ABSTRACT

As the bikers in our country are increasing, the road mishaps are also increasing day by day, due to
which many casualties, most of them are caused due to most common negligence of not wearing the
helmets, and also many deaths occur due to lack of prompt medical attention needed by the injured
person. This motivates us to think about making a system which ensures the safety of biker, by
making it necessary to wear helmet, as per government guidelines, also to get proper and prompt
medical attention, after meeting with an accident. The proposed system is an intelligent helmet. A
module affixed in the helmet, such that, the module will sync with the module affixed on bike and
will also ensure that biker has not consumed alcohol. Additional feature of accident detection
module will be installed on the bike ,which will be able to detect accident and will be able to notify
quickly the accident to police control room and in case if the accident is minor, rider can abort
message sending by pressing the abort switch.

1
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives a brief introduction to embedded systems their

characteristics and major building blocks of an embedded system and finally
concludes with some important examples of an embedded system in real world.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS :

An embedded system is a special-purpose system in which the computer is

completely encapsulated by or dedicated to the device or system it controls. Unlike a
general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system
performs one or a few predefined tasks, usually with very specific requirements.
Since the system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it,
reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems are often mass-
produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Personal digital assistants (PDAs) or handheld computers are generally

considered embedded devices because of the nature of their hardware design, even
though they are more expandable in software terms. This line of definition continues
to blur as devices expand. With the introduction of the OQO Model 2 with the
Windows XP operating system and ports such as a USB port both features usually
belong to "general purpose computers", the line of nomenclature blurs even more.

Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital

watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants.

In terms of complexity embedded systems can range from very simple with a
single microcontroller chip, to very complex with multiple units, peripherals and
networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure. The examples of embedded
system board is shown in below fig:1.1.

2
 Figure 1.1 Examples of Embedded Systems board.

1. Avionics, such as inertial guidance systems, flight control hardware/software.

2. Cellular telephones and telephone switches.

3. Engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles.

4. Home automation products, such as thermostats, air conditioners, sprinklers

5. Handheld calculators, computers.

6. Household appliances, including microwave ovens, washing machines, television.

7. Medical equipment.

8. Personal digital assistant.

9. Videogame consoles.

10. Computer peripherals such as routers and printers.

11. Industrial controllers for remote machine operation.

3
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

An Optimal Driving System by Using Wireless Helmet by K. Rambabu1, B. Premalatha and C.

Veeranjaneyulu, they have used a wireless communication between bike to helmet and bike to
traffic signal and speed breaker along with Arm-7 Microcontroller which is placed in the bike
module and also the voice recognition unit which records the left, right & stop.Smart Helmet with
Sensors for Accident Prevention by MohdKhairulAfiqMohdRasli, Nina KorlinaMadzhi, Juliana
Johari, in this paper microcontroller Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC) 16F84a along with Force
Sensing Resistance (FSR) and the speed sensor (BLDC Fan) are used as sensors to operate this
paper. Alcohol Detection using Smart Helmet System by SudharsanaVijayan, et al, here they used a
switch and Alcohol sensor is used.Smart Helmet Using GSM & GPS Technology for Accident
Detection and Reporting System by Manjesh N, et al. In this paper they have used Vibration sensor,
Alcohol Sensor, Temperature Sensor & Solar Cell as power supply.A Solar Powered Smart Helmet
with Multifeatures by Mr.P.Dileep Kumar, et al in this proposed system Bluetooth is used. Safety
Helmets for Coal Miners Using ZigBee Technology by Monika Prasad, et al this technology is
planned to be simpler and less expensive than the other WPANs, such as Bluetooth.Safety measures
for “Two wheelers by Smart Helmet and Four wheelers by Vehicular Communication” Manjesh N,
et al here they used VANET as network which has self-organizing, movable, more efficient, and
communication establishes in decentralized manner. Here GSM and GPS are used for sending the
data.

4
 CHAPTER-3
EXISTING SYSTEM

The following subsections contain all research used to aid in the design of the Smart Helmet and
part selection for the Smart Helmet. These subsections contain existing similar products, research on
technologies relevant to the Smart Helmet, part analysis, part selection, and summary of selected
parts. All of the research topics below influenced the design of the Smart Helmet in some way or
another. The following sections represent projects that are related to the Smart Helmet project
definition, providing analysis on who began the project, how well it was funded, how well
consumers liked it, and if or how it may have failed. By researching companies who have attempted
similar projects, we hope to improve on them, learn from their mistakes, and succeed where they
have failed Helmets Inc. was founded in Silicon Valley in 2013, by Marcus Weller, an Industrial
Psychologist, along with his brother, Mitchell Weller, a Director in human resources for the U.S.
Army. They sought to brand themselves as pioneers in Heads-Up Display (HUD) technology
solutions, with a focus of integrating their technology into the head protection industry.
In August 2014, Skully Helmets Inc. began to take preorders for their helmet, using a crowdfunding
campaign, raising $2.4 million. Major companies, including Intel, decided to invest as well,
bringing total funding to $11 million. In addition to funding and investments, the asking price for
the helmet was $1,500. Despite a high cost, over 3,000 people pre-ordered the helmet, but
unfortunately, due to unknown problems, which caused delays in production, no more than 20-100
units were ever shipped. In July 2016, Marcus Weller was forcibly removed as CEO after investors
disagreed with an LeSports deal he brought to the table, and was replaced by Martin Fitcher. Skully
Helmets Inc. shut down in the same month and is expected to declare bankruptcy, despite Intel
trying to negotiate a funding round to keep it going. A lawsuit arose after the shutdown, accusing
the founders of using the funding for personal use.
In October 2013, they unveiled their augmented reality helmet, The Skully AR-1, at the worldwide
DEMO conference, and immediate impressions were overwhelmingly positive. Concept art of the
helmet with technical specifications can be seen if Figure 3. The helmet design was lightweight and
aerodynamic, featuring an Ultra wide angle rearview camera, an anti-fog, anti-scratch, anti-glare
visor, as well as Bluetooth, GPS, and internet connectivity via smartphone. The helmet was also
DOT/ECE certified. On top of these features, Skully added on their own unique, patented
technology: Skully Synapse™: An intelligent Heads-Up Display (HUD) which displays GPS data,
proximity sensor data, and a live view of the helmet-mounted rearview camera.

5
 Chapter-4
PROPOSED SYSTEM

In our today situation wearing the helmet is the most important thing. Because wearing helmet
while driving a bike will avoid from accidents. But most of them are not wearing helmets today
because many of them are forgotten to wear that and they do not like that to wear. So people are
affecting while the accidents and cause an injury (Palanivel Rajan, 2010). Now our paperis about
after wearing that helmet only we can start the bike. By this we can avoid so many accidents in this
world, most of the accidents are occurring due to without wearing helmet, our government is
introducing lot of rules to wear helmet but our people is not responding for that, so this is a better
way to follow the rules and to avoid accident (Vivek, 2016). After wearing that sensor placed
helmet in the head only we can start the bike. Because, it is almost like a key to start a bike. We are
going to place a touch sensor in that helmet and it will give touch the head and give a key for a bike
and it gets to start (Palanivel Rajan, 2012). So everyone will wear that helmet, due to this many
accidents will be avoided. People don’t get injured and we can save them by this method. Figure.1.
Block Diagram of Transmitter and Receiver The idea behind this project is by placing the digital
switch sensor and Intel board in helmet. After wearing the helmet the output of digital switch is
transferred from helmet to the Intel board in bike via wireless module (Sridevi and
Prasannavenkatesan, 2016). After getting the input Intel board ON the relay switch which is
connected between battery power and ignition start. By this we cannot start the bike and so we can
avoid from death (Palanivel Rajan and Vivek, 2016). The correspondence amongst protective cap
and brilliant dashboard is built up utilizing Bluetooth, in this way giving secure and certain
connection between the two. System of farthest point switch with appropriate mechanical gathering
introduced inside the protective cap is utilized to distinguish the head protector wearing marvel
(Sundaravadivu and Bharathi, 2013). We have to fit the rear side of the helmet with a battery
operated transmitter system, a small antenna and a switch in the helmets inside panel (Vijayprasath
and Palanivel Rajan, 2015). The FM receiver with an antenna is installed near the ignition coil on
the bike, with a connection to the bike's battery and relay system. The Arduino is an extremely easy
to use gadget which can be effortlessly interfaced with any sensors or modules and is extremely
minimal in size. Now all are clear that the Arduino will send an affirmation to the bike for an
ignition request.

6
 CHAPTER-5
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND DISCRIPTION

HELMET SECTION:

POWER
SUPPLY LCD DISPLAY
ARDIUNO (16*2 LINES)
UNO
IR SENSOR

ALCOHOL
Zigbee
SENSOR

EYE BLINK
SENSOR

BIKE SECTION:

POWER LCD DISPLAY

(16*2 LINES)
SUPPLY ARDIUNO
UNO
IGNITION Zigbee
KEY

Gsm MOTOR

BUZZER
Gprs

Audio
recording

Figure 1.2 Block Diagram

7
(a) Power Supply:

In this project we required operating voltage for ARM controller board is 12V.
Hence the 12V D.C. power supply is needed for the ARM board. This regulated 12V
is generated by stepping down the voltage from 230V to 18V now the step downed
a.c voltage is being rectified by the Bridge Rectifier using 1N4007 diodes. The
rectified a.c voltage is now filtered using a ‘C’ filter. Now the rectified, filtered D.C.
voltage is fed to the Voltage Regulator.

( c ) LCD Display Section:

This section is basically meant to show up the status of the project. This project
makes use of Liquid Crystal Display to display / prompt for necessary information.

(d) Buzzer:

This section consists of a Buzzer. The buzzer is used to alert / indicate the
completion of process. It is sometimes used to indicate the start of the embedded
system by alerting during start-up.
Zigbee:

Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high-level communication

protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios, such as
for home automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power low-bandwidth
needs, designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection. Hence, Zigbee is a
low-power, low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network.
Ardiuno Uno controller:
Arduino is an open-source hardware and software company, project and user
community that designs and manufactures single-board
microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices and interactive objects
that can sense and control both physically and digitally. Its products are licensed under
the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the GNU General Public
License(GPL), permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software distribution by
anyone. Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form or as do-it-
yourself (DIY) kits.

8
Ir sensor:
An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of
the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as
a passive IR sensor.
Alcohol sensor:
This module is made using Alcohol Gas Sensor MQ3. It is a low cost semiconductor
sensor which can detect the presence of alcohol gases at concentrations from 0.05 mg/L to 10
mg/L. The sensitive material used for this sensor is SnO2, whose conductivity is lower in clean
air. It’s conductivity increases as the concentration of alcohol gases increases. It has high
sensitivity to alcohol and has a good resistance to disturbances due to smoke, vapor and
gasoline. This module provides both digital and analog outputs. MQ3 alcohol sensor module
can be easily interfaced with Microcontrollers, Arduino Boards, Raspberry Pi etc.

