If we want to obtain sum or the average value between two voltage signal, we

t i
use a non inverting adder, with the input at the not inverting terminal. If you set

o
R = RF, you get:

s
V0 = V1 + V2

w
e
•

c
If you set the resistance of the input terminals equal to 2 RF, you get:

a s
V0 = (V1 + V2)/2

tr
Consider that you can apply any number of input signals but without

o is
i w
overpassing the maximum value of current that can be supplied.

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OA as a voltage follower (Buffer)

tr a is
This circuit has unity gain, high input resistance and

s
o
very low output resistance. The gain AV can be easily

w
found, considering that thanks to the virtual short

s
circuit, voltage Vs coincident to v+, is equal to v-.

e
Since v- is connected directly to the output, we have

c
V0 = Vs and consequently it always has a unit gain (AV

s
= 1).

tr a
Buffer can be used as an impedance adaptor.

is
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a c s _
o tr is
s w
ce
a s
Chapter 04.2

tr is
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCB)

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PCB : description and use

tr a•

is s
A Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is an electronic component that gives

o
mechanical support and electrical connection to other electronic

w
components.

s
• The set of conductors that connect the circuit components is obtained by

e
means of metallic pathways placed on a flat insulating board, while the

c
components are placed on the other side of the board. The component

s
terminals enter the board through holes and are welded to the metallic

a
pathways.

o tr is
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PCB : manufacturing process

tr
•

a is s
The manufacturing process to realize the connections on the board is performed
through the deposition of a conductor on the insulating board. This process can

o w
be performed by welding every single contact or in case of mass production by
simultaneously welding all the components on the board that can be obtained

s
with the complete covering of the board with a welding alloy.

e
• Once the board is finished, an electrical test unit verify every circuit connection.

a c
The most common method used to remove metal is the Tecnograph process that

s
r is
uses infrared rays, but there is also the photo-print (or photo-resist) process,

t
which is an engraving process.

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PCB : manufacturing process

r a s s
• The metallic pathways thickness varies from 25 to 75 μm depending on the

t i
flowing current.

o w
• The metallic pathway width should be no less than 1 mm and should possibly

s
reach 2mm.

e
•

c
The distance among them should be at least 1 mm.

a s
• The different production phases of a printed circuit include the connection

tr is
design, the copper insulating board preparation with electrolytic copper, the
connection set-up on the copper plated board, the assembling and the

o w
component welding.

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PCB : Micromodules and Resistors

tr a
Micro modules consist of a set of
simple thin ceramic boards, each of

is s
o w
which including one or two circuit
components. These ceramic boards,

s
when suitably connected to each

e
other, permit to obtain the desired
circuit.

a c
The squared boards have thickness of

s
r is
0.25 mm. To complete the assembly

t
the external boards must have a side

o
of 8.9 mm.

i
Resistors are made of metallic layers
or vacuum deposition metal oxides.

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PCB : hexagonal micromodules

tr a is
Like square boards, hexagonal boards permit to have the maximum
amount of modules on plane plates, for example with a bee cell
s
o w
disposition.

s
Compared to square boards, hexagonal boards permit to reduce the

e
number of connection wires on each side. For example, in case of 12
wires squared boards have 3 wires for each side, while hexagonal

c
boards have only 2 wires

r a
Hexagonal boards have less sharpened corners and their almost round

t
shape is an advantage for the manufacturing of some components,

is s
o
such as inductors.

i
The size of the sides of the hexagonal boards used to realize micro
modules is 6 mm
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a c s _
o tr is
s w
ce
a s
Chapter 04.3

tr is
SERVO MECHANISM

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Open and Closed loop control systems

tr
•

a is s
A control system is a group of components that are linked together to perform a
specific purpose.

o •

s w
Generally, a control system has a large power gain between input and output.

e
• Control systems are broadly classified as either CLOSED-LOOP or OPEN-LOOP.

c
Closed-loop control systems respond and move the loads they are controlling

a s
quicker and with greater accuracy than open-loop systems. The reason for quicker

r
response and greater accuracy is that an automatic feedback system informs the

t is
input that the desired movement has taken place.

