JURY SUBMISSION

COMMUNICATION

MEN VERSUS WOMEN:

E-COMMERCE PURCHASE
BEHAVIOR

SUBMITTED BY: PADMAJA MIRIYALA;

MFM SEM-II, NIFT HYDERABAD

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 07TH MAY 2019

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 I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

I.I Objectives

 To analyze the differences in the e-commerce purchase behavior of men and women
between age group of 18-23 years.
I.II Methodology
 A Questionnaire has been used to collect the required information.
 Respondents consisted of a total number of 127 people in the age group of 18-23 years consisting
of 70 female and 57 males.
I.III Hypothesis

 Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between E-commerce purchase

behavior of men and women between 18-23 years.
 Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference between E-commerce purchase
behavior of men and women between 18-23 years.
I.IV Major Findings

 In comparison, women purchase more frequently through ecommerce platforms than

men.
 Majority of women prefer www.myntra.com while men prefer www.amazon.com.

 Men are less likely to return a product after purchase.

 Men prefer to purchase footwear, whereas women tend to purchase apparel

 Women browse ecommerce websites during the evening whereas men prefer to shop during
midnight.
 In majority, both the gender would spend no more than Rs.2000 on a purchase.
 Both the genders prefer shopping for discounted products.
 Both the genders agree on the fact that www.amazon.in has the best after sales service.

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  Both the genders prefer shopping through mobile apps and claim that they find out about upcoming
ecommerce websites through internet commercials.
 Both the genders agree on being impulsive shoppers.

I.V Recommendations

Our research would provide insightful information to streamline the marketing

strategies used by ecommerce websites by analyzing the different preferences amongst men and
women. Since women make more frequent ecommerce purchases than men, we recommend
that companies should go about their marketing campaign in an aggressive manner towards
women than men. Since both men and women prefer purchasing through mobile applications,
we recommend that companies provide interesting app-only offers to maximize their sales. We
recommend that companies should send mobile alerts regarding offers on their website during
the evening to women and in the night for men. Women‘s apparel and men‘s footwear are the
most preferred categories, so companies should strategize beneficial offers in these categories.
Since both the genders find out upcoming ecommerce websites through internet commercials,
new ecommerce websites should advertise extensively across social media platforms.
www.myntra.com should focus on strategizing advertising and offers towards women.
www.amazon.in should focus on strategizing advertising and offers towards men. Since both
the genders agree that www.amazon.in has the best after sales service, the website should
continue to keep up its service and standards.

I.VI Conclusion

In conclusion, the Alternate hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the
ecommerce purchase behavior of men and women has been accepted. A clear understanding of
these differences would help fashion brand managers in efficiently streamlining their
promotional strategies to maximize sales from respective genders.

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 II. INTRODUCTION

II.I Statement of Research Problem

Gender differences in the purchase behavior of men and women have an adverse effect on the
promotional and marketing strategies of a fashion brand or an ecommerce website. Out of the
many aspects that can influence a customer‘s decision-making behavior, one of the major factors
is gender. Men and women approach shopping with different motives, perspectives, rationales,
and considerations. Purchase behavior differences amongst men and women, when not taken into
consideration will reduce the potential profitability and reach of a fashion business. This research
aims to help e-commerce fashion businesses to cope with these issues, and to efficiently
channelize their marketing strategies to bring in maximum revenue from both the genders.
II.II Research Background

Ecommerce:

Online shopping is a form of Electronics commerce (E-commerce) which allows consumers to

