READINGS ON FACILITATING LEARNING

Compiled by: Lizamarie Campoamor-Olegario

Note: I intentionally got many materials from the internet so that students could read further

Understanding Learning and Knowledge Acquisition

Defining Learning
Learning – a complex process which produces a relatively permanent change in the behavior of an individual brought
about by his interaction with the environment

Learning Methods
1. informal learning
2. formal learning
3. non-formal learning

Different Metaphors and Theories of Learning

Four orientations to learning (after Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 138)

Aspect Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social & Situational

Learning theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Maslow, Rogers Bandura, Lave and
Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Piaget, Ausubel, Wenger, Salomon
Tolman, Skinner Bruner, Gagne

View of the learning Change in behaviour Internal mental A personal act to fulfil Interaction
process process (including potential. /observation in social
insight, information contexts. Movement
processing, memory, from the periphery to
perception the centre of a
community of practice

Locus of learning Stimuli in external Internal cognitive Affective and cognitive Learning is in
environment structuring needs relationship between
people and
environment.

Purpose in education Produce behavioural Develop capacity and Become self- Full participation in
change in desired skills to learn better actualized, communities of
direction autonomous practice and utilization
of resources

Educator's role Arranges environment Structures content of Facilitates Works to establish

to elicit desired learning activity development of the communities of
response whole person practice in which
conversation and
participation can occur.

Manifestations in Behavioural objectives Cognitive development Andragogy Socialization

adult learning Competency -based Intelligence, learning Self-directed learning Social participation
education and memory as Associationalism
function of age
Skill development and Conversation
training Learning how to learn

Retrieved from: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm

Behaviorism - focuses on the observable aspects of the environment instead of on mental or cognitive processes
Behaviorism Assumptions
1. All species of animals learn in similar / equal ways with the same guiding principles
2. Typically learning is described as a stimulus and response relationship, S = R.
3. Internal process should be excluded from the study of learning.
4. Learning is evidenced by a behavior change
5. Organisms are blank slates at birth
6. Learning is a result of environmental events. A person’s environment determines behavior. People have no free will
7. Two main types of Learning

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 • Classical conditioning: addresses learning of involuntary responses
• Operant conditioning: addresses learning of voluntary responses.
8. Learners are passive

Application of Behaviorism to Instruction

1. Teaching that is behaviorist in nature is often referred to as
 Direct teaching
 Explicit teaching
 Expository teaching
 Teacher-led instruction
2. Phases in a Behaviorist Lesson
 Orientation: overview, explains why, etc.
 Presentation: explain how to, steps, demonstrate how to.
 Presented in very small steps with mastery of each step the goal
 Numerous examples with teacher demonstrating correct responses
 When difficulty is encountered, additional explanations and examples given.
 Constant evaluation of ALL students understanding.
 Practice phase
 Structured practice: whole class led through each step of the problem with teacher leading and checking
for everyone’s understanding.
 Guided practice: students work on a few examples alone at their desks. Teacher circulates and monitors,
providing corrective feedback and reinforcement
 Independent practice: students given a few examples just like what had been learned to practice alone.
Feedback is not necessarily immediate (i.e. next day).
References: Ormrod, J.E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall; Paris, N.A. Kennesaw
State University- M.Ed in Ad Ed program, http://www.personal.psu.edu/wlm103/insys581/behav/assum.html

Cognitivism – discusses the nature of knowledge, the value of reason, and the contents of the mind
Goals of Cognitive Education:
1. Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can become independent learners.
2. Teach less able learners to use appropriate learning strategies to become more successful in the classroom.
3. Identify how the information processing system influences learning.
4. Plan and implement lessons based on declarative and procedural learning tasks.