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Open loop control systems

tr
•

a is s
The basic units of the open-loop configuration consists only of an amplifier and a

o
motor. The amplifier receives a low-level input signal and amplifies it enough to

w
drive the motor to perform the desired job.

s
• The input is a signal that is fed to the amplifier. The output of the amplifier is

e
proportional to the amplitude of the input signal. The phase (AC system) and

c
polarity (DC system) of the input signal determines the direction that the motor

s
shaft will turn.

tr a is
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Servos

r a s
•

s
A closed-loop control system (servo system) uses a weak control signal to move

t i
large loads to a desired position with great accuracy.
• It is normally made up of electromechanical parts and consists basically of a

o w
synchro-control system, servo amplifier, servo motor, and some form of

s
feedback (response).
• The servo amplifier and servo motor are the parts of the system in which power

e
is actually developed in order to move the load, which may be located in a

c
remote space.

tr a is s
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Operation of a basic position servo-system

r a s
•

s
The synchro-control system provides a means of controlling the movement of the

t i
load, which may be located in a remote space. The servo amplifier and servo
motor are the parts of the system in which power is actually developed (to move

o w
the load).

s
• The CT develops a signal, called the ERROR SIGNAL, which is proportional in

e
amplitude to the amount the CT rotor is out of correspondence with the Control

c
transmitter (CX) rotor. The phase of the error signal indicates the direction the CT
rotor must move to reduce the error signal to zero or to "null out." The error signal

a s
is sent to the servo amplifier.

tr is
• Open-loop control system is directly controlled by the input signal while Closed-

o w
loop control system is controlled by the error signal.

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Servos: position servo

r a s s
CX = control transmitter It transmits the

t i
signal to the transformer.

o w
CT = Control transformer, it compares

s
two signals: the electrical signal applied

e
to its stator and the mechanical signal
applied to its rotor. Then it generates the

c
error and send it to the servo amplifier:

a s
its output is a difference signal able to

r is
control a power amplifying device and

t
thus the movement of heavy equipment.

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Operation of a basic position servo-system

tr a is s
o s w
ce
r a s
• When the rotor of the CX and the rotor of the CT are in the same position the

t is
error signal is null and the voltage that comes out from the CT is null.

i o w
• The controlling signal from a Control Transformer is relatively weak, too weak to
drive an electric motor directly. Consequently, the error voltage is fed by the CT
rotor to the servo amplifier.

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AC servo system

r a s s
CX and CT are mainly used in AC servo system: the output from a CT is AC voltage.

o t wi
In the AC position servo system the amplitude and phase of the AC error signal
determine the amount and direction by which the load will be driven.

e s
In AC servo system, the error voltage is fed by the CT rotor to the servo amplifier.
The mechanical linkage attached to the servo motor move both the load and the

c
rotor of the CT.

tr a is s
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Synchro classification

tr a is s
Synchros are used primarily for the rapid and accurate transmission of information
between equipment and stations.

o w
Synchros work in teams: two or more synchros interconnected electrically form a
synchro system. There are two general classifications of synchro systems:

e
Torque systems, for light loads.

s
c
• Control systems, for heavy loads.

r a is s
Torque-synchro systems use torque synchros and control-synchro systems use

t
control synchros.

i o w
The control synchro can be control transmitter and control transformer or control
differential transmitter.

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Servos : torque synchro system

tr a•

is s
A torque transmitter (TX) and a torque receiver (TR) make up a simple

o
torque-synchro system.

s w
• Basically, the electrical construction of synchro transmitters and
receivers is similar, but their intended functions are different. Each

e
synchro contains a rotor and a stator.

a c s
• The rotor of a synchro transmitter is usually geared to a manual or

r is
mechanical input. This gearing may drive a visual indicator showing the

t
value or quantity being transmitted.