directly purchase products and services from seller over the internet using web browser. Through
Online shopping all type of goods are available in the virtual world. This has become a
convenient mode of shopping for the people since one can access these shops at any time without
stepping out of their home and going through hassles of traffic jams. One can also choose from
the variety of products that are displayed with price, detailed mention of the features and reviews
as well thereby, getting the best deal out of it. The prospect of online marketing is growing in
India too thanks to Internet literacy. The increasing use of Internet by the younger generation in
India provides an emerging prospect for online retailers. If the online retailers know the trends in
online shopping that will help them convert the potential customers into active ones.
E -commerce has been around in India for more than a decade but has become main stream only in
the last few years. E-commerce can be thought of as an activity wherein the customer uses the
internet to order a product or service. In most circumstances, the transaction may happen online
also. Online shopping places a heavy demand on the use of the internet. More and more people
are gaining confidence about purchasing products online. Hundreds of million dollars are being
invested by venture capital funds in this sector. Indian buyers are showing confidence in the
online e-commerce. Today many Indians purchase goods like books, electronic gadgets, air and
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rail tickets, apparel, gifts, mobiles, computer peripherals, audio cassettes and CDs online. As a
result of growing investment and growing trend of consumers in online shopping the present
study was conducted to find out whether it holds true for the college going youth particularly
between the age group of 18 to 25 year old.
Gender Differences in Purchase Behavior:
Out of the many aspects that can influence a customer‘s decision-making behavior, one of the
major factors is gender. Men and women approach shopping with different motives, perspectives,
rationales, and considerations. There is a decade worth of scientific research on this subject,
which shows that there are observable differences in how men and women behave as shoppers.
It‘s clear, men and women think differently about shopping and will approach the act of shopping
online in different ways. Gaining an understanding of how gender differences influence purchase
decisions and recognizing gender-specific tendencies is important for any business that sells to
people – and wants to do so more effectively. In the context of shopping, the different brain
structure leads to men tending to be mission- and task-oriented shoppers while women are more
likely to be discovery-oriented shoppers who readily adjust their initial goals if this would result
in a more satisfying outcome. Men tend to follow a utilitarian, more logic-based approach. You
need to tell them why they should buy your products and why it makes sense for them to
purchase it. Get to the point quickly, focus on the products, and use active statements that
demonstrate value. Women are mostly hedonic shoppers. To reach and engage women, you will
have to create emotive shopping experiences that resonate with them. A purely functional
approach can fall flat pretty quickly. Women want to know more about you, your brand, the
lifestyle you sell and how your products are going to make them feel. Women prefer the hunt;
men want a quick and effortless process. Women make decisions on a more emotional level,
whereas men approach decision-making with facts and data. Once a consumer recognizes the need
for a certain product or service, information needs to be gathered and processed to evaluate
alternatives. Research shows that men and women differ dramatically in their strategies for
information processing and decision-making. Women tend to be more comprehensive and take
both subjective (customer reviews) and objective information into consideration, while men tend
to favor objective information (make, model, speed etc.) over subjective information. Men are
loyal to brands; women are loyal to good service. A study by the Erasmus University showed that
once men found a brand that worked for them, they were more likely to stick with it, which is
especially true for apparel, automobiles, financial services and home electronics, while women
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showed a greater degree of loyalty if they received a good service. It‘s also important to know
that females perceive higher levels of risk when shopping online, and as a result, they tend to
hesitate when making a purchase online. Women focus more on trustworthiness and assurance
issues and the ability to share opinions and ideas. Men focus more on the value gained through
the purchase.

II.III Literature Review

Ecommerce:

Review of research in the field of e-commerce has shown that customer demographics affect the
purchase intentions in a significant manner (Kunz, 1997). The results of the study says that men
are more likely to purchase via internet, and those who intend to shop online are likely to be
young. This study also showed that people living in large metropolitan areas do less shopping
online as compared to those who live in suburban areas. Studies conducted by Fram & Grady,
1997; Mehta & Sivadas, 1995; Sultan & Henrichs, 2000 have reported that gender, marital status,
residential location, age, education and household income are important predictors of internet
purchasing. In a study conducted by Donthu & Garcia (1999) on consumer characteristics related
to online shopping, it was found that consumers who seek convenience and variety do more
shopping online. Such people were also found to be more innovative and spontaneous. In another
study conducted by Siu and Cheng (2001) it was found that economic benefits, product
availability, security risk are also important factors in classifying online shoppers. Zhou et al.
(2007) found that customer traits, internet self-efficacy, prior online shopping experience,
shopping orientations, economic benefit perception, risk perception as important factors affecting
online shopping acceptance of customers. Study was conducted to find out the factors
influencing online purchase of products in Kolkata. Results showed that the cost factor,
convenience factor, product factor and seller related factor are the four important factors
influencing the online purchase of products in Kolkata (Rahul Sen, 2014). Review of research
has shown that online shopping behavior has been studied extensively in the west. But it needs to
be studies in the Indian setting. This is mainly because of growing Internet penetration. For
example, according to IMAI, 2016 report, as on December 2016, India had estimated 432 million
Internet users. It is estimated that by 2017, Internet Users in India are most likely to be in a range
of 450-465 million. The report finds that the overall internet penetration in India is around 31%
6
presently. Regarding the Internet penetration in India it is 59% in urban area and 17% in rural
area (IMAI report, 2016). Analysis of ‗Daily Users‘ reveal that both in Urban and Rural India,
the younger generations are the most prolific users of internet. 34% of the people are using
Internet for shopping online.

