Media-any means of transmitting information;the various forms, devices & systems that make up capacity to transfer experience from
experience from one person to another, can take many forms(anecdotes, fairy
mass communications considered as a whole, including newspapers, magazines, radio stations,
television channels & web sites; media as ‘news’, media as ‘practitioner’ or ‘journalist’. Media
content(news, advertising, entertainment);media as news(genres, features, stories),that make up
news in the modalities/channels of:
print(newspapers,magazines),broadcast(TV,radio),web(blogs,vlogs,youtube channels)(as opposed to
advertising &entertainment);discourse of the news media:2keys components;news story(or spoken
or written text),process(involved in producing the text);the news text:two vantage points:1)discourse
structure or linguistic function(genre make-up&conventions):narrative structure&style(Bell
1991,1994,1998),voicing(Bakhtin,1953,1986),framing(Goffman,1981),positioning of the media as
agonists&instigators of polarized public debate(Tanned 1998);2)its impact as ideology-bearing
discourse(critical discourse analysis);APPROACHES&METHODS:cross disciplinary methods:approach-
DISCOURSE ANALYTIC(hybrid of existing frameworks:pragmatics,conversation analysis, interactional
sociolinguistics,narrative),research area/method-NARRATIVE/PRAGMATIC/
STYLISTIC(critical,cognitive-conceptual,practice-based/ethnographic),research foci-participant,topic,
function&discourse structure,narrative structure of news discourse, the role of quotation&reported
speech, positioning&framing,variation in register&style,audience response to texts;approach-
SOCIOLINGUISTICS,research area/method-CRITICAL(comparative/cross-cultural),research foci-
variation in style,genre&register description&issues;approach-NONLINGUISTICS,research area-
COMPARATIVE/CROSS CULTURAL,research foci(role of culture&politics in the production of news,
variation in aspects of news practices),research area-MEDIA/COMMUNICATION STUDIES (cognitive-
conceptual),research foci(political science,media studies,cultural studies); AUDIENCE:the nature of
university of relationship between the news community&the’community of coverage’,traditionally
dydic(practitioner(journalist)-audience(reader/recipient)),audience-design,ADVERTISEMENTS:
purposive texts,goal-a specific effect on consumers, highly condensed,often suggestive rather than
explicit,prime examples of intertextuality;INTERTEXTUALITY:semiotics,the idea that the meaning of a
word/message arises in the way a text draws upon preavious meanings for that word used in previous
contexts, making sense of it requires background knowledge,a certain position,tracking the texts
intersenses:a network of interrelated senses&references,inhabiting certain positions of making
sense&therefore particular identities;THE NEWS;JOURNALISM:reporting of information about recent
events through the media,encompasses the ideas of new&interesting,traditional mode-print,
internet&IT-new news,3 goals of journalism:inform,educate,entertain; newsworthiness:selection&
priorization information by reference to what journalists assume is the common core of beliefs&
experiences their audience shares,timelines, proximity/location, topic&familiarity, prominence,
human interest(currency,conflict,consequence,oditty);TIMELINES:being ready to report promptly,the
news happened recently(since the last edition),it’s new,otherwise we’d call it ‘olds’, almost every story
has some timeliness aspect,ex:a 2-yold baby is hit by a driver in a village near Koprivnica;
PROXIMITY:closeness to the scene of the event,geographical proximity,relationship:things of interest
/concern to locals(cf.your newspaper samples),ideological or political proximity;TOPIC&FAMILIARITY
:some news lend themselves better than others to be regarded as news:topics that people can relate
to,elements that surprise,excite,move the audience;PROMINENCE:elected,wealthy,famous, ex. If i
choke on a pretzel, it’s not news. When the president does, it is.;HUMAN INTEREST:’warm&fuzzy’
feeling,ex:Olympic athlete bios, news&events ‘feed’ on themselves;CURRENCY:ex:a story on how
many accidents have occurred, at this intersection in the last few years;CONSEQUENCE:the subject of a
story has an impact on how people live their lives, a story on a new curfew that will take effect, or a
street that is under construction,or a scientific breakthrough;ODDITY:weird stuff, something bizarre
that just doesn’t fit anywhere else:Chinese woman takes man for walk on a leash;CONFLICT:war,
elections, sports,any time theres is a struggle,ex: in an election year a lot of stories about the election
is news,the conflict inSyrica is news;NEWSPAPER TYPES:broadsheet vs.tabloids, differ in: readership