Eye blink sensor:

This Eye Blink sensor is IR based , . The Variation Across the eye will vary as per eye
blink . If the eye is closed means the output is high otherwise output is low. This to know the
eye is closing or opening position. This output is give to logic circuit to indicate the alarm.
This can be used for project involves controlling accident due to unconscious through Eye
blink.
Ignition key:
`An ignition switch, starter switch or start switch is a switch in the control system of
a motor vehicle that activates the main electrical systems for the vehicle, including
"accessories" (radio, power windows, etc.). In vehicles powered by internal combustion
engines, the switch provides power to the starter solenoid and the ignition system components
(including the engine control unit and ignition coil), and is frequently combined with the starter
switch which activates the starter motor.
GSM modem section:
This section includes a gsm modem. the modem will speak with microcontroller the
use of serial verbal exchange. the modem is interfaced to microcontroller using max 232, a
serial motive force.
GPRS:
This section includes a GPRS modem. The modem will talk with microcontroller the
use of serial verbal exchange. the modem is interfaced to microcontroller the use of max 232, a
serial driver. the global packet radio provider is TDMS primarily based digital wi-fi

9
 community era that is used for connecting immediately to net. GPRS module will assist us to
post facts within the next page immediately.
DC Motor:

DC motor is an output for this venture. And dc motor is hooked up to

microcontroller. And this motor managed by means of the microcontroller with the respective

inputs given with the aid of us. Its velocity will be numerous in keeping with the speed set by

means of the switches.

VOICE IC:

A sound chip is an integrated circuit (i.e. "chip") designed to produce sound. It might do
this through digital, analog or mixed-mode electronics. Sound chips normally contain things
like oscillators, envelope controllers, samplers, filters and amplifiers. During the late 20th century,
sound chips were widely used in arcade game system boards, video game consoles, home
computers, and PC sound cards.

1.4 Schematic Diagram :

Schematic diagram, is a representation of the elements of a system using
abstract, graphic symbols rather than realistic pictures. A schematic usually omits all
details that are not relevant to the information the schematic is intended to convey,
and may add unrealistic elements that aid comprehension.

For example, a subway map intended for passengers may represent a subway
station with a dot; the dot does not resemble the actual station at all but gives the
viewer information without unnecessary visual clutter. A schematic diagram of a
chemical process uses symbols to represent the vessels, piping, valves, pumps, and
other equipment of the system, emphasizing their interconnection paths and
suppressing physical details. In an electronic circuit diagram, the layout of the
symbols may not resemble the layout in the circuit. In the schematic diagram, the
symbolic elements are arranged to be more easily interpreted by the viewer. The
schematic diagram is shown in below fig

1
0
 Fig-: Transmitter unit

Fig-: Receiver unit

Figure 1.4 Schematic Diagram.

1.5 Schematic Explanation:

In this project we required operating voltage for ARDIUNO UNO controller

board is 5. Hence the 5V D.C. power supply is needed for the ARDIUNO UNO
board. This regulated 5V is generated by stepping down the voltage from 230V to
18V now the step downed a.c voltage is being rectified by the Bridge Rectifier using
1N4007 diodes. The rectified a.c voltage is now filtered using a ‘C’ filter. Now the
rectified, filtered D.C. voltage is fed to the Voltage Regulator. This voltage regulator
provides/allows us to have a Regulated constant Voltage which is of +5V.

1
1
 ARDUINO UNO:

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328

(datasheet). It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM
outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power
jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a
AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI
USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to
version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.
Revision 2 of the Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to ground,
making it easier to put into DFU mode.
Revision 3 of the board has the following new features:

 1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new
pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the
voltage provided from the board. In future, shields will be compatible both with the
board that use the AVR, which operate with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operate
with 3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin, that is reserved for future purposes.
 Stronger RESET circuit.
 Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.

"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of
Arduino 1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino,
moving forward. The Uno is the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the
reference model for the Arduino platform; for a comparison with previous versions, see
the index of Arduino boards.
 Summary:
Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz

Schematic & Reference Design:

EAGLE files: arduino-uno-Rev3-reference-design.zip (NOTE: works with Eagle 6.0

and newer) Schematic: arduino-uno-Rev3-schematic.pdf
Note: The Arduino reference design can use an Atmega8, 168, or 328, Current models use an
ATmega328, but an Atmega8 is shown in the schematic for reference. The pin configuration is
identical on all three processors.

Power;

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The
power source is selected automatically.
External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.
The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power
jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector.
The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended
range is 7 to 12 volts.
The power pins are as follows:

 VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source
(as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You
can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access
it through this pin.
 5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector
(5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
 GND. Ground pins.
Memory:

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of
SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL
Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a
low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt()
function for details.
 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.

 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI

communication using the SPI library.
 LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
 value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is
it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference()
function. Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:

 TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire
library.

There are a couple of other pins on the board:

 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset
button to shields which block the one on the board.

See also the mapping between Arduino pins and ATmega328 ports. The mapping for the
Atmega8, 168, and 328 is identical.

Communication

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino
board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the
USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1).
A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.
The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software
includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For
SPI communication, use the SPI library.
Programming

The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select "Arduino
Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your board). For
details, see the reference and tutorials.
The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to
upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates
using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).

You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the ICSP
(In-Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these instructions for details.
The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is
available . The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU bootloader, which can be
activated by:

 On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the map
of Italy) and then resetting the 8U2.
 On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to
ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode.

You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU programmer (Mac OS X
and Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the ISP header with an external
programmer (overwriting the DFU bootloader). See this user-contributed tutorial for more
information.

Automatic (Software) Reset:

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Uno is
designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected computer. One
of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset
line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low),
the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to
allow you to upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment.
This means that the bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-
coordinated with the start of the upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer running Mac
OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB). For the
following half- second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to
ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first
few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board
receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software
with which it communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before sending
this data.
The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side of the
trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may also be able
to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this
forum thread for details.

USB Overcurrent Protection:

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports from shorts
and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own internal protection, the fuse
provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB port, the fuse
will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.

Physical Characteristics:

The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively, with the
USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw holes
allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between digital pins 7
and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins.

Pin Description:

Pin Category Pin Name Details

Power Vin, 3.3V, 5V, Vin: Input voltage to Arduino when using an
GND external power source.

5V: Regulated power supply used to power

microcontroller and other components on the board.
 3.3V: 3.3V supply generated by on-board voltage
regulator. Maximum current draw is 50mA.

GND: ground pins.

Reset Reset Resets the microcontroller.

Analog Pins A0 – A5 Used to provide analog input in the range of 0-5V

Input/Output Pins Digital Pins 0 - Can be used as input or output pins.

13

Serial 0(Rx), 1(Tx) Used to receive and transmit TTL serial data.

External 2, 3 To trigger an interrupt.

Interrupts

PWM 3, 5, 6, 9, 11 Provides 8-bit PWM output.

SPI 10 (SS), 11 Used for SPI communication.

(MOSI), 12
(MISO) and 13
(SCK)

Inbuilt LED 13 To turn on the inbuilt LED.

TWI A4 (SDA), A5 Used for TWI communication.

(SCA)

AREF AREF To provide reference voltage for input voltage.

Microcontroller ATmega328P – 8 bit AVR family microcontroller

Operating Voltage 5V

Recommended Input 7-12V

 Voltage

Input Voltage Limits 6-20V

Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)

Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)

DC Current on I/O 40 mA
Pins

DC Current on 3.3V 50 mA
Pin

Flash Memory 32 KB (0.5 KB is used for Bootloader)

SRAM 2 KB

EEPROM 1 KB

Frequency (Clock 16 MHz

Speed)

Arduino Boards:

Arduino Nano, Arduino Pro Mini, Arduino Mega, Arduino Due, Arduino Leonardo

Overview:

Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on 8-bit ATmega328P microcontroller. Along with
ATmega328P, it consists other components such as crystal oscillator, serial communication, voltage
regulator, etc. to support the microcontroller. Arduino Uno has 14 digital input/output pins (out of
which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog input pins, a USB connection, A Power barrel jack,
an ICSP header and a reset button.

How to use Arduino Board:

The 14 digital input/output pins can be used as input or output pins by using pinMode(),
digitalRead() and digitalWrite() functions in arduino programming. Each pin operate at 5V and can
provide or receive a maximum of 40mA current, and has an internal pull-up resistor of 20-50
KOhms which are disconnected by default. Out of these 14 pins, some pins have specific functions
as listed below:

 Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx): Rx and Tx pins are used to receive and transmit TTL serial data.
They are connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to TTL serial chip.
 External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3: These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9 and 11: These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output by using analogWrite()
function.
 SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK): These pins are used for SPI
communication.
 In-built LED Pin 13: This pin is connected with an built-in LED, when pin 13 is HIGH – LED is
on and when pin 13 is LOW, its off.

Along with 14 Digital pins, there are 6 analog input pins, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution, i.e. 1024 different values. They measure from 0 to 5 volts but this limit can be increased
by using AREF pin with analog Reference() function.

 Analog pin 4 (SDA) and pin 5 (SCA) also used for TWI communication using Wire library.

Arduino Uno has a couple of other pins as explained below:

 AREF: Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with analogReference() function.
 Reset Pin: Making this pin LOW, resets the microcontroller.

Communication:

Arduino can be used to communicate with a computer, another Arduino board or other
microcontrollers. The ATmega328P microcontroller provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication which can be done using digital pin 0 (Rx) and digital pin 1 (Tx). An ATmega16U2
on the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The ATmega16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board.
There are two RX and TX LEDs on the arduino board which will flash when data is being
transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (not for serial
communication on pins 0 and 1). A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any
of the Uno's digital pins. The ATmega328P also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The
Arduino software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus.

Arduino Uno to ATmega328 Pin Mapping:

When ATmega328 chip is used in place of Arduino Uno, or vice versa, the image below shows the
pin mapping between the two.
 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM:

The power supply is designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to

a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power
supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. A d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of a.c mains fluctuations or load variations is known as “Regulated D.C
Power Supply”. The functional block diagram of power supply is shown in below fig

For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:

Figure Functional Block Diagram of Power supply.

Transformer:

A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power

from one electrical circuit to another without change in frequency.

30
 Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little
loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why
mains electricity is AC.

Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers

decrease in output voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to
reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is
called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical
connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of
the circuit symbol represent the core. The an electrical transformer is shown in below
fig . Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the
power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the
number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio of the
voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input)
coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns
on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Figure An Electrical Transformer.

Turns ratio = VP/ VS = Np/NS.
Power Out= Power In.
VS X IS=VP X IP.
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Np = number of turns on primary coil.
Ip = primary (input) current.

31
RECTIFIER:

A circuit, which is used to convert a.c to dc, is known as RECTIFIER. The

process of conversion a.c to d.c is called “rectification”.