General educational implications of cognitive theories

1. Cognitive processes influence learning.
2. Learning difficulties often indicate ineffective or inappropriate cognitive processes, especially for children with learning
disabilities, who tend to process information less effectively. Therefore, teachers need to be aware that all students
are trying to learn something, as well as what they are trying to learn.
3. As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought.
4. People organize the things they learn. Therefore, teachers can facilitate students' learning by presenting information
in an organized manner. This organization should reflect students' previous knowledge and show how one thing
relates to the other (i.e., helping students understand and make connections).
5. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned. Teachers
should then show how new ideas relate to previous learning.
6. People control their own learning. Ultimately students, not their teachers, determine what things will be learned and
how they will be learned.
References: Ormrod, J.E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Learning Cycle (Atkin & Karplus, 1962) - provides the active learning experiences recommended by the National Science
Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996)
A constructivist perspective assumes students must be actively involved in their learning and concepts are not transmitted
from teacher to student but constructed by the student.
The learning cycle used in these lesson plans follows Bybee's (1997) five steps of Engagement, Exploration, Explanation,
Elaboration, and Evaluation.

Humanism - teachers are concerned with making learning more responsive to the AFFECTIVE needs of their students.
Affective needs are those related directly to the student's emotions, feelings, values, and attitudes.

Major Goals of Humanistic Education:

1. Accepting the learner's needs and purposes and creating educational experiences and programs for the development
of the learner's unique potential.
2. Facilitating the learner's self-actualization and feelings of personal adequacy.
3. Fostering the acquisition of basic skills and competencies (e.g., academic, personal, interpersonal, communicative,
and economic) for living in a multicultural society.
4. Personalizing educational decisions and practices.
5. Recognizing the importance of human feelings, values, and perceptions in the educational process.

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6. Developing a learning climate that is challenging, understanding, supportive, exciting, and free from threat.
7. Developing in learners a genuine concern and respect for the worth of others and skill in resolving conflicts.

Created from excerpts from Educational Psychology, a course taught by Dr. Lawrence Tomei, Duquesne University and
Applying Educational Psychology in the Classroom, a text by Myron H. Dembo, University of Southern California.
http://academics.rmu.edu/~tomei/ed711psy/1lngtheo.htm

Humanistic Psychology Assumptions

1. Humans have free will; not all behavior is determined.
2. All individuals are unique and have an innate (inborn) drive to achieve their maximum potential
3. A proper understanding of human behaviour can only be achieved by studying humans - not animals.
4. Psychology should study the individual case (idiographic) rather than the average performance of groups
(nomothetic).

"Basic Principles" of Humanistic Education (Shapiro, 1986; 1987)

1. Emphasis on the process of learning;

2. Self-determination, as reflected in learner autonomy, self- direction, and self-evaluation;
3. Mutual caring and understanding among teachers, learners, and others (connectedness);
4. Relevance of material, including readiness of the student to learn;
5. Integration of affect and cognition in the teaching-learning process;
6. An "awareness of the environment, culture, history, and the political and economic conditions in which learning takes
place" (Shapiro, 1987, p. 160);
7. Preference for affective and experiential learning approaches;
8. An approach to social change that is anti-authoritarian with the intent to "serve society by improving its education
institutions" (p. 160);
9. Equity, consensus, and collaboration through democratic participation in the learning process;
10. A personal growth orientation that stresses self-actualization via self-awareness;
11. A people orientation based on trust and a positive view of humanity, such as is reflected in McGregor's (1960) "Theory
Y";
12. Emphasis on individualism;
13. A concrete, pragmatic view of reality;
14. Self-evaluation that emphasizes formative over summative evaluation;
15. Variety and creativity, as reflected in spontaneity, originality, and diversity in learning;
16. A transpersonal orientation that stresses holistic development of the person, including potential for spirituality.

Brocket, R.G. (n.d.) Humanism as an Instructional Paradigm. To appear as a chapter in C. Dills & A. Romiszowski (Eds.),
Instructional development: State of the art paradigms in the field (Volume Three). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational
Technology Publications, in press. http://www-distance.syr.edu/romira1&.html

Identifying and Articulating Learning Objectives in the Classroom

Learning Objectives - statements that describe significant and essential learning that learners have achieved, and can
reliably demonstrate at the end of a course or program (Spady, 1994)

Anatomy of Learning Objectives

 an action word that identifies the performance to be demonstrated;
 a learning statement that specifies what learning will be demonstrated in the performance;
 a broad statement of the criterion or minimum standard for acceptable performance.
 By the end of this session, the learner will be able to:
o Action Word -> Learning -> Criteria