news types language style features,format vs.price,tabloids-cheap, irrelevant language, local news or
gossip, strong visual impact (big pictures,word plays);broadsheet-more text,formal language,smaller
images,relevant topics;news stories are divided into hard news&soft news: HARD NEWS: generally
refers to ‘up-to-the-minute’ news&events that are reported immediately after it takes place,life
threatening,catastrophic events,economics,politics,war&crime(domains of hard news),serious,
urgent,provides readership with facts,reasons&implications(THE INVERTED PYRAMID STRUCTURE:
who,what,when,where,why(the most important info),supporting information(key notes),additional
facts(info&qotes),background&alternative explanations, least important info);SOFT NEWS: a soft news
story tries instead to entertain or advise the reader, less-immediate,life changing events (gossip about
celebrities of interest,fashion tips,new releases of technology etc.),usually of human interest (feed
general knowledge&satisfy curiosity), feature stories:hard news tend to be more serious whereas soft
news do not at all contain a serious tone; MEDIA CONVERGENCE:the press has become a highly visual
phenomenon(news as media events),blurring of distinctions between media forms,the
impact&consequences of the Internet;TODAY’S FOCUS:newspaper(page)design:a powerful form of
non-verbal communication, goal:finding a proper balance between content&visual elements that best:
addresses readers’ needs&preferences,satisfies thestrategic objectives of
authors&organizations;DESIGN:affects all aspects of lublication&participants in the WED process,
writers/journalists,editors,designers, focus on how every component of a story,including its design,
contributes to the meaning&interpretation of that story&is chosen precisely so as to convey a specific
kind of meaning;WRITER:prioritizes some information over others by using appropriate text
paragraphin,develop stories;EDITOR:integrates text,graphics&pictures,check the text for
accuracy,develop stories;DESIGNER:assigns pictures&graphics to the text;TRADITIONAL NEWSPAPER
FORMATS:broadsheet(575-600mm by 380mm);compact/tabloid(380mm by300mm),Berliner (470mm
by 315mm);HEADLINES:attract the readers’ attention, signal the relative importance of the text with
respect to the other stories, the type fonts used in the headlines&texts are chosen for their
anticipated effect on the reader;PICTURES/PHOTOS:to attract the readers’ attention&enhance the
story, to emphasize the particular approach the story takes,often by showing vivid details that
complement the verbal narration of events,photo manipulation?;CAPTIONS:provide a link between
the text&image,may contain the name of the person the news story is about,a brief description of the
event described,small type sizes,font may be different from that of the body copy;LAYOUT: choice
of:nameplate,typeface,photos(number,size,positioning),advertisements(presence or absence), text
layout(grids,captions,jumplines);SOURCING:basic tool in news reporting,locating&using a person or
publication to provide info that will be used for news stories,on-diary sources(the local level (the
police,fire brigade,schools&community groups,city council members,business leaders),the national
level(bodies of the government&the parliament,major political parties,trade unions)),off-diary
sources(other media&news agencies(specialist journals,newspaper cuttings, witnesses who may
provide details through personal accounts));ATTRIBUTION:attributing info to its source-telling readers
where the info comes from, used to:report any info that is not common knowledge, add
authenticity&authority to a story,empower readers to judge the quality of the info reported&whether
it comes from an impartial or a biased observer;SOURCE TYPES:qualified(experts,spokespersons),
unqualified(eyewitnesses),anonymous(e.g.sources near the president said..,royal insiders say..) THE
NEWS STORY:BASIC STORY STRUCTURE:to identify the urgent,the essential,to provide a simple,
clear,depersonalized&sober account of the events,the type of story to be told determines the type of
structure chosen; THE INVERTED PYRAMID:the most traditional story form, commonly used for hard
news, reverses the typical narrative style, most common news are on top&less important on the
bottom;THE HOURGLASS STRUCTURE:the top-summarizing the news,the turn-shifting to a narrative,
the narrative-telling the story;THE NARRATIVE STRUCTURE:works well with the police stories,
dramatic events(disasters, trials),stories that lend themselves to chronological narration, the idea that
true-life stories should be written using the codes&conventions of narrative,rather than
journalism,narrative=story telling,a way of recounting past events,draws upon the basic human
