ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION

AND DISTRIBUTION SAFETY:

Generation, Transmission and Distribution

There are three stages of electric power supply; generation, transmission and
distribution. Each of these stages involves distinct production processes, work
activities and hazards.

Most electricity is generated at 13,200 to 24,000 volts. The hazards of the electrical
power generation process include explosions and burns resulting from unexpected
equipment failure. Accidents can also occur when proper lockout/tagout procedures
are not followed. These procedures are in place to control energy sources. Before
performing maintenance on equipment where the unexpected energizing, start up or
release of stored energy could occur and cause injury, the equipment must be isolated
from the energy source and rendered inoperative. Failure to properly isolate these
energy sources (lockout/tagout) can result in serious injury or death.

After electrical power is generated, it is transmitted over distances using

transmission lines. Transmission lines are constructed between transmission
substations located at electric generating stations. Transmission lines may be
supported overhead on towers or they may be underground. They are operated at
high voltages. They send out large amounts of electrical power and extend over
considerable distances. When electricity comes out of a generating station, the
transmission substation located there steps up the voltages to the range of 138,000–
765,000 volts. Within the operating area, transmission substations reduce the
transmitted voltage to 34,500–138,000 volts. This power is then carried through lines
to the distribution systems located in the local service territory. The major hazards
present during the transmission process are electrical. Failure to maintain proper
approach distances or use appropriate protective equipment (rubber gloves and
sleeves) can result in serious injury or death. Falls also are a source of serious
accidents and can occur during maintenance work on overhead lines and while
working from poles or bucket trucks.

The distribution system connects the transmission system to the customer’s

equipment. The distribution substation reduces the transmitted electrical voltage to
2,400–19,920 volts. A distribution transformer further reduces the voltage. Hazards
related to distribution work also are electrical in nature. However, there is the
additional hazard of working in enclosed spaces (manholes and vaults) when dealing
with an underground distribution system.

Transmission and distribution substations are installations where the voltage, phase
or other characteristics of the electrical energy are changed as part of the final
distribution process. Electrocutions represent the primary safety hazard in
substations. Such accidents are generally caused by failure to maintain proper
approach distances to live electrical equipment and/or failure to use appropriate
personal protective equipment, including rubber insulating gloves and sleeves.

Safety Hazards of Generation, Transmission and Distribution

The Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Standard, also known
as the Electric Maintenance Standard Codified at 29 CFR 1910.269, was
promulgated by the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) on
31 January 1994. The Standard covers all electric utility workers involved in the
operation and maintenance of electric power generation, transmission and
distribution equipment and associated equipment. In addition, contract lineworkers,
contract line clearance tree trimmers and independent power producers are also
covered by the provisions of 1910.269. Other countries and regions have similar
regulations.

The hazards that are directly addressed by the OSHA standard are those of an
electrical nature which would cause electrocution and injuries resulting from electric
shock. The consequences of inadvertent contact with high-voltage electricity are
often death or serious injuries such as second- and third-degree burns, amputation of
limbs, damage to internal organs and neurological damage.

The standard also addresses fatalities and injuries associated with four other types
of accidents—struck by or struck against; falls from ladders, scaffolds, poles or other
elevations; caught in or between as a result of the accidental activation of machinery
during routine maintenance work; and contact with temperature extremes which can
occur when high-pressure steam is inadvertently released during maintenance work
on boilers. The Eastern Research Group (ERG), who prepared the Economic Impact
Study for the proposed OSHA regulation, reported that “there were more accidents
associated with transmission and distribution lines than with substations or power
generation installations”. ERG reported that in the transmission and distribution line
category, line workers, apprentice line workers and working line supervisors
experience the most fatal and serious lost-time accidents. Within the substation and
power generation category, substation electricians and general utility mechanics
experience the most accidents.