To be useful, learning objectives should be C SMAARTER

 Challenging
 Measurable
 Attainable
 Action-oriented
 Results-Focused
 Time-Focused
 Extending
 Reviewed
Anderson, Krathwohl, et al (Eds.) (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

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Neo Bloom Taxonomy
1) Multi-dimensional Bloom: domains of knowledge:
(Levels X domains)
Affective2
Cognitive (new, Psychomotor2
level Old (Bloom) Affective (Norman Psycho-motor Perceptual (me)
A&K) (e.g. dance)
Reid)
Communicative Create complex
6 Evaluation Creating - World view -
movement perceptions in others
Characterising by
Complex scene
5 Synthesis Evaluating value or value Values Naturalisation Skilled moves
understanding
concept
Organising and Connoisseurship,
4 Analysis Analysing - Articulation Physical abilities
conceptualising classify perceptions
Perceptual Active perceptual
3 Application Applying Valuing Attitudes Precision
abilities skills
Fundamental Recognise novel
2 Comprehension Understanding Responding Beliefs Manipulation
movements cases
Recognise standard
1 Knowledge Remembering Receiving Knowledge Imitation Reflexes
cases
Understanding Understanding
0 Feeling - Moving Moving Sensing
language language

2) Multi-dimensional neo-Bloom: types of knowledge

[Levels X types, for cognitive domain only] neoBloom scheme in old Bloom table format.
level Processes (internal, mental) Factual Conceptual Procedural (external behaviour) Metacognitive
6 Creating Combine Plan Compose Actualise
5 Evaluating Rank Assess Conclude Action
4 Analysing Order Explain Differentiate Achieve
3 Applying Classify Experiment Calculate Construct
2 Understanding Summarise Interpret Predict Execute
1 Remembering List Describe Tabulate Appropriate use
Retrieved from: http://www.psy.gla.ac.uk/~steve/best/bloom.html

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors of Learning

Basic Cognitive Processes

Information Processing Theory

Retrieved from: http://simonlin.info/learningtheory/cognitivism.htm

Metacognition and Cognitive Strategies

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Metacognition refers to learners' automatic awareness of their own knowledge and their ability to understand, control, and
manipulate their own cognitive processes.

1) Metamemory: the learners' awareness of and knowledge about their own memory systems and strategies for using
their memories effectively.

a) awareness of different memory strategies

b) knowledge of which strategy to use for a particular memory task
c) knowledge of how to use a given memory strategy most effectively.
2) Metacomprehension: the learners' ability to monitor the degree to which they understand information being
communicated to them, to recognize failures to comprehend, and to employ repair strategies when failures are
identified. Learners who are more adept at metacomprehension will check for confusion or inconsistency, and
undertake a corrective strategy, such as rereading, relating different parts of the passage to one another, looking for
topic sentences or summary paragraphs, or relating the current information to prior knowledge.
3) Self-Regulation: learners' ability to make adjustments in their own learning processes in response to their perception
of feedback regarding their current status of learning. The concept of self-regulation overlaps heavily with the
preceding two terms; its focus is on the ability of the learners themselves to monitor their own learning (without
external stimuli or persuasion) and to maintain the attitudes necessary to invoke and employ these strategies on their
own. To learn most effectively, students should not only understand what strategies are available and the purposes
these strategies will serve, but also become capable of adequately selecting, employing, monitoring, and evaluating
their use of these strategies.

Retrieved from: http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy7/edpsy7_meta.htm

Strategies for Developing Metacognitive Behaviors

1. Identifying "what you know" and "what you don't know."

2. Talking about thinking.

3. Keeping a thinking journal.

4. Planning and self-regulation.

5. Debriefing the thinking process.

6. Self-Evaluation.

Motivational Factors in Learning

Defining Motivation and Motivational Problems in Learning

Motivation – derived from the Latin verb movere (to move)
- Something that gets us going, keeps us moving, and helps us complete tasks
- The process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and maintained

Indexes of Motivation
Index Relation to Motivation
Choice of tasks Selection of a task under free-choice conditions indicates motivation to perform the task
Effort High effort – especially on difficult material – is indicative of motivation
Persistence Working for a longer time – especially when one encounters obstacles – is associated with
higher motivation
Achievement Choice, effort, and persistence raise task achievement
Source: Pintrich, P.R. and Schunk, D.H. (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 2 nd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation – motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end
Intrinsic Motivation – motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are separate continuums, ranging from high to low. They are contextual and can change
in time.