Gender and E-Commerce:

Gender differences have been of interest to advertisers and marketers for decades. Because
websites tend to be targeted to one or both genders, attempting to understand the different ways
that males and females perceive online shopping is appropriate. In the context of the internet,
gender is believed to influence, or perhaps moderate, the extent and pattern of participation in
web activities (Hoffman, Kalsbeek, and Novak, 1996; Tracy,1998; Wells and Chen, 1999). In
nearly every study that has examined gender and e-commerce, males are typically shown to be
the dominant shoppers. In their investigation of web use in the United States, for instance,
Hoffman, Kalsbeek, and Novak(1996) found that men were more likely than women to search
for product or service information, two activities that arguably precede a purchase. Male users
are more focused on transactional uses of the web (Tracy, 1998) and have been shown to be 2.4
times more likely than women to shop online (Kwak, Fox, and Zinkhan, 2002). Using their Web
Motivation Inventory, Rodgers and Sheldon (1999) found that male students also reported better
overall attitudes toward e-shopping than did female students. Other scholars have found similar
results, suggesting that males use the internet for shopping purposes more so than females
(Rodgers and Cannon, 2000; Wells and Chen, 1999). If women are the primary shoppers of
brick-and-mortar establishments, then it stands to reason that they would also be the primary
shoppers in a virtual environment. But they are not. Why? A general reason underlying gender
differences may relate to perceptual differences between men and women. Perceptions are a key
concept in psychological theory and in the practice of marketing. According to Robertson,
Zielinski, and Ward (1984), purchase decisions are ultimately guided by consumers‘ perceptions
of the product or service. Of course, the critical nature of perceptions as they relate to purchase
behavior has been repeatedly demonstrated in advertising and marketing research. Negative
perceptions of the product, service, brand, or company almost always translate to a lost sale or, at
a minimum, expressed lower intentions to purchase the advertised product or service. If the goal
is to increase online spending among consumers, particularly female consumers, then consumers‘

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perceptions of online shopping are ultimately what matter. Presumably, the more positive
consumers perceive the online buying experience the more likely they will make online
purchases.

E-commerce and Youngsters:

This generation is attracted to a wide variety of media, regularly using blogs, reviews and social
network to openly express their interests and feelings (Hershatter and Epstein, 2010). Up to 53%
of Millennials make purchases online. As of 2015, 73.2% of the younger (18 to 24) Millennials
and 71.6% of older ones (25 to 34) were estimated to have made at least one purchase by digital
means during the calendar year. Many have Internet shopping skills, checking product ratings,
reviews or feedback on retailers (Donnely and Scaff (2013). An August 2014 study by Gallup
found that Millennials were more likely than Gen Xers or Baby boomers to make impulse
purchases and male shoppers made slightly fewer impulse purchases than females. While both
the male and female college students use the Internet to research and purchase products, the
finding indicates they significantly differ in the types of products they research and purchase
online (Dawn, Powers 2013). The study of Donnely and Scaff (2013) indicated that 82% of
Millennials prefer bricks and mortar than online shopping. Male college students preferred to
purchase from a store, negotiate the price and receive the product quickly. Female college students
did not trust purchasing over the Internet, wanted to avoid shipping and handling costs, and
wanted to be able to return the product easily if necessary (Dawn, Powers 2013). Furthermore,
females tend to show greater risk aversion and less trust in the use of the Internet (Sanchez –
Franco et al., 2009). Based on the study of McMahan et al. (2009) it is indicated that men shop
online more than women, whereas women use e-mail more than men. Weiser (2004) attributes
such gender usage patterns to Internet experience; that is, women were less sophisticated in their
use of the Internet, which led them to prefer simpler Internet features.

II.IV Method of Data Selection

Questionnaire and Survey

In which we will distribute questionnaires among people and will make our analysis on the basis
of answers filled by them. In this method responses can be analyzed with quantitative methods.
Results are generally easier to analyze and also pretext can be compared and analyzed.
8
Personal interviews

We will interview a few people and will take their personal view on online shopping. This will
be done keeping in mind the population which we are targeting that is 20-25 years.
Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a sampling methodology wherein data is collected from a homogeneous

group. It involves a two-step process where two variables can be used to filter information from
the population. It can easily be administered and helps in quick comparison.

