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V
2.2 Voltage dividing rule:-
R2
R3
V
2.4 Current dividing rule:-
• 4.1.1VOLTAGE SOURCE:-
• Ideal source:-
• A voltage source that maintains constant terminal voltage irrespective of
variable load current is called as ideal voltage source.
• For ideal voltage source internal resistance is zero.
• Symbol:-
• Practical source:-
• The voltage source in which the internal resistance is not equal to zero is
known as practical voltage source.
• When no load is connected the terminal voltage equals to the source
voltage but when a load is connected it is noit equals to the source
voltage.
• If I is the load current through load resistance R, E is the source voltage
then the terminal voltage V is equals to
• V = E - IR
4.1.2 CURRENT SOURCE:-
• Ideal source:-
• A current source that maintains constant
output current irrespective of variable load is
known as constant current source
• For ideal current source internal resistance is
infinite.
• Symbol:-.
• Practical source
• A current source in which the internal
resistance has finite value is known as
practical current source.
• In practical source the output current may
change with the variation of load.
• Symbol;-
4.2 SOURCE CONVERSION:-
The current I
• I= I1+I2
• Where I1 = current due to E1
I2 = current due to E2
• In superposition theorem the voltage source is
replaced by short ckt and current source is
replaced by open ckt.
Lecture--11
=iR + L di/dt
• V-iR = Ldi/dt
• di/v-iR=dt/L
• Know multiplying both sides by –R
• -R [di/v-iR]=-R[dt/L]
Integrating both sides
Log e (V-iR) = -R/Lt+K
• Using intial conditions at t=0 i=0 then K= loge V
• Loge (V-iR) = -R/Lt + Loge V
• i= V/R(1-e-R/Lt)
• the maximum current in R L ckt ocurres when di/dt=0
• I max= V/R
• The instantaneous rise in current is
• i= I (1-e-R/Lt)
• Where L/R = time constant = λ
• 11.1.2 Decay of current:-
• When the switch is trough to the position 1 the voltage is zero.
• In this time the RL ckt does not cease immediately but gradually decays to Zero.
• Suppose at any instant the current is I and is decreasing at a rate of di/dt.
• Then 0 = iR+Ldi/dt
• Di/I = -R/L dt
• Integrating both sides
• Logei = -R/L t +K
• Using initial conditions at t=0 i=I
• K= log e I
• Using the value of K
• i = I e –R/Lt
• where L/R = λ = time constant.
Lecture--12
DC GENERATOR
• An electrical generator is a device that
converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy, generally using electromagnetic
induction.
13.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE:--
• YOKE
• FIELD ELECTROMAGNETS
• ARMATURE
• ARMATURE WINDING
• COMMUTATOR
• BRUSHES
• BEARINGS.
LECTURE—14
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR:--
• DC generators are classified based on their
method of excitation. So on this basis there
are two types of DC generators:-
• 1. Separately excited DC generator
• 2. Self excited DC generator
14.1 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC
GENERATOR
• This dc generator has a field magnet winding
which is excited using a separate voltage
source (like battery).
14.2 SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR
EMF EQUATION
15.1 EMF EQUATION
• Let
Φ = flux/pole in weber
Z = total number of armture conductors
= No.of slots x No.of conductors/slot
P = No.of generator poles
A = No.of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolutions per
minute (r.p.m)
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in
armature
• Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one
of the parallel paths i.e E.
Average e.m.f geneated /conductor = dΦ/dt volt
(n=1)
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution
• dΦ = ΦP Wb
No.of revolutions/second = N/60
Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of
Electroagnetic Induction,
• E.M.F generated/conductor is
DC MOTOR
17.1 VOLTAGE EQUATION
• Let in a d.c. motor
• V=applied voltage
• Eb=back e.m.f.
• Ra=armature resistance
• Ia = armature current
• Since back e.m.f. Eb acts in opposition to the
applied voltage V, the net voltage across the
armature circuitis V-Eb.
• The armature current Ia is given by;
• Ia = (V – Eb)/ Ra
• or V = Eb + IaRa ……………………………..(i)
• This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor
17.2 SPEED EQUATION OF DC
MOTOR:--
• We know that
• V = Eb + IaRa
• There fore Eb = V- IaRa
• Eb = P ZN/60A
• As P,Z,A are constant
N= K( V- IaRa)/
where:
N = revolutions per minute (RPM) ,i.e. motor
speed
K = proportional constant
R a= resistance of armature (ohms)
V = electromotive force (volts)
Ia = current (amperes)
Φ = flux (webers)
• FROM THE ABOVE EQUATION
N ά Eb/
• For shunt motor = constant
• N1/N2= Eb1/Eb2
• For series machine ά Ia
• N1/N2=Eb1/Eb2 X Ia2/Ia1
Lecture--18
18.1 B—H CURVE
• Irms = Im2 / 2 / = Im / 2
• Irms = 0.707 Im
• Similarly Erms = 0.707 Em.