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS:
• Half wave Rectifier.
• Full wave rectifier.
1. Center tap full wave rectifier.
2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.
Comparison of rectifier circuits:

Type of Rectifier

Half wave Full wave Bridge

Number of diodes
1 2 3
PIV of diodes
Vm 2Vm Vm

D.C output voltage Vm/ 2Vm/ 2Vm/

Vdc, at no-load 0.318Vm 0.636Vm 0.636Vm

Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

Ripple
Frequency f 2f 2f
Rectification
Efficiency 0.406 0.812 0.812
Transformer
Utilization 0.287 0.693 0.812
Factor(TUF)
RMS voltage Vrms Vm/2 Vm/√2 Vm/√2

Table Comparison of rectifier circuits.

32
Full-wave Rectifier and Bridge Rectifier:

Full-wave Rectifier:

From the above comparisons we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier
as more advantages than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full
wave bridge rectifier circuit.

Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge

arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration,
both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where
the diode bridge is wired internally. The bridge rectifier circuit diagram is shown in
below fig

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve

full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual
diodes wired with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired
internally.

Figure Bridge Rectifier circuit diagram.

Operation:
During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward
biased while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased. The current flow direction is with
dotted arrows. The operation of forward biased Bridge Rectifier is shown in below fig

33
 Figure Operation of forward biased Bridge Rectifier.
During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in
forward biased while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased. The current flow direction is
with dotted arrows. The Operation of reverse biased Bridge Rectifier is shown in
below fig

Figure Operation of reverse biased Bridge Rectifier.

Filter:

A Filter is a device, which removes the a.c component of rectifier output

but allows the d.c component to reach the load.

Capacitor Filter:

We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave
rectifier is 1.21% or that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48%
such high percentages of ripples is not acceptable for most of the applications.
Ripples can be removed by one of the following methods of filtering:

➢
A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides an easier by pass for the ripples
voltage though it due to low impedance. At ripple frequency and leave the
d.c.to appears the load.

34
 ➢
An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of the ripple current
(due to high impedance at ripple frequency) while allowing the d.c (due to low
resistance to d.c).

Various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such as L-section filter

section filter, multiple section filter etc. which make use of both the properties
mentioned. Two cases of capacitor filter, one applied on half wave rectifier
and another with full wave rectifier.

Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across

the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying
DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak
of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output. Filtering
significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS
value).

To calculate the value of capacitor(C),

C = ¼*√3*f*r*RL

Where,

f = supply frequency,

r = ripple factor,

RL = load resistance,

Note: In our circuit we are using 1000microfarads.

Regulator:

Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or

variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them.
Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most
regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload
protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage
regulator ICs has 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A
regulator shown on the right. The A 3 terminal voltage regulator is shown in below
fig

35
 The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your
unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin,
connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power,
you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.

Figure A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator.

78XX:

The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three
terminals. The LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in
wide range of applications. When used as a zener diode/resistor combination
replacement, the LM78XX usually results in an effective output impedance
improvement of two orders of magnitude, lower quiescent current.

Features:

• Output Current of 1.5A.

• Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%.
• Internal thermal overload protection.
• Internal Short-Circuit Limited.
• No External Component.
• Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V.
• Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263.
• Direct Replacement for LM78XX.

BUZZER:

The "Piezoelectric sound components" introduced herein operate on an

innovative principle utilizing natural oscillation of piezoelectric ceramics. These
buzzers are offered in lightweight compact sizes from the smallest diameter of 12mm
to large Piezo electric sounders. Today, piezoelectric sound components are used in
many ways such as home appliances, OA equipment, audio equipment telephones,
etc. And they are applied widely, for example, in alarms, speakers, telephone ringers,
36
receivers, transmitters, beep sounds, etc. The types of buzzers is show in below fig

Figure Types of Buzzers.

Oscillating System:

Basically, the sound source of a piezoelectric sound component is a

piezoelectric diaphragm. A piezoelectric diaphragm consists of a piezoelectric
ceramic plate which has electrodes on both sides and a metal plate (brass or stainless
steel, etc.). A piezoelectric ceramic plate is attached to a metal plate with adhesives.
The oscillating system of a piezoelectric diaphragm. Applying D.C. voltage
between electrodes of a piezoelectric diaphragm causes mechanical distortion due to
the piezoelectric effect. For a misshaped piezoelectric element, the distortion of the
piezoelectric element expands in a radial direction. And the piezoelectric diaphragm
bends toward the direction. The Oscillating System is shown in below fig

Figure Oscillating System.

37
 The metal plate bonded to the piezoelectric element does not expand.
Conversely, when the piezoelectric element shrinks, the piezoelectric diaphragm
bends in the direction. Thus, when AC voltage is applied across electrodes, the
bending is repeated, producing sound waves in the air.

DESIGN PROCEDURES:

In general, man's audible frequency range is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz.

Frequency ranges of 2 kHz to 4 kHz are most easily heard. For this reason, most
piezoelectric sound components are used in this frequency range, and the resonant
frequency (f0) is generally selected in the same range too. As the resonant frequency
depends on methods used to support the piezoelectric diaphragm. If piezoelectric
diaphragms are of the same shape, their values will become smaller in the order of (a),
(b) and (c). The design procedures is shown in below fig

Figure DESIGN PROCEDURES.

In general, the piezoelectric diaphragm is installed in a cavity to produce high
sound pressure. The resonant frequency (fcav) of the cavity in is obtained from
Formula (1) (Helmholtz's Formula). Since the piezoelectric diaphragm and cavity
have proper resonant frequencies, (f0) and (fcav) respectively, sound pressure in
specific frequencies can be increased and a specific bandwidth can be provided by
controlling both positions.

38
 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

The power supply (3.3.v) for the Ardiuno is produced by using the power
supply circuit which consists of mainly four components. 1. Transformer 2.Rectifier
3. Filter and 4.Regulator.The conversion AC to DC supply which includes four most
basic steps, first voltage is step downed by using transformer, (2) rectifier for
converting AC to dc (here we are not obtaining pure dc voltage), (3) so in the filter
circuit, capacitor bypasses the AC to ground and it blocks dc voltage. (4) The
obtained pure dc voltage is supplied to regulator for getting the required voltage
which we need to give for the Ardiuno.

Know we can put our finger in the finger print module if it is valid means it
will displayed in the displayed in the LCD to enter the password know we can enter
our password 111 then we can press the enter key. After that it displayed in the LCD
is clear or display, if we want to clear means we can press the enter key, suppose we
want to display means we can press the display key. When we are press the display
key at that time it displayed in the LCD the number candidates (c1, c2, c3, c4) names
how many votes they got.

GSM:

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is a standard developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation
(2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as mobile phones and tablets. It was first
deployed in Finland in December 1991.[2] As of 2014, it has become the global standard for mobile
communications – with over 90% market share, operating in over 193 countries and territories.

2G networks developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks,
and the GSM standard originally described a digital, circuit-switched network optimized for full
duplex voice telephony. This expanded over time to include data communications, first by circuit-
switched transport, then by packet data transport via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)
and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution, or EGPRS).

Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation (3G) UMTS standards, followed by

fourth-generation (4G) LTE Advanced standards, which do not form part of the ETSI GSM
standard."GSM" is a trademark owned by the GSM Association. It may also refer to the (initially)
most common voice codec used, Full Rate.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

55
 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials, which combine the properties
of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a
temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be
in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a crystal.

An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand
witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with
transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be displayed
polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which
makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle.
One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers
would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular
direction.
When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers
and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any
orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.
When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal
molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through the
LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating/
highlighting the desired characters.
The LCD’s are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the
LCD’s consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic circuits,
and can be powered for long durations.

LCD Operation and LCD Pin description:

LCD Operation:

In recent years the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs (seven-
segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs).This is due to the following reasons:
• The declining prices of LCDs.
• The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in
Contract to LEDs, which are limited to numbers and a few characters.
• Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD.

• Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

56
 LCD Pin Description :

The LCD discussed in this section has 14 pins. The function of each pin is
given in table.

Pin Description for LCD:

Pin symbol I/ODescription

1 Vss -- Ground

2 Vcc -- +5V power supply

3 VEE -- Power supply to control contrast

4 RS I RS=0 to select command register RS=1 to select data

register

5 R/W I R/W=0 for write R/W=1 for read

6 E I/O Enable

7 DB0 I/O The 8-bit data bus

8 DB1 I/O The 8-bit data bus

9 DB2 I/O The 8-bit data bus

10 DB3 I/O The 8-bit data bus

11 DB4 I/O The 8-bit data bus

12 DB5 I/O The 8-bit data bus

13 DB6 I/O The 8-bit data bus

14 DB7 I/O The 8-bit data bus

Table 5.1 Pin Description for LCD.

LCD Command Codes:

57
 Code Command to LCD Instruction
(hex) Register

1 Clear display screen

2 Return home
4 Decrement cursor
6 Increment cursor
5 Shift display right
7 Shift display left
8 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor on
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right
18 Shift the entire display to the left
1C Shift the entire display to the right
st
80 Force cursor to beginning of 1 line
nd
C0 Force cursor to beginning of 2 line
38 2 lines and 5x7 matrix

Table 5.2 LCD Command Codes.

Uses and LCD interfacing:

Uses:
The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring
instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of
numeric data. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in
telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started
replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and
also in small TV applications. The interfacing of LCD to a micro controller is shown
in below fig

58
 LCD interfacing:

Sending commands and data to LCDs with a time delay:

Figure 5.4 Interfacing of LCD to a micro controller.

❖
To send any command from table 2 to the LCD, make pin RS=0.

❖
For data, make RS=1.Then sends a high to low pulse to the E pin to
enable the internal latch of the LCD.

Zigbee:

Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high-level communication

protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios, such as
for home automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power low-bandwidth
needs, designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection. Hence, Zigbee is a
low-power, low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network.

The technology defined by the Zigbee specification is intended to be simpler and less
expensive than other wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or more
general wireless networking such as Wi-Fi. Applications include wireless light switches, home
energy monitors, traffic management systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment
that requires short-range low-rate wireless data transfer.

59
 Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10–100 meters line-of-
sight, depending on power output and environmental characteristics. Zigbee devices can
transmit data over long distances by passing data through a mesh network of intermediate
devices to reach more distant ones. Zigbee is typically used in low data rate applications that
require long battery life and secure networking (Zigbee networks are secured by 128
bit symmetric encryption keys.) Zigbee has a defined rate of 250 kbit/s, best suited for
intermittent data transmissions from a sensor or input device.

Zigbee was conceived in 1998, standardized in 2003, and revised in 2006. The name
refers to the waggle dance of honey bees after their return to the beehive.