II.V SAMPLE SIZE

Sample population: A total number of 127 people in the age group of 18-23 years consisting of
70 female and 57 males were the respondents for the survey.

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 III. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

III.I Types of analysis [Chi square Test]: The Chi-square (χ2) test represents a useful
method of comparing experimentally obtained results with those to be expected theoretically on
some hypothesis.
Thus Chi-square is a measure of actual divergence of the observed and expected frequencies. It is
very obvious that the importance of such a measure would be very great in sampling studies
where we have invariably to study the divergence between theory and fact.
III.II Tables and Figures:
Table 1: Have you made any online purchase in the past 6 months?

Have you made any online

Purchase in the past 6 months?

Gender No Yes Grand Total

Female 4 66 70
Male 3 54 57
Grand Total 7 120 127

Have you made any online purchase in the past

6 months?
80 70
70 66
54 57
60
50
40
30
20
10 4 3
0
No Yes Grand Total
Have you made any online purchase in the past 6 months?

Female Male

Graph 1: Have you made any online purchase in the past 6 months?

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Table 2: How often do you shop online?

How often do you shop online?

2-3 times Once a Once a Grand

Gender a month month week Other Total

Female 21 27 2 20 70
Male 17 32 1 7 57
Grand Total 38 59 3 27 127

Graph 2: How often do you shop online?

11
Table 3: Are you an impulsive shopper?

Are you an impulsive shopper?

Gender No Yes Grand Total
Female 41 29 70
Male 31 26 57
Grand Total 72 55 127

Are you an impulsive shopper?

80
70
70
57
60
50 41
40 31 29 26
30
20
10
0
No Yes Grand Total
Are you an impulsive shopper?

Female Male

Graph 3: Are you an impulsive shopper?

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Table 4: How much do you spend monthly on the online purchase?

How much do you spend monthly on the online purchase?

Greater
than Less than Grand
2000- 5000-
10000 2000 Total
Gender 5000 10000

Female 21 5 1 43 70
Male 21 4 1 31 57
Grand Total 42 9 2 74 127

How much do you spend monthly on the online

purchase?
80 70
70
57
60
50 43
40 31
30 21 21
20
10 5 4 1 1
0
2000-5000 5000-10000 Greater than Less than 2000 Grand Total
10000
How much do you spend monthly on the online purchase?

Female Male

Graph 4: How much do you spend monthly on the online purchase?

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Table 5: How many hours a day do you spend online?

How many hours a day do you spend online?

1-2 2-5 Greater than 5 Less than 1 Grand

Gender hours hours hours hour Total

Female 14 23 13 20 70
Male 18 15 5 19 57
Grand Total 32 38 18 39 127

How many hours a day do you spend online?

80 70
70
57
60
50
40
30 23 20
18 19
20 14 15 13
10 5
0
1-2 hours 2-5 hours Greater than 5 Less than 1 hour Grand Total
hours

How many hours a day do you spend online?

Female Male

Graph 5: How many hours a day do you spend online?

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Table 6: Which time of the day do you prefer shopping?

Which time of the day do you prefer shopping?

Gender Afternoon Evening Midnight Morning Grand Total
Female 9 40 21 70
Male 5 24 25 3 57
Grand Total 14 64 46 3 127

Which time of the day do you prefer shopping?

80
70
70
57
60
50
40
40
30 24 25
21
20
9
10 5 3
0
Afternoon Evening Midnight Morning Grand Total
Which time of the day do you prefer shopping?

Female Male

Graph 6: Which time of the day do you prefer shopping?

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 Table 7: Which is your favorite e-commerce website?

Which is your favorite e-commerce website?

Gender Amazon Flipkart Jabong Myntra Other Grand Total
Female 24 2 2 30 12 70
Male 38 8 3 8 57
Grand Total 62 10 5 38 12 127

Which is your favorite e-commerce website?

80
70
70
57
60
50
38
40
30
30 24
20 12
8 8
10 2 2 3
0
Amazon Flipkart Jabong Myntra Other Grand Total
Which is your favorite e-commerce website?

Female Male

Graph 7: Which is your favourite e-commerce website?

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Table 8: Which of the following are you more likely to choose while purchasing?

Which of the following are you

more

likely to choose while purchasing?

Discounted Full price Grand

Gender products products Total

Female 64 6 70
Male 54 3 57
Grand Total 118 9 127

Which of the following are you more likely to

choose while purchasing?
80 70
70 64
54 57
60
50
40
30
20
10 6 3
0
Discounted products Full price products Grand Total
Which of the following are you more likely to choose while purchasing?