• For H.W. rectification Irms = Im / 2
22.3 FORM FACTOR
• The ratio of rms value to the average value of
an alternating quantity is known as form
factor .
Form Factor = RMS Value / Average Value
= 0.707 x Im or
Em / 0.637 x Im or Em
= 1.11
22.4 PEAK FACTOR
• The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value
is known as peak factor :
• Peak Factor = Max value / RMS Value
• Im = =Vm/XL
• Where XL = Inductive reactance
= 2 f L its unit is ohm.
24.2 AC THROUGH A PURE
CAPACITANCE
• The charge on the capcitor :
q = c
= C Vm Sin ωt
• The current i is given by
i = dq / dt = C d(Vm Sin ωt) / dt
= ωCVm Cosωt
• i = Im Sin (ωt + / 2)
• P = i
= sin 2 ωt=0 for whole cycle
24.3 AC THROUGH RESISTANCE AND
INDUCTANCE:--
• Consider a pure resistance R and inductor L are connected in series
• Let V = rms value of applied voltage
• I = rms value of the resultant current
VR = IR resistive drop
VL = IXL reactive drop
From the phasor diagram it is noted that the applied voltage V leads the I
by an and .
Where = tan-1 XL / R
• Rectangular form of impedence and PF:-
• Z = R + jXL
= tan-1 (XL / R)
Polar Form :
Z = R + jXL = Z<o I = V/Z = V<0o / Z<o = < - o
Lecture—23
23.1 PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE :
POWER , POWER
FACTOR,RESONANCE,SIGNEFICANCE
OF J OPERATOR
26.1 POWER FACTOR
Cos = R / Z
There are 3 types of power factors
unity pf
lagging pf
leading pf
26.2 ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND
APPARENT POWER
• (i) Apparent Power (S):-
• The power obtained by multiplying voltage and current
in an ac circuit is known as apparent power.
• App. Power = Voltage X current VA
I = I + j0
ET = ER + EC
= (IR + j0) + (0 – j IXC)
= I (R – jXC)
= IZ
Z = R – jXC
|Z| = (R2 + XC2 ) = tan-1 (-XC / R)
V = VR + j(VL – VC)
= IR + j(IXL – jXC)
= I(R + j(XL – XC) )
= IZ
Z = R + J (XL – XC)
Magnitude of Z = R2 + (XL – XC)2
Phase angle = tan-1 [(XL – XC) / R]
If XL > XC then is +ve, if XL < XC is –ve
Polar Form :
I = I + j0 = I<0o
Z = R + J (XL - XC) = Z < o
V = IZ = I<0o X Z < o
= IZ < o
I = V / Z = V < 0o / Z < o
= (V / Z) < + o
LECTURE 25
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
OF PHASOR
27.1MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION OF PHASOR
V = a + jb
• Magnitude of phasor = V = a2 + b2
• Its angle wrt OX = = tan-1 (b / a)
• In CCW direction is +ve and in CW direction is –ve.
27.1.2 Trigonometrical Form :
1- TRANSFORMER
• 28.1
DEFINATION:--Transformer is a static
device which transfers the power from
one circuit to another without
changing the frequency.
28.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:-
-
• A transformer consists of a rectangular core of soft iron in the
form of sheets insulated from one another. Two separate coils
of insulated wires, a primary coil and a secondary coil are
wound on the core. These coils are well insulated from one
another and from the core. The coil on the input side is called
Primary coil and the coil on the output side is called
Secondary coil. Suppose an alternate voltage source Vp is
connected to primary coil. Current in primary will produce
magnetic flux which is linked to secondary. When current in
primary changes, flux in secondary also changes which results
an EMF Vs in secondary. According to Faradays law EMF
induced in a coil depends upon the rate of change of magnetic
flux in the coil. If resistance of the coil is small then the
induced EMF will be equal to voltage applied.
According to Faradays law
Vp=Np dΦ/dt ------------ (1)
Where Np = Number of turns in primary coil.
Similarly, for secondary coil.
Vs = Ns dΦ /d t ------------ (2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)
Vp /Vs = Np /Ns
This expression shows that the magnitude of
EMF depends upon the number of turns in the
coil.
28.3 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:--
ANSFORMER
There are two types of transformer:
Step up transformer
Step down transformer
STEP UP TRANSFORMER
A transformer in which Ns>Np is called a step up
transformer. A step up transformer is a transformer which
converts low alternate voltage to high alternate voltage.