GPRS TECHNOLOGY:

GPRS is predicted to profoundly trade the mobile statistics services that GSM, CDMA and
TDMA (ANSI-I36) community operators can offer. GPRS will increase possibilities for better
sales and permit new, differentiated offerings and tariff dimensions to be presented (such as a
charge for the number of kilobytes of data transferred). GPRS combines cell get entry to with net
protocol (IP)-based services, the use of packet statistics transmission that makes enormously
efficient use of radio spectrum and enables excessive statistics speeds.It offers users elevated
bandwidth, making it possible and fee-effective to stay constantly related, in addition to to ship
and acquire facts as text, photographs and video.
GPRS (general packet radio carrier) is a packet-based data bearer provider for wi-fi
communication services that is added as a network overlay for gsm, cdma and tdma (ansi-i36)
networks. gprs applies a packet radio precept to switch user information packets in an green way
between gsm cellular stations and outside packet statistics networks. packet switching is wherein
records is cut up into packets which might be transmitted one at a time and then reassembled at
the receiving quit. gprs supports the sector's main packet-based net conversation protocols, net
protocol (ip) and x.25, a protocol this is used especially in europe. gprs permits any existing ip or
x.25 software to function over a gsm cellular connection. mobile networks with gprs abilities are
wi-fi extensions of the internet and x.25 networks.
GPRS gives almost instant connection set-up and non-stop connection to the internet. GPRS
60
users may be capable of log on to an (get right of entry to factor call) and feature get admission
to to many offerings or an office community (without the want to dial-up) and continue to be
constantly connected till they log off, only paying when records is virtually transmitted. a bodily
quit-to-cease connection isn't always required because network sources and bandwidth are only
used when facts is actually transferred. this makes extraordinarily efficient use of available radio
bandwidth. consequently, GPRS packet-primarily based offerings ought to cost users much less
than circuit-switched services because verbal exchange channels are being shared and are on a
‘as-packets-are-wanted’ basis as opposed to committed to handiest one user at a time. it must
also be less complicated to make programs available to mobile customers because the quicker
facts price manner that middleware presently had to adapt packages from constant line charges to
the slower speed of wireless systems will not be wanted.
GPRS statistics speeds will variety from 14.4 kbit/s (the usage of one radio timeslot) to 115kbit/s
(through amalgamating timeslots) and provide non-stop connection to the internet for cell
telephone and laptop customers. gprs records speeds are probable to common at about fifty six
kbit/s, with between 28 and 40 kbit/s first of all. the higher information charges will permit
customers to take part in video conferences and have interaction with multimedia internet web
sites and similar packages the use of mobile hand-held gadgets as well as pocket book computer
systems.
The important thing drivers for operators to conform to GPRS networks are to:
• Increase sales with the aid of getting into the mobile facts marketplace, mainly since the voice
marketplace has had income margins squeezed with the commoditization of voice services
• Gain new subscribers who require cell data services or do not need to spend money on
apc to benefit net get entry to
• Hold contemporary subscribers by way of imparting new offerings
• Lessen prices because of the efficient use of community sources
• Ease of adapting packages for mobile users because high data speeds mean that
middleware is not required to transform fixed programs for cellular use.
The overall blessings of gprs networks for cell operators are mentioned below
Fig: 1 – GPRS network

61
GPRS is based on gsm conversation and will complement existing offerings along with circuit-
switched cellular cellphone connections and the fast message carrier (sms). it'll also complement
bluetooth, a wellknown for replacing wired connections among gadgets with wireless radio
connections.
GPRS is specific to gsm as it offers the subsequent key features:
Better bandwidth and, therefore, records speeds seamless, instantaneous and non-stop
connection to the internet – ‘always on line’ new text and visual data and content offerings (due
to information speeds and the net), inclusive of electronic mail, chat, nevertheless and
transferring pix, records offerings (stock costs, climate reviews, teach times), video conferencing,
e-commerce transactions (shopping for flight and cinema tickets) and internet-primarily based
faraway get entry to to corporate intranets and public networks (in place of dial-up faraway get
admission to which incurs long distance cellphone calls) packet-switching in place of circuit-
switching, which means that there's higher radio spectrum efficiency due to the fact community
sources and bandwidth are handiest used while facts is in reality transmitted even though it is
always related extraordinary mediation, score and billing requirements such as gathering facts
from gprs and ip networks, charging for volumes of records transferred instead of connection
time and new and more than one participants of the billing price chain guide for main net
communications protocols - net protocol (IP) and x. 25 additional additives and protocols to the
GSM community – the important thing elements are SGSN (serving GPRS support node), GGSN
(gateway GPRS aid node) and a charging gateway distinctive gadgets (now not GSM telephones)
- GPRS could be to be had from laptops or hand-held computers that are either related to GPRS -
capable cell phones, external modems or which have PC card modems, clever telephones which
have full display functionality and mobile phones which have wap microbrowsers. all of those
gadgets have consumer interfaces on the way to allow users to utilise GPRS services the primary
essential step at the route to 3G.
GSM (Global system for mobile) – is known as a 2G (2nd generation) digital. GSM has
maximum statistics speeds of nine.6 kbit/s and is based totally on circuit switching HSCSD (high
velocity circuit switched statistics) – the first step towards quicker records speeds on GSM
circuit switched networks. HSCSD concentrates up to 4 gsm timeslots and permits information
speeds of as much as 64 kbit/s (mainly geared toward the corporate marketplace).But, mobile
terminals supporting HSCSD aren't currently available. it's miles normally used for notebooks
with a information card. operators will need to decide if they'll provide this service or GPRS or
each HSCSD is being set up in markets which can be pretty competitive in which differentiation
is fundamental, which include FINLAND, as well as where information offerings have been

62
mainly successful which include Norway and hong kong.
GPRS – the advent of packet switching technology to GSM, cdma and tdma (ansi-i36) cellular
networks, making it less complicated to combine with different packet-based protocols which
include ip or x.25. gprs is the primary important step on the path to 3g, hence gprs additionally
being called 2.5g. the bulletins of gprs data speeds range from as much as one hundred fifteen
kbit/s to as much as 117 kbit/s, however is likely to average at fifty six kbit/s, with among 28 and
40 kbit/s first of all. if gprs usage is in particular textual content primarily based, it will meet
many wireless net service requirements from the outset. trials of gprs offerings will arise in 2000,
however it's far not going that business usage might be extensive earlier than 2001. gprs is being
deployed in cell networks these days to offer the center network packet facts handling
capabilities that 3g will want, whether or not brought the use of wcdma or part (see below).
EDGE (Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution) – the second one step towards 3g for GSM/GPRS
networks. side will increase information costs on GSM to 384 kbit/s by bundling up to eight
channels or 48 kbit/s consistent with channel. Analysts endorse that indoor edge speeds will drop
outdoor of the urban regions to one hundred fifteen kbit/s, however that edge will be capable of
offer outside prices of 450-550 kbit/s. part is not going to emerge until 2002 and is an appealing
alternative for operators that do not have a umts licence. GPRS is primarily based on a
modulation method called gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK). part is primarily based on a
brand new modulation scheme that permits a much better bit charge throughout the air interface -
this is referred to as 8-phase-shift keying (8 psk) modulation. when you consider that eight psk
will also be used for umts, community operators will want to incorporate it at some stage to
make the transition to third era mobile cellphone systems.
3G (third era cell) – 3G is likewise regularly called imt-2000, wcdma and umts. imt-2000 (global
cellular telecommunications 2000) is the ITU (international telecommunications union) initiative
for a service with a purpose to provide radio access to the worldwide telecommunications
infrastructure, through each satellite TV for PC and terrestrial structures, servicing constant and
mobile customers in public and private networks. 3g requirements have nearby names which
includes UMTS (regularly occurring cell telecommunications machine) in europe and center-a in
japan. in the united states (any a few parts of japan and south korea) 3G is referred to the
evolution shape cdmaone to cdma2000. The global wellknown for the 3G radio hyperlink
between the user’s terminal and the operators network could be very likely to be wcdma
(wideband code division multiple get admission to). the wcdma technique applies a person-
precise code to separate the signals transmitted thru a given channel.A channel does not occupy a
particular frequency, as a substitute, several hundred channels can share a frequency hall of
5Mhz, which ends up in high records speeds.

63
UMTS is the direct evolution for gsm/gprs networks. the UMTS forum defines UMTS as ‘’a
mobile communications system that may provide sizeable user blessings along with awesome
wi-fi multimedia services to a convergent community of fixed, cell and satellite additives. it's
going to deliver records at once to customers and offer them with get admission to to new and
revolutionary services and applications. it will offer mobile personalized communications to the
mass marketplace regardless of place, community or terminal used.’’ UMTS turns into the
maximum flexible broadband get entry to generation, as it lets in for mobile, office and home use
in a wide variety of public and non-public networks. UMTS can help each ip and non-ip traffic in
a diffusion of modes such as packet, circuit switched and digital circuit.
UMTS seeks to construct on and amplify the capability of today’s cellular, cordless and satellite
technologies by presenting elevated ability, records capability and a much extra variety of
offerings the usage of an revolutionary radio get admission to scheme and an stronger, evolving
core community. in 1998 ETSI decided on a brand new radio interface for umts called umts
terrestrial radio get admission to or as the basis for a international terrestrial radio get entry to
community. utra is a mixture of two technologies – W-CDMA for paired spectrum bands and td-
cdma for unpaired. a UMTS network will contain new utra base stations in addition to standards,
infrastructure and offerings from GPRS. UMTS will provide records costs up to two mbit/s
(megabits in line with 2nd) for stationary wi-fi terminals. these speeds will probable drop to a
maximum of 384 Kbit/s for pedestrians and a hundred and 44Kbit/s for moving cars. UMTS will
arrive commercially in 2002/3.
Japan was the primary to pick out and announce particular plans to introduce wideband radio
networks based totally on WCDMA (wideband code department multiple get right of entry to)
technology.In Japan NTT Docomo could be very a hit with its i-mode generation (not GPRS). it's
miles anticipated that 3g offerings using WCDMA can be in provider in Japan in 2001. This
technology is optimised to allow very excessive-velocity multi-media offerings consisting of
complete-motion video, net access and videoconferencing.

Introduction to GPRS billing:

Technology along with wap, gprs and 3g are revolutionising the cell enterprise. The scale of the
market and the capacity revenue from new statistics offerings method that the stakes are
excessive. But, there may be a fundamental trouble that desires to be addressed. how do you
invoice for these services, who do you bill and may your contemporary billing and operational
aid structures take care of it?
Chorleywood consulting ltd, an worldwide telecommunications management consultancy, states
that billing for shipping will give way to billing for content, a good way to in turn entail passing

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costs to content providers. usage based totally bills will need to attract upon new kinds of distinct
records about programs, exceptional of carrier, time of day and different parameters. retaining
control over sales collection will become both greater hard and greater critical at the identical
time.