Female Male

Graph 8: Which of the following are you more likely to choose while purchasing?

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Table 9: Which kind of collection you most interested in?

Which kind of collection you most interested in?

Gender Accessories Apparel Footwear Grand Total
Female 11 49 10 70
Male 18 18 21 57
Grand Total 29 67 31 127

Which kind of collection you most interested in?

80
70
70
57
60
49
50
40
30 21
18 18
20 11 10
10
0
Accessories Apparel Footwear Grand Total
Which kind of collection you most interested in?

Female Male

Graph 9: Which kind of collection you most interested in?

18
Table 10: While purchasing a product which is a more important factor to you?

While purchasing a product which is a more

important

factor to you?
Customer Product Grand

Gender reviews Other Descriptions Total

Female 36 4 30 70
Male 29 2 26 57
Grand Total 65 6 56 127

While purchasing a product which is a more

important factor to you?
80 70
70
57
60
50
40 36
29 30
30 26
20
10 4 2
0
Customer reviews Other Product Descriptions Grand Total
While purchasing a product which is a more important factor to you?

Female Male

Graph 10: While purchasing a product which is a more important factor to you?

19
Table 11: While purchasing a product what features attract you more?

While purchasing a product what features attract you

more?
Product Grand

Gender Brand Other Price features Total

Female 19 2 21 28 70
Male 26 2 11 18 57
Grand Total 45 4 32 46 127

While purchasing a product what features

attract you more?
80 70
70
57
60
50
40
26 28
30 21
19 18
20 11
10 2 2
0
Brand Other Price Product features Grand Total
While purchasing a product what features attract you more?

Female Male

Graph 11: While purchasing a product what features attract you more?

20
Table 12: What method of payment you prefer when shopping online?

What method of payment you prefer when shopping

online?
Bank Card Cash on Grand

Gender Transfer Payment Delivery Wallets Total

Female 4 39 24 3 70
Male 2 28 24 3 57
Grand Total 6 67 48 6 127

What method of payment you prefer when

shopping online?
80 70
70
57
60
50
39
40
28
30 24 24
20
10 4 2 3 3
0
Bank Transfer Card Payment Cash on Delivery Wallets Grand Total
What method of payment you prefer when shopping online?

Female Male

Graph 12: What method of payment you prefer when shopping online?

21
 Table 13: Which of these E-commerce websites have the best after sales service?

Which of these E-commerce websites have the best after sales

service?
Gender Amazon Flipkart Jabong Myntra other Grand Total
Female 35 7 2 23 3 70
Male 38 7 1 10 1 57
Grand Total 73 14 3 33 4 127

Which of these E-commerce websites have the

best after sales service?
80 70
70
57
60
50
40 35 38
30 23
20 10
7 7
10 2 1 3 1
0
Amazon Flipkart Jabong Myntra other Grand Total
Which of these E-commerce websites have the best after sales service?

Female Male

Graph 13: Which of these E-commerce websites have the best after sales service?

22
Table 14: Do you return a product after purchasing it?

Do you return a product after

purchasing it?
Gender No Yes Grand Total
Female 31 39 70
Male 30 27 57
Grand Total 61 66 127

Do you return a product after purchasing it?

80
70
70
57
60
50
39
40 31 30 27
30
20
10
0
No Yes Grand Total
Do you return a product after purchasing it?

Female Male

Graph 14: Do you return a product after purchasing it?

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Table 15: How do you find out about new shopping websites?

` How do you find out about new shopping websites?

Family Internet Media T.V
and Commercial influencer Commercial Grand
Friends s s s Total
Gender
Female 18 36 12 4 70
Male 17 29 5 6 57
Grand Total 35 65 17 10 127

How do you find out about new shopping

websites?
80 70
70
57
60
50
40 36
29
30
18 17
20 12
5 4 6
10
0
Family and Internet Media T.V Commercials Grand Total
Friends Commercials influencers

How do you find out about new shopping websites?

Female Male

Graph 15: How do you find out about new shopping websites?

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Table 16: How do you prefer shopping more?

How do you prefer shopping

more?
Mobile Grand

Gender apps Websites Total

Female 50 20 70
Male 48 9 57
Grand Total 98 29 127

How do you prefer shopping more?