tales, jokes, comics,novels ets);KEY ELEMENTS:a narrator selects,organizes,recounts the events&
characters,provides the point of view for presenting the action&characters,a listener/audience (real
or implied),a structure of presentation of the events, often in chronological order(from beginning to
end),elements,narr.str.Labov(1997):abstract(signals what the story is about),orientation(informs on
the time&place of the events,identifies of the participants&their initial behaviour),complicating action
(creates the problem of disorder),the turning point(requires a response&involves further
action);evaluation(highlights the consequences for human needs&desires);resolution and/ or a coda
(returns the story to the initial state&provideds a moral);NARRATIVE characteristics:no (traditional)
lead;no 5 W’s, the first paragraph sets the scene,info is not presented in decreasing order of
importance, chronological order of presenting info(beginning,middle,end),vivid portrayal of
participants (action),personal voice(1st person reference),dialogue:vivid languageto increase
effectiveness of the story;IMPERSONAL STYLE:journalist should avoid:first-or second-person pronouns
unless they are part of a source’s direct quote,the use of emotive words or expressions that may imply
an evaluation or judgement (an interesting story, an impressive result, a tragic mistake, an avoidable
sentence,a silly remark),use:third-person pronouns(and quoting), emotive& evaluative expressions
only if quoted by sources; COHERENCE STRATEGIES:news stories:a series of well-organized and
logically connected sentences&paragraphs,coherence:the smooth, logical flow of sentences within a
paragraph& a series of paragraphs in a text, use conjunctions to achieve:
subordination(after,although,before,unless,whenever,in order that),coordination(and,but,for,or,
nor,yet,so,however,thus),repeat parallel structural patterns:1)sergeant Marcus smith directed the
operations.. 2) smith ordered the following analyses...3)smith added that;HEADLINE:functions to: grab
the readers’ attention, give readers an idea of the news story’s content&tone,often written after the
story,extracted from its lead or based on its main points, needs to be concise,informative while
attractive&appealing;THE GRAMMAR OF HEADLINES:synthetic language,absence of articles, omission
of (auxiliary)verbs, nominalizations:Zoo welcomes arrival of baby tapir;INTERTEXTUALITY: making
reference to other texts&additional knowledge to grasp the intended meaning behind a headline/
word play, pun;THE LEAD:news story introduction(its first&most important paragraph), gives readers
an immediate sense of what the article is about,makes them want to read more, typically one
paragraph long, a single sentence, less than 25 words,types of leads: direct (or summary) lead:for
conventional hard news stories(inverted pyramid structure),reveal immediately what the story is
about by providing a summary (5W’s),expand on the info contained in the headline, simple, concise
clear language-S-P-O sentences;delayed lead:typically used on softer news stories, can be a few
paragraphs long,introduces the story through an anecdote, a significant detail, which sets the scene or
evokes a mood, aim-to create a sense of suspense or anticipated surprise,ex: pets offered to help
internet addicts(the government is providing animal companions to help internet addicts recover from
their addiction),the tools of the trade:linguistic strategies journalists can use: choice of verbs,sentence
structure,active or passive voice;they allow the journalist to highlight info & convey a point of
view;’kiss&tell principle’(keep it short and simple), simple&concise language, short &native English
words over long&latinate ones,avoidance of complex sentences with subordinate clauses,package
your info well!;NOMINALIZATION:enables actions or events to be described as entities(i.e.things or
concepts) by transforming verbs (&adjectives)into nouns,results in fewer words, more concise
info,allow the writer to manage&control the info flow in a sentence,’hide the subject/ agent’&
depersonalize the news, non nominalized form:we donated to charity, this made us happy,
nominalised: our charity donation made us happy, language of journalism:avoid words that are not
necessary or carry little meaning,replace complex phrases with simple ones,journalists tend to use the
active voice,active:subject performs the action-assigns&clearly attributes responsibility for the
action,passive:subject undergoes the action-when the performer of the action is unknown or
irrelevant, to purposely leave the performer of the action unspecified,to avoid ascribing direct
responsibility for an action to anybody in particular,ex:paramilitaries open fire on hundreds of monks&