GPRS mediation:
With cellular internet a ‘name’ only travels throughout the telephony community (gsm and gprs)
until it reaches the internet gateway, at which point it converts into ip network site visitors.
operators will want to handle mediation and billing for a couple of report codecs such as voice
calls as cdrs, statistics switch as gprs information statistics, ip event facts and content material
event information of various sorts (together with wap). which means that it need to take care of
files from circuit-switched networks and transactions from packet-switched networks. while a
cellphone name travels over a unmarried path, every ip occasion have to be reconstructed by
means of piecing together facts approximately a couple of packets touring via a couple of routers.
ip networks are composed of more than one components that interact with every other in a
complex way and document large portions of community statistics (at the least 10 instances
greater than voice). ip statistics are not attached to a switch or generated in a single, identifiable
and centralised area, like a voice document. consequently, ip mediation requires the correlation
of facts - which include accounting and overall performance information – to be accumulated
from some or all of these gadgets in real-time and to be saved until it is processed. this may be
controlled in a number of approaches, however whatever strategy an operator uses it's far the ip
mediation feature that makes it feasible.
A network normally information network-stage information regarding packets and not user-
degree information along with which offerings and applications were used. however, this
information is needed to have a invoice that is intelligible to the patron. therefore ip mediation is
a extra complicated assignment.A unmarried mediation system or mediation modules could be
used, however in the end mediation ought to be capable of acquire and consolidate all
information from both gprs and ip networks in order tosend one service-related document to the
billing device. see desk 1 for a comparison of mediation for voice and IP.
Analysts have stated that gprs offerings will produce 15-20 times the wide variety of CDRS that
a GSM community produces, but, a lot of those might not be of any real price and want to be
filtered out. consequently, mediation systems will need to handle a huge extent.
 To enable the overall variety of modern-day billing situations and cross-service applications
and discounts to be supplied. most of the information will be required to recognize and fee
for bundled and individual services. if mediation systems only collect statistics from the

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 charging gateway nodes inside the gprs network, and no longer from the ip community, it'll
no longer be viable to decide what services had been used or to differentiate the billing of
specific services (which includes the numerous wap offerings)
Table 1 – Comparison of Mediation for Voice and IP Services
Features of Mediation Voice Telephony IP Services
Network architecture Static circuit switches, well No unified architecture, dynamic
defined, hard wired and distributed information
information sources. Still sources. Open systems platform
largely a mix of proprietary based.
systems.
Billing related information Telephone switches. Multiple network devices,
sources including gateways, servers,
proxies, routers, firewalls, as well
as PCs and TVs.
Scheduling True real-time collection is Real-time collection and
not usually supported. correlation is key.
Key functions Data collection, buffering, Collection, buffering, correlation
filtering, reformatting, and consolidation, filtering,
forwarding to multiple reformatting and forwarding to
systems. multiple systems.
Typical information contained Call start and finish times and Volume in terms of packet or byte
in a CDR date. Caller and called party count. Transmission start and
ID. Trunk information for end times. Applications and
interconnect accounting. content related information.
Quality/class of service and type.
Transit, routing and peering
information from multiple
partners.
Requirements for billing Log file collection. Event-based collection for usage
Reformatting CDRs from and content based billing.
fixed voice, mobile, cable etc. Support for reconciliation with
to uniform format recognized content providers and
by billing system. High advertisers. Higher volumes of
volumes of billing data. billing data.

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Statistics about the usage of the GPRS community is recorded on the SGSN (serving GPRS guide
node) that is the point of get right of entry to to the GPRS network and the GGSN (gateway GPRS
assist node) which connects the GPRS community to the IP network. the records from the SGSN
and the GGSN is consolidated on the charging gateway that provides a mechanism to switch
charging data to the network operators mediation/billing machine.
The facts held in the charging gateway's log needs to be converted to occasion information
information, EDRS, with the aid of a mediation machine. the standards and frequency for this
conversion (eg: every time a user requests a service or at set time durations inclusive of each hour)
will depend on the operators business model, but will have an effect on the flexibility of pricing and
the range of EDRS that have to be processed via the billing gadget.
Occasions must be despatched straight away for rating so that users and operators have a real-time
view of utilization costs, however, the network infrastructure might not aid the actual-time transport
of EDRS to the billing machine. (see in addition records regarding pre-paid within the section
entitled

GPRS Tariffing:
GSM circuit-switched based totally voice services are charged especially on period of calls and time
of day. GPRS packet-based totally charging can be based on absolutely exceptional and many
greater dimensions because the user is usually ‘logged-on’ to the community, whether they're
actively the use of it or now not. some of the tariff dimensions that could be used for GPRS
subscribers are as follows:
• Quantity of packets transported (fee consistent with packet), despite the fact that the value of
counting the quantity of packets can be more than their fee
• Extent in terms of kilobytes (Kbit/s) and megabytes (Mbit/s) of information transferred
• Uplink/downlink extent – GPRS has the flexibility to display records going from the
consumer to the network and vice versa. This allows price lists inclusive of free access for surfing
and payment for downloading type of content material
• cost of content material
E-commerce/m-commerce – transactions and content that are not delivered by means of the cell
network but is charged to the mobile invoice. as an instance, cellular phones may be used to buy
gadgets from merchandising machines, juke bins and vehicle washes (as provided by using sonera
and radiolinja in finland). in this situation a consumer dials a particular variety which activates the
system to dispense a chilly drink and the fee appears on the person’s telephone bill. in austria,
mobilkom shall we subscribers request railway schedules and buy educate tickets

67
• Variety of messages
• Time postpone - charge greater for a actual-time stock quote than for a delayed one
• High-quality of provider(qos) – customers may be charged for the elegance of carrier they
opt for, along with precedence, suggest throughput or not on time. reductions will ought to be
presented by using operators for shortfalls in the qos form of device used (subscriber offerings may
range according to the gprs cellular device) transaction prices - it's far noticeably probable that a
transaction charge may be the maximum applicable tariff for messaging or wap offerings including
a traffic query. the delivery price might be bundled into the transaction charge of the content service
• wide variety of emails despatched and acquired
• mailbox size
• range of web page hits
• time of day – top or off-top
• region - even though distance has no significance in the ip world (customers do now not pay
exceptional rates to download net pages depending at the geographic area of the internet server)
operators can also nevertheless wish to offer area-based totally pricing. as an example a tariff for an
area within a radius of the office or domestic, based on nominated cells, to encourage gprs
utilization at the operators community. once roaming is supported on gprs networks, expenses for
roaming might be better than for the home-community
• monthly subscription charge
• area-precise (billing in step with the area of the originating name) terminal-unique
(subscribers with exclusive terminal capabilities will revel in one-of-a-kind services and could have
specific usage styles).

GPRS Billing:
The billing gadget will practice single and go-carrier convergent discounts for extent utilization
and adjustments for any decreased exceptional of carrier, for example invoice presentation is
prime to avoiding confusion on the way to result in accelerated customer care calls and sooner or
later improved costs and churn.
WAP and GPRS services also make extra needs on convergent billing because the user has the
choice to purchase objects inclusive of cinema tickets and feature the value charged back to the
mobile telephone bill which need to be presented in reality. This can also be viable on prepaid cell
phones. the cinema represents any other member of the value chain (see beneath) that will should
be monitored and paid (much like interconnect) and for whom the billing machine will need to
contend with.
Utilization billing for WAP and GPRS is similarly complex by the truth that interconnect billing

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in ip isn't always completely regulated and difficult to calculate and put into effect, however
operators want to preserve interconnect agreements and have billing structures to cater for this.
Billing the Value Chain for Mobile Content Services
Cell content material is bringing the e-commerce enterprise model to the cellular
telecommunications enterprise – m-commerce. icps (integrated communication vendors) need to
offer for multi-party content billing down via the value chain. mobile operators have an opportunity
to take more manipulate of the m-commerce value chain than in the unique wireline E-trade
situation.
Inside the stressed out world, the content fee chain incorporates the consumer, the network operator,
the net carrier provider (ISP), the content material agents (isps with portals) and content material
vendors (who can also have a chain of their personal that consists of publishers, writers, artists and
so forth.). a person might get right of entry to the internet via their isps point of presence (pop) via
dial-up strains (PSTN OR ISDN) through their network operator. In this state of affairs ISPS are
commonly not able to take a percentage of e-trade because the consumer purchases goods from the
content company by way of credit card at once, as well as not having any manage or expertise of
their customers’ spending behavior. consequently, they have installed their personal web websites or
portals as the primary factor of get admission to. it is from this portal that they broker a variety of
content material and take commissions on content material bought from their portal along with
advertising sales, because of so many users go to their web site (eg freeserve and aol). many isps
now offer unfastened net get admission to to attract as many customers as viable. fixed line
operators’ most effective sales is from the nearby call fee for the time taken to browse and down
load (and that is reduced with quicker modems). Therefore, there are increasingly more operators
putting in ip network capability with a purpose to emerge as an ISP and mergers between operators,
isps and content material providers as a way to gain revenues and consumer information.
In the wireless world, mobile operators that have a gprs community will routinely be ISPS because
GPRS is a wireless extension of the internet. Operators are signing up content material companions
as a way to set-up their very own WAP-portals. as an instance, bt cellnet’s genie net carrier gives
electronic mail, internet browsing and other WAP offerings. Operators have several choices for
billing the value chain:
• first of all the operator should invoice its clients at once for the content material
bought, so one section of the invoice will be much like a credit card invoice. the operator will
pay the content companies minus a commission
• secondly, the operator may additionally price a commission for purchases made via its wap
portal where the purchaser will pay the content material issuer without delay
• thirdly, the operator ought to invoice advertisers for sponsoring content and pass on a proportion

69
 of the sales to its content companions. however, the possibilities are confined for wap devices
because of display size.
All three of those billing eventualities might be employed concurrently by an operator. billing
becomes more difficult while every occasion incurs a specific kind of billing state of affairs for all
the parties worried. as an instance a transaction fee or MB download for information asked with the
aid of the user, a rate for the content material issuer and fees for agencies marketing with that
content material, relying on the variety of downloads in line with month that include their
advertising.

Migration to GPRS Billing:

Operators have numerous ability migration alternatives to take them from billing gsm to gprs. a
convergent billing system that supports cell and ip (and glued) enables pass-service packages and
discounts to be greater easily implemented, as well as decreasing the integration attempt.