80
70
70
57
60
50 48
50
40
30
20
20
9
10
0
Mobile apps Websites Grand Total
How do you prefer shopping more?

Female Male

Graph 16: How do you prefer shopping more?

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III.III Discussion

The explanatory text has been represented using a tabular form for better understanding:

Questions Inference

Have you made any online purchase in the Women tend to have purchased more when
past 6 months? compared to men in the past 6 months

How often do you shop online? In ‗Once a month‘ category, men tend to shop
more than women. Otherwise, it is women
who shop more overall.

Are you an impulsive shopper? Both Men and Women are almost equally
impulsive shopper.

How much do you spend monthly on the Both men and women prefer spending less than
online purchase? 2000 rupees while purchasing.

How many hours a day do you spend online? Men spend less than an hour usually while
women spend 2 to 5 hours on shopping online.

Which time of the day do you prefer Women prefer shopping in the evening while
shopping? men prefer shopping in midnight.

Which is your favourite e-commerce Women prefer Myntra while men prefer
website? Amazon.

Which of the following are you more likely to Both men and women prefer discounted
choose while purchasing? products.

Which kind of collection you most interested Women prefer shopping Apparel while men
in? prefer shopping footwear more.

26
While purchasing a product which is a more Both Men and Women prefer customer reviews
important factor to you? over product descriptions.

While purchasing a product what features Women get attracted towards product features
attract you more? while men get attracted towards brand.

What method of payment you prefer when Both Men and Women prefer Card payment.

shopping online?
Which of these E-commerce websites have Both the genders prefer Amazon.

the best after sales service?

Do you return a product after purchasing it? Women are more likely to return the product
than men.

How do you find out about new shopping Both genders find out about new shopping
websites? websites through internet commercials.

How do you prefer shopping more? Both the genders prefer mobile apps.

27
IV. Recommendations

Our research would provide insightful information to streamline the marketing strategies used by
ecommerce websites by analyzing the different preferences amongst men and women

 There is a significant difference between purchase behavior of men and women.

 Since women make more frequent ecommerce purchases than men, companies should go
about their marketing campaign in an aggressive manner towards women than men.
 Since both men and women prefer purchasing through mobile applications, companies
provide interesting app-only offers to maximize their sales
 We recommend that companies should send mobile alerts regarding offers on their
website during the evening to women and in the night for men
 Women‘s apparel and men‘s footwear are the most preferred categories, so companies
should strategize beneficial offers in these categories
 Since both the genders find out upcoming ecommerce websites through internet
commercials, new ecommerce websites should advertise extensively across social media
platforms.
 www.myntra.com should focus on strategizing advertising and offers towards women

 www.amazon.in should focus on strategizing advertising and offers towards men

 Since both the genders agree that www.amazon.in has the best after sales service, the
website should continue to keep up its service and standards.

V. Conclusion
In reference to the survey, the Alternate hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the ecommerce
purchase behavior of men and women has been accepted. A clear understanding of these differences would help
fashion brand managers in efficiently streamlining their promotional strategies to maximize sales from respective
genders

28
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n. eMarketer (2016), ―How Younger and Older
Millennial Shoppers Differ‖.
http://www.emarketer.com/Article/How-Younger-Older-Millennial-
ShoppersDiffer/1013471#sthash.jaLRbfDU.dpuf, 12.09.2016.
o. eMarketer (2015), ―Millennials Admit to Impulse Shopping‖.
http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Millennials-Admit-Impulse
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ANNEXURES
VII. Glossary

WORD EXPLANATION
The simplest chi-squared distribution is the square of a standard normal
distribution. So wherever a normal distribution could be used for a hypothesis
Chi test, a chi-squared distribution could be used. Specifically, suppose that Z is a
Square standard normal random variable, with mean = 0 and variance = 1.
Function
A process in which the values of observed data are expressed as functions of a
Factor Analysis number of possible causes in order to find which are the most important.

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 Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled
Quota sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with
Samplin respect to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.
g
The hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified
Null populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental
Hypothesis error.
The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis used in hypothesis testing that is
Alternative contrary to the null hypothesis. It is usually taken to be that the observations are
Hypothesis the result of a real effect
Examine and record the area and features of (an area of land) so as to construct a
Survey map, plan, or description.

Analysis Detailed examination of the elements or structure of something.

Quantitative
Data Information that can be measured and written down with numbers.
a person who replies to something, especially one supplying information for a
Respondents questionnaire or responding to an advertisement.

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