Ryan and Connel (1989)

External internalized
------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|------------------
Extrinsic introjected identified intrinsic

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 -rewards - esteem-based - value-based - engage in the
Pressure to act activity is pleasure
To avoid guilt inherent enjoyment
or shame
Source: Hayamizii, T. (1997). Japanese Psychological Research (39) 2

Undesirable Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

 Results in lower quality performance/ behavior over time
 Tends to increase predictable, low-risk behavior
 Reduces risk-taking and complex thinking, creativity and problem-solving
 Tends to result to students returning to their baseline behavior
 Ineffective in: Improving long-term quality performance, Promoting self-directed behavior
 Act as prize
Source: Rogers, S., et al. Motivation and Learning: A Teacher’s Guide
 Although there are exceptions, offering people for rewards for doing things they enjoy may undermine their intrinsic
motivation and lead to less interest in the tasks (Pintrich and Schunk, 2002)

Across grade levels, intrinsic motivation relates positively to learning, achievement, and perceptions of competence, and
negatively to anxiety (Gottfried, 1985, 1990 as cited in Pintrich and Schunk, 2002).

Four Major Sources of Intrinsic Motivation (Lepper and Hodell, 1989)

1. Challenge students’ skills
2. Curiosity: present information or ideas that are discrepant from students’ present knowledge and beliefs
3. Sense of control over outcomes
4. Involve learners in fantasy and make-believe
Source: Pintrich, P.R. and Schunk, D.H. (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 2 nd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Outcome Expectancy Beliefs

Self-efficacy – (Bandura) people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance; self-
efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave.
- (Pintrich) personal judgment of his/ her ability to do a particular task; one’s perceived capabilities for learning or
performing actions at designated levels
- (Green) people’s judgment of their capacity to organize and execute forces of action required to attain designated
type of performance (behavioral elements)

Persons with high self efficacy

- Approach the task
- Develop intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in activities
- Set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them
- Heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure
- Attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable
- Do not fall easy victim to stress and depression
Sources of Self-Efficacy
1. Mastery experiences – most effective way of creating a strong sense of efficacy; success must not be too easy to
develop resilient sense of efficacy
2. Vicarious experiences provided by social models – seeing people similar to oneself succeed
3. Social persuasion – being persuaded that capabilities to master given activities are possessed; success is better
measured in terms of self-improvement than by triumphs over others
4. Physiological indicators of self-efficacy - somatic and emotional states; stress reactions and tensions, strength and
stamina, mood

Efficacy-Activated Processes
1. Cognitive Processes – personal goal setting, visualization of success scenarios
2. Motivational Processes – self-regulation of motivation
Forms of cognitive motivators:
a. causal attribution ( attribution theory) – people with high efficacy, attribute their failure to insufficient effort; those
with low efficacy attribute their failures to low ability
b. outcome expectancies (expectancy-value theory) – motivation is regulated by the expectation that a given course of
behavior will produce certain outcomes and the value of those outcomes of performance; the predictiveness of
expectancy value theory is enhance by including the influence of perceived self-efficacy
c. cognized goals (goal theory) – explicit, challenging goals enhance and sustain motivation
Motivation based on goals or personal standards is governed by three types of self influences
a. self-satisfying and self-dissatisfying reactions to one’s performance
b. perceived self-efficacy for goal attainment
c. readjustment of personal goals based on one’s progress
Self-efficacy beliefs contribute to motivation in several ways:

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 a. they determine the goals people will set for themselves
b. they determine how much effort people will expend
c. they determine how long will persevere in the face of difficulties
d. they determine people’s resilience to failures
3. Affective Processes - how much anxiety, stress (which impairs the immune system) and depression is experienced in
threatening or difficult situations
Routes to depression
i. unfulfilled aspiration
ii. Low sense of social efficacy
4. Selection Processes – types of activities and environments people choose

Source: Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V.S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-
81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic
Press, 1998).