Alternatives For Migration:

Alternative 1: implementing a convergent billing solution for billing packet switched content
material and information and leave legacy device to bill for circuit-switched voice. this selection
will no longer allow for a single convergent invoice. this selection is a low risk strategy.
Alternative 2: integrating a convergent answer for billing voice, information and content material
for customers who take all three offerings and leave the legacy system to invoice those clients that
are voice-only. this option offers a convergent invoice for individuals who require it and is a
surprisingly low chance strategy.
Alternative 3: integrating a convergent solution for each rating and billing of statistics and content
material offerings, as well as pure billing of voice calls. the legacy gadget might rate all of the voice
calls and skip rated voice activities to unicorn for customers which have services further to voice,
but bill those clients that have only voice services. this presents a convergent bill for folks who
require it and is rather low chance.
Alternative 4: enforcing a convergent answer for the billing of all services. the legacy device would
not be required. this approach has a fairly higher hazard issue than alternatives 1 – three because of
a large-bang technique to migration, in view that project control of this type of mission is more
complex. but, usha communications technology has migration expertise and enjoy with this form of
migration and does now not regard it as high threat.
with a view to offer GPRS offerings operators ought to set up a new network overlay to allow
migration to packet switching. the key new factors in a GPRS community are:
SGSN - The node in the gsm infrastructure that sends and receives packet statistics to and from the

70
mobile stations and keeps track of the mobiles within its carrier region. sgsns send queries to home
region registers (hlrs) to acquire profile records of gprs subscribers and detects new gprs mobile
stations in a given provider vicinity. the sgsn plays the features include mobility control (monitoring
a mobile area), user verification and collection of billing facts
GGSN – The node that interfaces to external public statistics networks (pdns) together with the net
and x.25. GGSNS hold routing records this is necessary to tunnel the protocol records gadgets
(pdus) to the GGSNS that carrier precise mobile stations. other capabilities include community and
subscriber screening and address mapping.
Charging gateway - an interface among the charging gateway functionality and the billing gadget.
the charging gateway makes a log entry whenever there is network hobby which includes data being
transferred, the charging terms changing (peak/off-top), an alteration in the high-quality of carrier or
if a gprs session ends (called a packet facts protocol (pdp) context). the principle capabilities of the
charging gateway are the collection of gprs statistics statistics from the gprs nodes, intermediate
information record garage, buffering and switch of information statistics to the mediation/billing
systems.
GPRS tunnelling protocol (gtp) – a specialized protocol that operates over the top of standard tcp/ip
protocols to encapsulate ip or x.25 packets so they can be forwarded between the sgsn and ggsn
(extra facts underneath)
In addition two network elements must also be enhanced in order to support GPRS:
· Base Station System (BSS): must be enhanced to recognize and send user data to the SGSN
that is serving the area
· Home Location Register (HLR): must be enhanced to register GPRS user profiles and
respond to queries originating from SGSNs regarding these profiles.

Figure – GPRS Network

71
To provide an overview of how those elements healthy together it's far useful to use an instance of a
business character with a pc related to a GPRS cell cellphone. the GPRS smart phone communicates
with a gsm base station that sends the information packets to the SGSN (whereas a circuit-switched
statistics calls is hooked up to voice networks by way of the cell switching centre.) the sgsn
communicates with the GGSN, a gadget that maintains connections with other networks together
with the net, x.25 networks or non-public networks. a GPRS community can use multiple serving
nodes, but requires only one gateway node for connecting to an external network consisting of the
net. ip packets from the net addressed for the cellular station are acquired with the aid of the GGSN,
forwarded to the SGSN and then transmitted to the mobile station.
To ahead IP or x.25 packets among every other, the SGSN and GGSN encapsulate those packets
using a specialised protocol called the gprs tunnel protocol (GTP) which operates over the pinnacle
of fashionable TCP/IP protocols. the person reports a trustworthy IP or x. connection, but a network
connection is in reality installed for every transaction and launched as soon as the transaction is
finished (see underneath for further data).
GPRS makes use of the same radio channel as voice calls, a channel that is two hundred Khz wide.
this radio channel incorporates a uncooked virtual radio circulate of 271 Kbit/s which, for voice
calls, is divided into 8 separate facts streams, every wearing about 34 Kbit/s. after protocol and
errors correction overhead, 13 Kbit/s is left for each voice connection or about 14 Kbit/s for
statistics. circuit- switched facts these days uses one voice channel. GPRS can combine up to 8 of
these channels, and considering every of those can deliver up to 14 Kbit/s of statistics throughput,
the net result is that customers will be capable of revel in prices over one hundred Kbit/s. but not all
eight-voice channels have to be used. in truth, the maximum comparatively cheap telephones might
be ones that are confined to 56 Kbit/s. the GPRS standard defines a mechanism by using which a
mobile station can request the quantity of bandwidth it desires on the time it establishes a
information session.

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GPRS Architecture:

Fig: GPRS Architecture

Charging Gateway:
The charging gateway is a single logical interface between the charging gateway functionality and
the billing system. The charging gateway functionality can be either a separate centralised network
element or a distributed resident in SGSN and GGSN.
GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP):
GTP is the protocol that tunnels the protocol data units through the IP backbone by adding routing
information. GTP operates on top of TCP/IP. ETSI has defined the functions of the GTP as:
· CDR transfer mechanism between GPRS nodes generating CDRs and the charging gateway
functionality
· redirection of CDR transfer to another CGF (charging gateway functionality) ability to detect
communication failures between the CDR handling GPRS network elements by echo messaging.
· ability of a CDR handling node to advertise the peer CDR handling GPRS network elements
about its CDR transfer capability (e.g. after a period of service downtime).
· ability to prevent duplicate CDRs that might arise during redundancy operations. If so
configured, the CDR duplication prevention function may also be carried out by marking
potentially duplicated CDR packets and delegating the final duplicate deletion task to CGF
or Billing System (instead of handling the possible duplicates solely by GTP' messaging).
· the aim of the duplication prevention support of GTP' is to reduce the number of duplicated
CDRs sent towards the billing system and to support the billing system in keeping the efforts for
duplicate CDR checking as small as possible.

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Additional GPRS Network Protocols:

There are several protocols used in the GPRS network equipment besides GTP. The following is a
brief description of each protocol layer:
Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) – a protocol that maps a community-
stage protocol, together with ip or x.25, to the underlying logical hyperlink control. SNDCP also
gives different functions consisting of compression, segmentation and multiplexing of network-
layer messages to a unmarried digital connection
Logical hyperlink manipulate (llc) - a facts link layer protocol that assures the dependable switch
of user facts across a wi-fi community
Base station system gprs protocol (bssgp) - bssgp methods routing and satisfactory of provider
(qos) information for the bss. bssgp uses the body relay q.922 core protocol as its delivery
mechanism
GPRS mobility control (gmm) - protocol that operates inside the signalling plane of gprs and
handles mobility troubles such as roaming, authentication and choice of encryption algorithms.
Community provider - protocol that manages the convergence sub-layer operating among bssgp
and the body relay q.922 middle through mapping bssgp's service requests to the ideal body relay
services BSSAP+ - protocol that manages paging for voice and statistics connections and
optimises paging for cellular subscribers. BSSAP+ is likewise chargeable for area and routing
updates in addition to mobile station signals.

Data transmission in a GPRS network:

Despite the fact that a person reviews a continuous connection, a network connection needs to be
opened and closed for every transaction. statistics transmission in a gprs network calls for several
steps to be undertaken (in the context of the protocol layers described above):
community get entry to - once a GPRS cell station is switched on, it ‘introduces’ itself to the
network by using sending a ‘GPRS connect’ request. community get admission to may be
accomplished from both the fixed facet or the cell facet of the ‘GPRS network - point-to-factor,
point-to-multi-point or
· nameless connections are then to be had. as in mobile networks, several administrative
functions are executed to validate a person, along with :
person registration - buddies the cellular identification with the consumer's pdp (packet records
protocol) and cope with within the plmn (public land mobile community). in the home region
of the cell station, conventional hlrs are more suitable to reference gprs information.

74
· outside the house place, dynamically allotted information are referenced in vlrs (traveller
vicinity registers)
· Authentication - guarantees the validity of the gprs mobile station and its related offerings.
mobility management features (gmm protocol stack) are used for this a part of the signalling
Name admission control (cac) - determines the desired network sources for the exceptional of
provider (qos) this is requested. if these assets are available, they will be reserved
·
· • routing and records transfer - once a mobile station starts statistics transmission, routing is
· finished by using the gsns on a hop-by-hop basis via the cell community using the vacation
spot address inside the message header. routing tables are maintained with the aid of the gsns
utilizing the gtp layer which may also perform address translation and mapping capabilities to
· convert the outside pdn (public information network) addresses to an address this is usable for
routing inside plmns. the information itself will go through numerous transformations because
it travels through the network. depending at the destination pdn, the information can be:
• Forwarded - the usage of the relay function, to move from one node to the opposite in the
path
• Tunnelled - to transfer records from one plmn to any other
• Compressed - to apply the radio path in an green manner (compression algorithms can be used
for producers to distinguish themselves, however, they will face interoperability issues in
heterogeneous networks)
• Encrypted - to protect the mobile station from eavesdropping (encryption algorithms also can
be used as a differentiating factor).
• Mobility management - as a cell station movements from one place to every other, mobility
control features are used to tune its area within every plmn. sgsns communicate with each other
and replace the user location. the cell station's profiles are preserved inside the vlrs which are
reachable to sgsns through the local msc (mobile services switching centre). a logical hyperlink
is set up and maintained among the cell station and the sgsn at every plmn. at the quit of
transmission or whilst a cellular station actions out of the location of a specific sgsn, the logical
hyperlink is released and the sources related to it is able to be reallocated.

GPRS modem:
This is a gprs-well matched quad-band mobile cellphone, which matches on a frequency of
850/900/1800/1900mhz and which can be used not most effective to get admission to the net,
however also for oral communique (furnished that it's miles linked to a microphone and a small
loud speaker) and for smss. externally, it looks as if a large package deal (0.ninety four inches x

75
zero.ninety four inches x 0.12 inches) with l-formed contacts on 4 facets in order that they may be
soldered both at the aspect and at the lowest. internally, the module is managed by an amr926ej-s
processor, which controls cellphone verbal exchange, data conversation (thru an included tcp/ip
stack), and (through an uart and a ttl serial interface) the verbal exchange with the circuit interfaced
with the cell telephone itself. the processor is also in fee of a sim card (3 or 1,eight v) which wishes
to be connected to the outer wall of the module.

Features:

Uses the extremely popular SIM900 GSM module

Provides the industry standard serial RS232 interface for easy connection to computers and
other devices

Provides serial TTL interface for easy and direct interface to Microcontrollers

Optionally available USB interface for easy interface to laptops, computers, etc

Onboard MIC and Speaker circuits and 3.5mm audio connectors for direct connection to
mics and speakers
All pins of the SIM900 module can be tapped into for expansion using onboard expansion
holes. GPIO pins, Serial communication pins, 2 PWM pins, I2C pins and ADC pins are
broken out to standard 0.1” spaced holes for easy expansion

Power, Status and Network LEDs for easy debugging

Can be used for GSM based Voice communications, Data/Fax, SMS,GPRS and TCP/IP
stack

Can be controlled through standard AT commands

Module’s operation mode can be controlled through the PWR Key connected to the
PWRKEY pin (refer the SIM900 datasheet for more information)
76
 Comes with an onboard wire antenna for better reception. Board provides an option for
adding an external antenna through an SMA connector

The SIM900 allows an adjustable serial baudrate from 1200 to 115200 bps (autobaud by
default)

Modem a low power consumption of 0.25 A during normal operations and around 1 A
during transmission

Operating Voltage: 7 – 15V AC or DC (board has onboard rectifier)

Testing the board:

Insert a SIM card into the SIM tray on the board

Connect the board to a computer’s serial port using a RS232 cable
To read the text being sent by the modem, you will need a serial monitoring software.
Windows has a built in serial monitoring software called Hyperterminal. Run it at Start ->
Programs -> Accessories -> Communications -> Hyperterminal
Enter connection name,
Select the serial port to which the modem is connected under the “Connect Using“
option(usually COM1)
Select Baudrate of 9600 and Flow control as none. The board works on a serial
communication that can work within a wide range of speeds from 1200 bps to 1152000 bps,
You will have to send character ‘A’ (uppercase A) initially before you send any other
command to the modem
Enter “AT” in the Hyperterminal, the board will echo “OK” if everything is properly setup
The onboard Net LED(yellow) is used to display the network status
LED Off – SIM900 not running
64ms On 0.8 Sec Off - SIM900 unable to find network
64ms On 3 Sec Off - SIM900 found network
64ms On/ 300ms Off GPRS communication

77
Using the board:
You will have to use standard AT commands to interface with the modem. Here are some of the
common GSM operations that can be achieved using the board –
a) To Dial a Number
To dial a number you will have to send the command -> ATD NUM;

where NUM is the number you want to dial.