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
A transformer in which Np>Ns is called a step down
transformer. A step down transformer is a transformer
which converts high alternate voltage to low alternate
voltage.
LECTURE 27
EMF EQUATION
29.1
Let N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
m = maximum flux in core in wb
= BmXf
f = Frequency of ac input in HZ.
The maximum flux occurs at one quarter of the
cycle.
The rate of change of flux :
= d / dt= = 4fΦm
Average induced emf / turn = d / dt = 4fm
RMS value of induced emf / turn = 4fm x 1.11
= 4.44f m volts
Total induced emf in primary
= 4.44f ΦmN1 volts
= 4.44 fN1BmA
Total induced emf in secondary
= 4.44 f N2m
=4.44 fN2BmA volts
29.2 Voltage transformation ratio :
W = W1 + W2 / W3
Two Wattmeter Method :
• In this method two wattmeters are used for power
measurements.
• The current coils are connected in series with the lines
and the pressure coils are connected to the common
phase.
• The pressure coil of W1 measure the voltage VRY and
current coil measure IR. The pressure coil of W2
measures the voltage VBY and current I
W1 = VLIL Cos (30o + )
W2 = VLIL Cos (30o - )
W = W1 + W2 = 3 VLILCos
Measurement of Pf :
For leading pf
tan = - 3 [(W1 – W2) /( W1 + W2)]
For lagging pf
tan = 3[ (W1 – W2) / (W1 + W2)]
LECTURE 30
3 PHASE AC CIRCUITS
30.1 Comparison between 3 and 1 :
• Three Phase
• 3 Power has a constant magnitude.
• A 3 system set up a rotating magnetic field.
• For same rating 3 machines are smaller,
simplex in construction.
• The weight of copper of transmission line to
transmit the 3 power is less.
• Voltage regulation is better.
• Single phase
• 1 power pulsates from zero to peak value at
twice of supply frequency.
• In 1 it is not possible
• Larger and costlier
• Weight of copper to transmit same amount of
power is more.
• Voltage regulation is poor.
30.2 Three phase emf generation :
• Consider a three phase alternator where the
armature coils are stationary and field winding’s
rotating.
• The three armature coils A, B, C are identically
and symmetrically displaced by 120o electrical.
• As the field rotates it produces a rotating
magnetic field in the air gap.
• The rotating magnetic field induces 3 emfs in the
armature coil which are equal in magnitude but
displaced by 120o electrical.
• The equations of emf are :
eA = Em sinωt
eB = Em Sin (ωt – 120o)
eC = Em Sin (ωt – 240o)
30.3 INTER CONNECTION OF 3
PHASES
• The 3 phases are inter connected using 2
methods: (i) Star or Wye (Y) connection (ii) Delta
or Mesh Connection.
• 30.3.1. Star / Y Connection :
– In this method the similar ends of the 3 phases are
joined together to form a common junction N.
– The common junction is known as star point or
neutral point.
– The 3 line conductors run from the 3 free ends are
designated as R.Y.B.
– A star connection provides 3, Y Wire
interconnection system.
– The voltage between any 2 lines called the line
voltage e.g. VRY, VBR, VYB, the voltage between
the line and neutral is known as phase voltage. Eg
: VRN, VYN, VBN.
• Similarly the current flowing in the phases is called as
phase current and that of in lines called as line
current.
• Relation between line voltage and phase voltage:
ERN = EYN = EBN = Phase voltages
VRY = VBY = VBR Line voltages
• The line voltage between any two lines is the phase difference of 2
phase voltages.
VRY = ERN – EYN
VYB = EYN – EBN
VBR = EBN – ERN
YBR = 3 Eph
Line Voltage = 3 x phase voltage
• In star connections each line conductor is connected in series with the
phase.
• Line current = Phase current
IL = Iph
P = 3 VL IL Cos
P = 3 VPH IPH Cos
LECTURE 32
• Split phase
• Capacitor motors
• Shaded pole motors.
35.3.1SPLIT PHASE
• It has 2 windings – (a) main winding of low
resistance (b) starting winding of high resistance
• When 1- supply is given the current splits into
two parts Im and Is both lags the voltage by some
angle.
• The starting torque produced depends on the
angle i.e. T Sin as increases torque
increases and rotor rotates.
• When the rotor attains a speed of 80% of normal
the centrifugal switch is open and the starting
wing us disconnected.
35.4.2 CAPACITOR MOTOR
• It consist of a capacitor connected in series with the
starting winding.
• When the supply is given the i/p current splits into 2
parts Im and Is.
• Im lags the voltage and Is leads the voltage.
• Due to this the angle increases.
• As increases the starting torque of this type of motor
is high.
• When the motor attains a speed of 80 to 85% of
normal the capacitor and the starting winding are
disconnected.