Festinger’s Social Comparison Theory

- People are inherently motivated to evaluating their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves with others
- Self evaluation is derived from comparison with individuals with the same characteristics and abilities
- People compare themselves with others when they are unable to evaluate their opinions and abilities on their own
(Martin, 2001).
Two Types of Social Comparisons
1. upward comparison - occurs when an individual compares him/herself to someone who is better off (Baumeister, 2008
as cited in )
2. downward comparison - occurs when an individual compares him/herself to someone who is worse off (Baumeister,
2008 as cited in )
People with low self-esteem are more likely to make downward comparisons (Wills, 1981 as cited in ). Two types of
downward comparisons
a. passive downward comparison - occurs when an individual takes advantage of a preexisting situation and makes a
comparison (Wills, 1981 as cited in)
b. active downward comparison - occurs either through derogation or actively causing harm to others (Wills, 1981 as
cited in )
http://www.psychwiki.com/wiki/Social_Comparison_Theory

Outcome Expectancy and Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Outcome Expectation
Self-Efficacy Low Outcome Expectation High Outcome Expectation
High Social activism Assured, opportune action
Protest High cognitive engagement
Grievance
Milieu change
Low Resignation Self-devaluation
Apathy Depression
Withdrawal
Source: Bandura, A. (1982). Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency, American Psychologist (37) 140. (as cited in
Pintrich, P.R. and Schunk, D.H. (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 2 nd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.)

Self-expectations
Academic Self-concept - individuals’ belief about themselves in terms of their academic capabilities and characteristics

Goal theories in learning

Needs and goals also provide the direction in which to act; that is, needs or goals can guide the individual to approach or
to avoid certain objects in the environment in order to satisfy the needs or attain the goals.
Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs
Lower Needs (deficiency needs)
1. Physiological needs – hunger, thirst, sexuality
2. Safety needs – need for security and protection from pain, fear, anxiety, and disorganization; need for sheltering,
dependency, order, lawfulness, and rules of behavior.
Higher Needs (growth needs)
3. Needs for belongingness and love – need for love, affection, security, social acceptance, and need for identity
4. Esteem needs – need to achieve, to gain approval and recognition
5. Self-actualization needs – growth through the realization of one’s potential and capacities; the need for
comprehension and insight

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Attribution Theory (Expanded theory)
Internal External
Controllable Uncontrollable Controllable Uncontrollable
Stable Long-term effort Aptitude Instructor bias/ Ease/ difficulty of
favoritism school or course
requirements
Unstable Skills/ knowledge Health on day of Help from friends/ Chance
Temporary or exam teacher
situational effort for Mood
exam

Source: Weiner, B. (1986). An Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion. New York: Springer- Verlag. (as cited in
Pintrich, P.R. and Schunk, D.H. (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 2 nd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.)