For instance to dial 9008620582, send the command ATD 9008620852;
To disconnect the number use the command – ATH
To redial a number use the command – ATDL

b) To Send a SMS
To send SMS send the command -> AT+CMGF=1

Modem will then send the text -> OK

Then send -> AT+CMGS="NUM"
where NUM is the number you want to send the SMS to.
Modem will then send the text - TYPE THE MESSAGE>
Enter the message and then press ctrl+z to send SMS
Here are a few useful AT commands for changing the settings –
To change the baudrate – AT+IPR=BAUDRATE(Ex 9600)
For more details refer AT commands Document page 33
To save the settings – AT&W
To restore factory defaults type AT&F then save it by sending AT&W

Using the PWR Key:

The Power Key (labeled PWR KEY on the modem) can be used to power on and off the module just
by a holding it down for a second. Putting the module in power down mode will drastically reduce
the modems power consumption. Pressing the Power Key when the module is off, will power on the
module and vice-versa. Please refer the SIM900 datasheet for more information.
When the modem is powered on the module will be in power off mode by default. You will have to
press and hold the PWR Key for a second to put it in power on mode to start using the modem to
make calls, send messages, etc.

78
If you want to put the module in power on mode automatically everytime the modem is powered on,
you will have to put the jumper named Power Key Disable next to the PWR Key.

Things to keep in mind when using the GSM Modem

The GSM Modem consumes a lot of current during transmission, make sure your power supply
can handle large currents without giving substantial voltage drops at the output
If the GSM Modem is unable to connect to the network, try coming to a place with clear
surroundings for best reception
The SIM Card holder used on the Modem is quite delicate and can easily break upon rough use.
Use it with care and caution.

FIG: SIM 900 PIN DESCRIPTION

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DC MOTOR:

DC automobiles are configured in lots of kinds and sizes, together with brush less, servo, and tools
motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic discipline stator.The magnetic
area is maintained the usage of both everlasting magnets or electromagnetic windings. DC vehicles
are maximum commonly utilized in variable pace and torque.
Movement and controls cowl a huge variety of components that during some manner are used to
generate and/or manage movement. areas inside this class encompass bearings and bushings,
clutches and brakes, controls and drives, force additives, encoders and resolves, incorporated motion
manage, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion components, linear position
sensing, motors (both ac and dc cars), orientation position sensing, pneumatics and pneumatic
components, positioning levels, slides and courses, energy transmission (mechanical), seals, slip
jewelry, solenoids, springs.
Motors are the devices that offer the actual speed and torque in a force machine. this circle of
relatives includes ac motor types (unmarried and multiphase vehicles, well-known, servo
automobiles, induction, synchronous, and gear motor) and dc motors (brush less, servo motor, and
equipment motor) as well as linear, stepper and air automobiles, and motor contactors and starters.
In any electric powered motor, operation is primarily based on simple electromagnetism. a modern-
sporting conductor generates a magnetic subject; when that is then placed in an outside magnetic
discipline, it will revel in a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the energy of
the outside magnetic area. as you're properly aware of from gambling with magnets as a kid,
opposite (north and south) polarities appeal to, at the same time as like polarities (north and north,
south and south) repel. the internal configuration of a dc motor is designed to harness the magnetic
interaction between a present day-sporting conductor and an outside magnetic field to generate
rotational motion.
Let's begin by way of looking at a easy 2-pole dc electric motor (here pink represents a magnet or
winding with a "north" polarization, whilst green represents a magnet or winding with
"south" polarization).

Fig: Block Diagram of the DC motor

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Each dc motor has six fundamental components -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator,
field magnet(s), and brushes. in most not unusual dc automobiles (and all that beamers will see), the
external magnetic area is produced by means of excessive-strength permanent magnets1. the stator
is the stationary a part of the motor -- this consists of the motor casing, in addition to two or extra
permanent magnet pole pieces. the rotor (together with the axle and connected commutator) rotates
with appreciate to the stator. the rotor consists of windings (typically on a center), the windings
being electrically linked to the commutator. the above diagram shows a commonplace motor layout
-- with the rotor inside the stator (subject) magnets.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is
carried out, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the
rotor will rotate till it is almost aligned with the stator's discipline magnets. as the rotor reaches
alignment, the brushes flow to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. given
our example -pole motor, the rotation reverses the route of modern via the rotor winding, main to a
"turn" of the rotor's magnetic discipline, and using it to maintain rotating.
In real life, even though, dc automobiles will constantly have greater than two poles (three is a very
commonplace variety). especially, this avoids "useless spots" in the commutator. you can believe
how with our instance two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly
aligned with the sector magnets), it'll get "stuck" there. in the meantime, with a two-pole motor,
there's a moment where the commutator shorts out the electricity supply (i.e., both brushes touch
each commutator contacts concurrently). this will be awful for the electricity deliver, waste power,
and harm motor additives as well. yet any other drawback of this kind of simple motor is that it
might exhibit a high amount of torque” ripple" (the quantity of torque it may produce is cyclic with
the position of the rotor).

Fig: Block Diagram of the DC motor having two poles only

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So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one via
an interactive animation (JavaScript required):

Fig: Block Diagram of the DC motor having Three poles

You may notice some things from this -- specifically, one pole is absolutely energized at a time
(however two others are "partially" energized). as each brush transitions from one commutator
contact to the subsequent, one coil's subject will hastily fall apart, as the following coil's field will
hastily charge up (this happens inside a few microsecond). we're going to see extra approximately
the results of this later, however in the interim you could see that that is an instantaneous end result
of the coil windings' collection wiring:

Fig: Internal Block Diagram of the Three pole DC motor

There is likely no better manner to look how a median dc motor is prepare, than by simply
beginning one up. Unluckily that is tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a superbly
precise motor. This is a primary three-pole dc motor, with 2 brushes and three commutator
contacts.
Dc geared motor:
High efficiency, excessive satisfactory low price dc motor with gearbox for robotics programs. Very
clean to use and to be had in trendy size. Nut and threads on shaft to without problems connect and
inner threaded shaft for effortlessly connecting it to wheel.
Functions
• forty five rpm 12v dc motors with gearbox
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• 5kgcm torque
• 3000rpm base motor
• 6mm shaft diameter with internal hollow
• 125gm weight
• same length motor available in diverse rpm
• no-load cutting-edge = 60 ma(max), load modern = three hundred ma(max)

IR SENSOR:

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.These
types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as a passive
IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal radiations.
These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by an infrared sensor.The
emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR photodiode
which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR LED. When IR light
falls on the photodiode, The resistances and these output voltages, change in proportion to the
magnitude of the IR light received.

IR Sensor Circuit Diagram and Working Principle

83
An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor module in an electronic device.
This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be used to detect obstacles and it is
one of the common applications in real time.This circuit comprises of the following components
 LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair
 Resistors of the range of kilo ohms.
 Variable resistors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode).

IR Sensor Circuit
In this project, the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits continuous IR rays to
be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the receiver varies depending upon
its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be analyzed as such, therefore this output can be
fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational amplifier (op-amp) of LM 339 is used as
comparator circuit.

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ALCOHOL SENSOR:

This module is made using Alcohol Gas Sensor MQ3. It is a low cost semiconductor sensor which
can detect the presence of alcohol gases at concentrations from 0.05 mg/L to 10 mg/L. The sensitive
material used for this sensor is SnO2, whose conductivity is lower in clean air. It’s conductivity
increases as the concentration of alcohol gases increases. It has high sensitivity to alcohol and has a
good resistance to disturbances due to smoke, vapor and gasoline. This module provides both digital
and analog outputs. MQ3 alcohol sensor module can be easily interfaced with Microcontrollers,
Arduino Boards, Raspberry Pi etc.

This alcohol sensor is suitable for detecting alcohol concentration on your breath, just like your
common breathalyzer. It has a high sensitivity and fast response time. Sensor provides an analog
resistive output based on alcohol concentration. The drive circuit is very simple, all it needs is one
resistor. A simple interface could be a 0-3.3V ADC.

Please review the datasheet for conversions to ppm then

Board Schematic

Features

 5V operation
 Simple to use
 LEDs for output and power
 Output sensitivity adjustable
 Analog output 0V to 5V
 Digital output 0V or 5V
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  Low Cost
 Fast Response
 Stable and Long Life
 Good Sensitivity to Alcohol Gas
 Both Digital and Analog Outputs
 On-board LED Indicator

Technical Data

 Concentration : 0.05 mg/L ~ 10 mg/L Alcohol

 Operating Voltage : 5V ±0.1
 Current Consumption : 150mA
 Operation Temperature : -10°C ~ 70°C

Pin Out

 VCC – Input Power Supply

 GND – Supply Ground
 DO – Digital Output
 AO – Analog Output

Applications

 Vehicle Alcohol Detector

 Portable Alcohol Detector

EYE BLINK SENSOR:

Description:
The Objective of this project is to develop a system to keep the vehicle secure and protect it by the
occupation of the intruders.

Scope:
We can’t take care of ours while in running by less conscious. If we done all the vehicles with
automated security system that provides high security to driver, also gives alarm.

86
Function:
This Eye Blink sensor is IR based , . The Variation Across the eye will vary as per eye blink . If the
eye is closed means the output is high otherwise output is low. This to know the eye is closing or
opening position. This output is give to logic circuit to indicate the alarm.
This can be used for project involves controlling accident due to unconscious through Eye blink.

IGNITIONKEY:

An ignition switch, starter switch or start switch is a switch in the control system of a motor
vehicle that activates the main electrical systems for the vehicle, including "accessories" (radio,
power windows, etc.). In vehicles powered by internal combustion engines, the switch provides
power to the starter solenoid and the ignition system components (including the engine control
unit and ignition coil), and is frequently combined with the starter switch which activates the starter
motor.

Historically, ignition switches were key switches that requires the proper key to be inserted in order
for the switch functions to be unlocked. These mechanical switches remain ubiquitous in modern
vehicles, further combined with an immobiliser to only activate the switch functions when
a transponder signal in the key is detected. However, many new vehicles have been equipped with
so-called "keyless" systems, which replace the key switch with a push button. The ignition locking
system may be sometimes bypassed by disconnecting the wiring to the switch and manipulating it
directly; this is known as hotwiring.