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Servos : torque synchro system

a s
•

r
The rotor of the receiver synchronizes itself electrically with the

t is
position of the rotor of the transmitter and thus responds to the
quantity being transmitted, so the signal is the angle through

o w
which a transmitter rotor is mechanically rotated.

s
• The synchro transmitter converts the angular position of its rotor

e
(mechanical input) into an electrical output signal. AC Volts

c
excitation voltage is applied to the rotor of a synchro transmitter,
the resultant current produces a magnetic field around the rotor

a s
winding.

tr is
• Synchro torque receivers, commonly called synchro receivers, are

o
electrically identical to torque transmitters of the same size

i w
except for the addition of some form of damping. Unlike the
transmitter, the receiver has an electrical input to its stator and a
mechanical output from its rotor.

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04

c _
Synchro system

r a s s
Each synchro contains a rotor and a stator, which

t i
corresponds to the field in a motor. The synchro

o
stator is composed of three Y-connected

w
windings (S1, S2, and S3). The rotor is composed

s
of one single winding (R1 and R2).

e
The rotor winding is free to turn inside the stator.

a c s
The rotor of a CX is usually the primary winding

r is
and receives its voltage (excitation) from an

t
external voltage source.

o
The stator receives its voltage from the rotor by

i w
magnetic coupling.

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Synchro: rotor construction

r a s s
There are two common types of synchro rotors in use:

o t i
• Salient-pole rotor Drum or wound rotor.

s w
ce
tr a is s
i o w
The salient-pole rotor has a single coil wound on a laminated core. The core is shaped
like a "dumb-bell" or the letter "H."

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Servos : torque synchro system

a s
• In this system the rotors windings of both the transmitter and receiver are

tr is
connected in parallel across the ac line, in order to provide power supply.

o w
• The rotor of the torque synchro indicator is supplied with an excitation voltage:

s
when a 115-volt AC excitation voltage is applied to the rotor of a synchro
transmitter the resultant current produces an AC magnetic field around the rotor

e
winding and the highest value of effective voltage induced in any one stator coil
is 52 volts.

a c s
o tr is
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Synchro damping

a s
When power is first applied to a system, the

r s
transmitter position changes quickly; or if the

t i
receiver is switched into the system, the receiver

o
rotor turns to correspond to the position of the

w
transmitter rotor. This sudden motion can cause the

s
rotor to oscillate around the synchronous position If
the movement of the rotor is great enough, it may

e
even spin. Some method of preventing oscillations

c
or spinning must be used.

r a s
Any method that accomplishes this task is termed

t is
DAMPING.

i o w
There are two types of damping methods
ELECTRICAL and MECHANICAL.

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Differential synchro system

a s
A differential synchro system can accept two signals simultaneously, add or subtract the

r is
signals, and furnish an output proportional to their sum or difference.

t
There are two types of differential units:

o w
• Differential transmitters
• Differential receivers.

s
The differential transmitter (TDX) accepts one electrical input and one mechanical input

e
and produces one electrical output.

c
The differential receiver (TDR) accepts two electrical inputs and produces one mechanical

s
output.

tr a is
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Differential synchro system

a s
• The differential synchro is composed of 3 phase stator and 3 phase rotor.

tr is
The stator is normally the primary, and receives its input signal from a
synchro transmitter.

o w
• In the torque differential transmitter, both the rotor and stator windings
consist of three Y-connected coils and their magnetic axes are 120°

s
apart.

e
• A differential synchro may be used as either a transmitter or a receiver. In
a TX-TDX-TR the differential stator is connected to the transmitter stator,

c
while the rotor is connected to the transformer rotor.

tr a is s
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Synchro defects

a s
• To locate the point of a trouble indicators are included in the equipment (open-

tr is
circuits, short-circuits or short-to-ground).
• These indicators are usually signal lights installed on a central control board and

o w
connected to the different synchro systems.
• Overload indicators are usually connected to the stator circuit of a torque synchro

s
system because the stator circuit gives a better indication of mechanical loading: they

e
consist of a neon lamp connected across the stator leads of a synchro system by two
transformers.

c
• The primaries consisting of a few turns of heavy wire are in series with two of the

a s
stator leads.

r is
• The turns ratios are designed so that when excess current flows through the stator

t
windings, the neon lamp lights.

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