Principles for Motivating People (M. Ford, 1992 as cited in Pintrich and Schunk, 2002)
Assumption: Facilitation focusing on individuals’ goals, personal agency, and emotions, not direct control of individuals’
behavior, will have more positive long-term and more durable effects
1. The Principle of Unitary Functioning. Take into account the individual’s personal and developmental history.
2. The Motivational Triumvirate Principle. Behavior is influenced by all three motivational constructs – goals, personal
agency beliefs, and emotions – as they interact with each other.
3. The Responsive Environment Principle. To judge the responsiveness of the environment, four dimensions can be
used: a) there should be an alignment between the individual student’s personal goals and the general goals that are
part of the classroom environment; b) the physical space, the curriculum, and the nature of instruction should take into
account students’ capabilities; c) The objectives for the tasks to be accomplished are realistic and appropriate given
both the materials and resources available; d) the emotional climate of the classroom should be supportive and foster
a feeling of trust between the students and teacher.
4. The Principle of Goal Activation. The task to be accomplished must provide opportunities for attainment of personally
relevant goals.
5. The Principle of Goal Salience. The goals that are activated should be clear, compelling and presented in such a way
that students need to do to accomplish them.
6. The Multiple Goals Principle. Providing a number of rationales for doing a task activates multiple goals within any
one student
7. The Principle of Goal Alignment. It is important that multiple goals are coordinated so that when one goal is achieved,
other goals may be achieved too.
8. The Feedback Principle. Feedback provides information that can be used to judge progress, repair mistakes, and
redirect efforts, and can also influence personal agency beliefs and emotion in positive ways.
9. The Flexible Standards Principle. The standards should be flexible enough to change given the context, but the new
standard should be just as clear, attainable, and challenging as any goal (cf. Locke and Latham, 1990 as cited in
Pintrich and Schunk, 2002).
10. The Optimal Challenge Principle. It is important to provide tasks that are difficult and challenging, but not beyond the
individual’s range of competence
11. Principle of Direct Evidence. Intervention efforts should be targeted at the specific problems and opportunities to
experience success at real academic tasks
12. The Reality Principle. It may be more realistic to actually try to change the problem behavior directly rather than
change the motivation for the behavior.
13. The Principle of Emotional Activation. Activating appropriate emotions will facilitate motivation.
14. The “Do It” Principle. If an individual can engage in the behavior and do not suffer the expected negative
consequences but instead has a positive experience, this type of feedback and engagement will increase the
probability that the behavior will be attempted again.
15. The Principle of Incremental versus Transformational Change. Smaller, incremental changes, rather than large,
dramatic changes, are easier for students to adapt to and may lead to more change in the long run.
16. The Equifinality Principle. There is no one best answer to the problem of motivating students.
17. The Principle of Human Respect. People should always be treated with respect and as unique individuals who
possess a variety of skills and goals.

Self-regulation: Coordinating cognition and motivation in learning

Self-regulation – the process whereby students activate and sustain cognitions, behaviors, and affects that are
systematically oriented toward attainment of their goals (Zimmerman, 1989)

Dimensions of self-regulation
Learning Issues Self-Regulation Subprocesses
Why Self-efficacy and self-goals
How Strategy use or routinized performance
When Time management
What Self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction
Where Environment structuring
With Whom Selective help seeking

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Social Cognitive Processes (Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1990)
1. Self-observation (-monitoring) – deliberate attention to aspects of one’s behavior (Mace, Belfiore, & Shea, 1989);
often accompanied by recording the frequency, intensity, or quality of behavior
2. Self-judgment – comparing current performance level with one’s goal; depends on the type of self-evaluative
standards employed, goal properties, importance of goal attainment, and attributions
a. Goal properties (specificity, proximity, difficulty)
b. Importance of goal attainment – when people care little about how they perform, they may not assess their
performance or expend effort to improve it (Bandura, 1986)
c. Attributions – students who attribute poor progress to lackadaisical effort or an inadequate strategy may
believe they will perform better if they work harder or switch strategies
d. Self-evaluative standards employed – may be absolute (fixed) or normative (relative to the performances of
others)
- often acquired from social comparisons with models, especially when absolute standards are nonexistent or
ambiguous
3. Self-reaction – behavioral, cognitive, and affective responses to self-judgments
- negative evaluations do not decrease motivation if people believe they can improve
- motivation will not improve if students believe they lack ability and will not succeed no matter how hard they work or
which strategy they employ
Source: National Research Council (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press.

Developmental Dimensions of Learning

Adult vs Child Learning

Pedagogy Androgogy
Mandatory Attendance Voluntary Attendance
Subject Centered Problem Centered
Dependant Learners Independent Learners
Inexperienced Learners Experienced Learners
Teacher Prescribed Content Learner Prescribed Content
Learners Grouped by Age Level or Ability Learners Grouped by Interest or Needs
Learning for the Future Learning for the Now
Learners Subordinate to the Teacher Learners Equal to the Teacher
Rigid, Traditional Structure Flexible, Alternative Structure
Passive Learners Active Learners

Jackson, W. H., (1998). Adult vs Child Learning. [On-line]. Retrieved from:

http://internet.cybermesa.com/~bjackson/Papers/Bloom.htm

Individual Differences in Learning

Theories of intelligence:
While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what
exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other
believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.
Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g
factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman
concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to
perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on other. He concluded that
intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed (Spearman, 1904).
Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the
analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate
depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are
valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are: Visual-spatial Intelligence; Verbal-linguistic Intelligence; Bodily-kinesthetic
Intelligence; Logical-mathematical Intelligence; Interpersonal Intelligence; Musical Intelligence; Intra personal Intelligence;
Naturalistic Intelligence

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Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection
and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life" (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). While he agreed with Gardner that
intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better
viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three
different factors:
 Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.
 Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past
experiences and current skills.
 Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.