87
VOICEIC:

A sound chip is an integrated circuit (i.e. "chip") designed to produce sound. It might do this
through digital, analog or mixed-mode electronics. Sound chips normally contain things
like oscillators, envelope controllers, samplers, filters and amplifiers. During the late 20th century,
sound chips were widely used in arcade game system boards, video game consoles, home
computers, and PC sound cards.

88
 CHAPTER – 6 SOFTWARE

DESCRIPTIN

Arduino first and foremost is an open-source computer hardware and software company. The
Arduino Community refers to the project and user community that designs and utilizes
microcontroller-based development boards. These development boards are known as Arduino
Modules, which are open-source prototyping platforms. The simplified microcontroller board
comes in a variety of development board packages.

(From left to right) Lilypad, Sparkfun Pro Micro, Arduino Mega

The most common programming approach is to use the Arduino IDE, which utilizes the
C programming language. This gives you access to an enormous Arduino Library that is
constantly growing thanks to open-source community.
Arduino IDE is not: AVR Studio (Yes, we know you loved EE 346, but unfortunately you won’t be utilizing
Assembly Language)

Arduino Uno dev. board (Fritzing part graphic)

ARDUINO IDE: INITIALSETUP:

Download Arduino Integrated Design Environment (IDE) here (Most recent version: 1.6.5):
https://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Software

This is the Arduino IDE once it’s been opened. It opens into a blank sketch where you can start programming
immediately. First, we should configure the board and port settings to allow us to upload code. Connect your
Arduino board to the PC via the USB cable.

Arduino IDE Default Window

IDE: BOARDSETUP:

You have to tell the Arduino IDE what board you are uploading to. Select the Tools pulldown menu and go to
Board. This list is populated by default with the currently available Arduino Boards that are developed by
Arduino. If you are using an Uno or an Uno-Compatible Clone (ex. Funduino, SainSmart, IEIK, etc.), select
Arduino Uno. If you are using another board/clone, select that board.

Arduino IDE: Board Setup Procedure

IDE: COM PortSetup

If you downloaded the Arduino IDE before plugging in your Arduino board, when you plugged in the board,
the USB drivers should have installed automatically. The most recent Arduino IDE should recognize
connected boards and label them with which COM port they are using. Select the Tools pulldown menu and
then Port. Here it should list all open COM ports, and if there is a recognized Arduino Board, it will also give
it’s name. Select the Arduino board that you have connected to the PC. If the setup was successful, in the
bottom right of the Arduino IDE, you should see the board type and COM number of the board you plan to
program. Note: the Arduino Uno occupies the next available COM port; it will not always be COM3.

Arduino IDE: COM Port Setup

At this point, your board should be set up for programming, and you can begin writing and uploading code.
 Testing Your Settings: Uploading Blink

One common procedure to test whether the board you are using is properly set up is to upload the “Blink”
sketch. This sketch is included with all Arduino IDE releases and can be accessed by the File pull-down menu
and going to Examples, 01.Basics, and then select Blink. Standard Arduino Boards include a surface-mounted
LED labeled “L” or “LED” next to the “RX” and “TX” LEDs, that is connected to digital pin
13. This sketch will blink the LED at a regular interval, and is an easy way to confirm if your board is set up
properly and you were successful in uploading code. Open the “Blink” sketch and press the “Upload” button in
the upper-left corner to upload “Blink” to the board.

Upload Button:

Arduino IDE: Loading Blink Sketch

Arduino IDE: Uploading Blink

30
 Guide Summary:

1. Download and install Arduino IDE (https://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Software)

2. Plug in your Arduino Board

3. Select the proper board in the IDE (Tools>Boards>Arduino Uno)

4. Select the proper COM port (Tools>Port>COMx (Arduino Uno))

5. Open the “Blink” sketch (File>Examples>Basics>01.Blink)

6. Press the Upload button to upload the program to the board

7. Confirm that your board is working as expected by observing LED

Troubleshooting UploadingErrors:

Arduino has lots of community support and documentation. Your best bet when running into
unexpected problems is to search online for help. You should be able to find a forum where someone
had the same problem you are having, and someone helped them fix it. If you don’t find results, try
modifying your search, or post on the Arduino forums.

● My board isn’t listed under devices and is not recognized by IDE:

○ Most likely, this means that the ATMega328p chip is not programmed with the
Arduino firmware. If you have a separate working Uno available, you can
program the unprogrammed chip using this guide and a few jumper cables:
https://www.arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/ArduinoISP
○ If you don’t have a separate Arduino available, let me know and I can use
an Atmel Programmer to upload the firmware.
○ There may be hardware damage if you had the board plugged into USB and external
power at the same time. You may have to replace the chip if this is the case.

● Error Message: avrdude: stk500_recv(): programmer is not responding

○ Double-check that you are using the correct COM port.

30
 ○ Make sure that your Arduino Board is plugged into the computer.

● The IDE says “Uploading…” after pressing the upload button, but nothing is happening.
○ Double-check that you have the correct board selected in the Tools menu.
○ Depending on the size of your program, it may take a few seconds to upload. If you
feel like it is taking too long, it may be encountering an error and you can try
unplugging and plugging in the Arduino board.

CHAPTER 7
30
 RESULT
The project ” Accident Detection, Theft & Drive Protection using Intelligent Wireless Safety Helmet ”
best suits to accomplish following objectives:

Status of rider wearing helmet

With the help of Eye-blink sensor, driving without helmet can be avoided. As Eye Blink sensor is IR
based, the variation across the eye will vary as per eye blink. If the eye is closed means the output is
high otherwise output is low. If output is high then rider is not wearing helmet as shown in Figure and
vice-versa.

Figure Helmet detection result

30
Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) Test
Illegal consumption of alcohol during driving is 0.08 mg/L as per the government act but for
demonstration purpose, It is programmed to the threshold limit 0.04 mg/L. Threshold can be adjusted
using potentiometer.
If sensitivity of MQ-5 is more than 0.04 mg/L of alcohol in breath then ZigBee of Helmet unit will
communicate with vehicle unit and show ” alcohol detected ” as shown in Figure , thereafter ignition
system get switched OFF.

Figure Alcohol detection result

 CHAPTER-8
ADVANTAGES&DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES:

1. Detection of accident in remote area can be easily detected and medical

services provided in short time.

2. Simply avoiding drunken drive by using alcohol detector. it will reduces the

probability of accident.

3. Operates on solar as well as battery supply.

4. If helmet was stolen then we can start the bike by the password

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Gsm Network Is Required.

2. If Helment Is Stolen, The Bike Cannot Be Started.

66
 CHAPTER-9

APPLICATIONS

APPLICATION:

1. It can be used in real time safety system.

2. We can implement the whole circuit into small module later.

3. Less power consuming safety system.

4. This safety system technology can further be enhanced in car and also by replacing the helmet

with seat belt.

66
 CHAPTER-10
CONCLUSION

The outcomes of the project have showed that the bike

ignition will start if the helmet is worn. So, it will

automatically decrease the effect from accident and it can

avoid bike from being stolen. Arduino lilypad is good in

controlling all the system and the sensors. Executing the

wireless system which Radio Frequency Module to send

signal from helmet unit to the bike unit. Due to this wireless

connection is better than wired link.

34
 CHAPTER-11
FUTURE SCOPE

We can implement various bioelectric sensors on the helmet to measure various

activity. We can use small camera for the recording the drivers activity. It can be used

for passing message from the one vehicle to another vehicle by using wireless transmitter.

We have used solar panel for helmet power supply by using same power supply we can

charge our mobile.

35
 CHAPTER-12
REFERENCE

[1]. Safety measures for “Two wheelers by Smart Helmet and

Four wheelers by Vehicular Communication” Manjesh N 1,
Prof. Sudarshan raju C H 2 M Tech, ECEDSCE, JNTUA,
Hindupur Email: manjesh405@gmail.com HOD & Asst. Prof.
BIT-IT, Hindupur International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622
NATIONAL CONFERENCE on Developments, Advances &
Trends in Engineering Sciences (NCDATES09th & 10th
January 2015) [2]. Smart Helmet with Sensors for Accident
Prevention Mohd Khairul Afiq Mohd Rasli, Nina Korlina
Madzhi, Juliana Johari Faculty of Electrical Engineering
University Tecnology MARA40450 Shah Alam Selangor,
MALAYSIAjulia893@salam.uitm.edu.my) [3]. A Solar
Powered Smart Helmet With Multifeatures Mr.P.Dileep
Kumar1, Dr.G.N.Kodanda Ramaiah2 Mr.A.Subramanyam3,
Mrs.M.Dharani4 International Journal of Engineering
Inventions e-ISSN: 2278-7461, pISSN: 2319-6491 Volume 4,
Issue 10 [June 2015] PP: 06- 11) [4]. A Smart Safety Helmet
using IMU and EEG sensors for worker fatigue detection Ping
Li, Ramy Meziane, Martin J.-D. Otis, Hassan Ezzaidi,
REPARTI Center, University of Quebec at Chicoutimi
Chicoutimi, Canada Email: Martin_Otis@uqac.ca Philippe
Cardou REPARTI Center, Laval University Quebec, Canada
Email: pcardou@gmc.ulaval.ca) [5]. ISSN 2319 – 2518
www.ijeetc.comVol. 4, No. 2, April 2015© 2015 IJEETC.
[6]. Sudarsan K and Kumaraguru Diderot P (2014), “Helmet
for Road Hazard Warning with Wireless Bike Authentication
and Traffic Adaptive Mp3 Playback”, International Journal of
Science andResearch (IJSR), Vol. 3, No. 3, ISSN (Online):
2319-7064. [7]. Vijay J, Saritha B, Priyadharshini B,Deepeka

36
S and Laxmi R (2011), “Drunken Drive Protection System”,
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research,
Vol. 2, No. 12, ISSN: 2229-5518. [8]. Harish Chandra
Mohanta, Rajat Kumar Mahapatra and Jyotirmayee
Muduli(2014)”, Anti-Theft Mechanism System with
Accidental Avoidance and Cabin Safety System for
Automobiles”, International Refereed Journal of Engineering
and Science (IRJES), Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 56- 62.

37
 ABBRIVATIONS

Symbol Name

MAM Memory accelerometer module

VIC Vectored interrupt controller

FIQ Fast interrupt request

PWM Pulse width modulation

GPIO General purpose input/output

UART Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter

DLAB Data latch access bit

LCR Line control register

LSR Line status register

RDR Receiver data ready

SPI Serial peripheral interface

ADC Analog to digital converter

DAC Digital to analog converter

SSP Synchronous serial port

MOSI Master out slave in

RTC Real time clock

EINT External interrupt

DTR Data terminal ready

AHB Advanced high performance

38
ATLE Auto transfer length extraction

CTS Clear to send

RTS Request to send

DSR Data set ready

RI Ring indicator

39