nuns at Tibet rally;QUOTING:direct quotes:the journalist is assumed to report the source’s words
exactly,indirect quotes:the journalist may not adhere strictly to the source’s words,although those
used may actually fairly close to the original ones,paraphrase:gives the gist of what the source said,but
in words that may be quite different from the original;direct quotes used to:give authority to a
statement,emphasize that a particular word or phrase represents the source’s& not he journalist’s
opinion,necessary when the article reports surprising&uncommon facts,or exceptional
finds&discoveries;identity:women’s magazines instead invite readers to take up identity positions
which may change from page to page&which often conflict,must fill their pages with role models,
values&problems which will appeal to their audiences,key words make up the parameters of the
experience of being a reader;PROCESESS: 1.doing processes-require an actor&sometimes are acted
upon,2.saying processes-an actor projects an object or another whole clause(e.g. she called his
name),3.sensing processes-almost same as saying processes except that they project feelings or
thoughts or whole clauses,4.being processes-express the qualities of something,or that something is
part of something else, or has identity with it;ADVERTISING:the promotion of goods&services for sale
through impersonal media?,any paid form of non-personal presentation&promotion of ideas, goods or
services through mass media such as newspapers,magazines, television or radio by any identified
sponsor;CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERTISING:by medium:print advertising(newspaper, magazines,
brochures,flyers),electronic advertising(television,radio:commercials;Internet),outdoor
advertising(billboards,kiosks,public transports,events),direct-mail advertising(through the Postal
Service&by e-mail),POP(point of purchase) advertising;AIMS OF ADVERTISING:get us to register the
producer’s(!) communication either for purpose of immediate action,make us more favourably
disposed in general terms to the advertised product or service;MEDIUM AS A CRUCIAL FACTOR:
means of mass communication (e.g.the printed book,TV,radio,newspapers,magazines),
(dis)advantages (in mutual comparison?),distinctions:1.situational,2.functional(cf books vs.
Newspapers vs. magazines);PARTICIPANTS IN ADVERTISING:writer-reader,sender-receiver, producer-
consumer,addresser-addressee,performer-audience;ATTENTION-SEEKING STRATEGIES:
images/paralanguage,layout&other graphological devices,verbal language;TYPOGRAPHY:choice of
font type,its spatial layout-punctuation?,suggest&are aimed at:a different effect,a different type of
audience;LINGUISTIC PUZZLES/WORDPLAY-INTERTEXTUALITY IN PAST&PRESENT: comparative
advertisement:advertisement in which a particular product,service(specifically)mentiones a
competitor(by name)for the express purpose of showing why the competitor is inferior to the product
naming it;advertising appeal:1.rational appeal;2.emotional appeal(fear appeal,positive
appeal,negative appeal,negative appeal,humor appeal);3.moral appeal;rational appeal:focus on the
consumer’s need for practically&functionally in a product,these ads tell consumers the benefits
associated with the purchase of a product(high quality appeals,low price appeals,long life appeals,
performance-minded appeals,easy-to-use oriented appeals);emotional appeal:related to an
individual’s psychological&social need for purchasing certain products&services,a)fear emotional
appeal-fear has been found to force individuals to ‘break from routine&pay close attention to the
external world’,including persuasive messages,advertisers sometimes use fear appeals to evoke this
emotional response&arouse consumers to take steps to remove the threat;positive emotional
appeal:positive emotions like humour,love,care,pride,joy are shown in ads to appeal to audience to
buy that product;negative emotional appeal:includes fear,guilt,shame to get people to do things they
should or stop;moral appeal-directed at the consumers’/recipients sense of what is right/proper:
often used to exhort people to support social&ethical clauses,e.g.social
awakening&justice,cleaner&safe environment,equal rights(e.g.women,LGBT..)protection of consumer
rights&awakening, target audience-a case of gender and/in advertising, intertextuality;COMPUTER-
MEDIATED DISCOURSE:the internet-world wide web:conceived by physicist Tim Berners-Lee at the
European Organization for Nuclear Reaserch (CERN)in 1990,implemented by 1991;development of
WWB:the early websites(mid-1990s)featured,single-authored, fairly static documents:personal
homepages,list of frequently asked questions(FAQs),e-commerce sites, late 1990s:shift toward more
dynamic,interactive websites, online news sites blogs.