While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence, no definitive conceptualization has
emerged. Today, psychologists often account for the many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence
and acknowledge that this debate is ongoing.

Learning Styles

Categories of Common Special Learning Needs

Learning disabilities
A learning disability (or LD) is a specific impairment of academic learning that interferes with a specific aspect of
schoolwork and that reduces a student’s academic performance significantly.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (or ADHD) is a problem with sustaining attention and controlling impulses.
Intellectual disabilities
An intellectual disability is a significant limitation in a student’s cognitive functioning and daily adaptive behaviors...
Behavioral disorders
Behavioral disorders are a diverse group of conditions in which a student chronically performs highly inappropriate
behaviors.
Physical disabilities and sensory impairments
A few students have serious physical, medical or sensory challenges that interfere with their learning.
Seven Step Approach to Considering Adaptationg to Meet Diverse Learning Needs
(Friend, M.)
Marilyn Friend of Indiana University suggests a seven step approach to considering adaptations to
STEP 1: Identify classroom environmental, curricular, and instructional demands.
STEP 2: Note student strengths and needs.
STEP 3: Check for potential areas of student success.

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Compiled by Christian B. Llaguno, LPT Page 10
STEP 4: Look for potential problem areas.
STEP 5: Use information gathered to brainstorm instructional adaptations.
STEP 6: Decide which adaptations to implement.
STEP 7: Evaluate student progress.

Nebraska Department of Education (1996). Teaching Strategies for Students with Diverse Learning Needs. Retrieved from
http://www.nebraskasocialstudies.org/pdf/tsfswdln.pdf

Inclusive Education
• based on the right of all learners to a quality education
• seeks to develop the full potential of every individual.
• ultimate goal is to end all forms of discrimination and foster social cohesion
• All students can learn and benefit from education.
• Schools adapt to the needs of students, rather than students adapting to the needs of the school.
• Individual differences between students are a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem.
• The diversity of needs and pace of development of students are addressed through a wide and flexible range of
responses (so long as those responses do not include removing a student with a disability from a general
education classroom).

Classroom Management
Influence Techniques (Redl and Watenberg)
Supporting Self-Control
• Signals
• Proximity control
• Interest boosting
• Humor
– avoid irony and sarcasm
• Planful ignoring
• Gripe sessions
Situational Assistance
• Helping over hurdles
• Restructuring the situation
• Support from routines
• Nonpunitive exile/ time-out
• Use of restraint
• Removing seductive objects
• Anticipatory planning
Reality and Value Appraisal
• Direct appeals
– Point out the connection between conduct and consequences
• Criticism and encouragement
– Avoid ridiculing or humiliating the student
• Defining limits
– “What will happen if you did that?”
• Post-situational follow-up
– “What happened and why did it happen”
• Marginal use of interpretation
– analysis of behavior
– ex.: I know that you are hungry now
Retribution (Invoking the Pleasure/ Pain Principle)
• Making the punishment fit the crime
• Withholding a privilege
• Detention
– 30-60 minutes away from peers during lunch or after school
• Punitive exile
• Private conferences
• Appeal to outside authority
Responses that usually get negative results
• Reacting emotionally by being angry or making hollow threats
• Handing out a punishment that is out of proportion to the offense
• Reacting to misbehavior publicly
• Reacting to a small incidence that often resolves itself
• Making an accusation without the facts to back it up
Responses that tend to get positive results
• Describing the unacceptable behavior to the student
• Pointing out how his behavior negatively impacts him and others
• Talking with the students about what could have been a better behavior choice and why
• Asking the student to write a goal that will help him improve his actions
• Showing confidence in the student that his behavior goals are achievable
• Positively reinforcing behavior that relates to student goals

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Readings in Facilitating Learning
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