Accident Reduction

OSHA has estimated that in the United States an average of 12,976 lost workday
injuries occur annually to electric power generation, transmission and distribution
employees. They also report that 86 fatalities occur to these workers annually.
OSHA estimates that 1,633 lost workday injuries and 61 deaths can be prevented
annually through compliance with the provisions of this standard and the other
standards referenced in the final rule. OSHA breaks down the reduction in lost-
workday injuries and fatalities into two categories. The greatest benefit is expected
to be achieved in the electric utilities, which account for approximately 80% of the
fatalities. Utility contractors, including electrical contractors and line clearance tree
trimmers, and non-utility establishments account for the other 20%. OSHA also
expects the greatest reduction in lost workday injuries to be experienced by the
electric utilities. The second category of reduction relates to the referencing of
existing standards within 1910.269. For example, OSHA expects the employer to
provide medical services and first aid as specified in 1910.151.

Excavation operations shall comply with Subpart P of 1926; personal protective

equipment shall meet the requirements of Subpart I of 1910; personal fall-arrest
equipment shall meet the requirements of Subpart E of Part 1926; and ladders shall
comply with Subpart D of 1910. These are a few examples of the many other OSHA
standards referenced in the Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution Standard. OSHA believes that these references will foster an increased
recognition of the various applicable safety standards and, together with employee
training and emphasis on hazard recognition through job briefings, an additional 2
fatalities and 1,310 lost-workday injuries will be prevented annually.

General Provisions

The Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution Standard provides a

comprehensive approach for the control of hazards found in the electric utility
industry. This is considered a performance-based standard, where the employer has
the opportunity to implement alternative programmes provided he or she can
demonstrate that they provide a level of safety equivalent to that specified in the
standard. General provisions of the standard include: training requirements,
hazardous energy control (lockout/tagout) procedures for power generation,
transmission and distribution; enclosed space entry procedures and procedures for
working safely in underground installations; requirements for working on or near
exposed energized parts; requirements for working on overhead lines; grounding
requirements; line clearance tree trimming; procedures for working in substations;
and requirements for live-line tools, hand and portable power tools, and ladders and
personal protective equipment.

The standard is comprehensive and addresses all aspects of the operation and
maintenance of power generation, transmission and distribution equipment.

Significant Provisions

Some of the most significant provisions of the Standard include requirements for
employees to have emergency aid training, job briefings, and training in safety-
related work practices, safety procedures, and emergency procedures including
manhole and pole-top rescue. There are also specific clothing requirements for
working on energized equipment, and requirements for entry into underground
structures, as well as the control of hazardous energy sources. Another significant
element of the standard requires employers to certify that employees have been
appropriately trained and can demonstrate proficiency in the work practices
specified in the standard. A few of these elements are discussed in more detail below.

OSHA requires that employees performing work on or associated with exposed lines
or equipment energized at 50 volts or more be trained in first aid and
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). For field work involving two or more
employees at a work location, at least two employees shall be trained. For fixed work
locations such as a generating station, a sufficient number of employees must be
trained to ensure that an employee exposed to electric shock can be reached within
4 minutes.

The lead employee in a work group must conduct a job briefing with the employees
involved in the work before they start each job. The briefing must cover the hazards
associated with the job, work procedures involved, special precautions, energy
source controls and personal protective equipment. For repetitive and similar jobs
there must be one job briefing before the start of the first job of each day or shift.
When significant changes occur, another briefing must be conducted. Reviewing the
task at hand requires job planning, and job planning helps to reduce accidents.

OSHA also has required that the employer certify that each employee has received
the training required to be qualified and competent. The certification shall be made
when the employee demonstrates proficiency in the work practices, and shall be
maintained for the duration of an employee’s employment. Training alone is
inadequate. Proficiency must be demonstrated, generally through testing an
employee’s knowledge and understanding of the subject at hand. This will help
ensure that only qualified workers work on energized equipment.

There are clothing requirements for workers who are exposed to the hazards of
flames or electric arcs. The section requires that the employer ensure that each
employee who is exposed to the hazards of flames or electric arcs not wear clothing
that, when exposed to flames or electric arcs, could increase the extent of injury that
would be sustained by the employee. Clothing made from acetate, nylon, polyester
or rayon, either alone or in blends, is prohibited unless the employer can demonstrate
that the fabric has been treated to withstand the condition that may be encountered.
Employees may choose among cotton, wool or flame-retardant clothing, but the
employer must determine, based on the exposure, whether or not a natural fibre such
as cotton or wool is acceptable. Cotton or wool could ignite under certain
circumstances. Although this section of the standard has caused much controversy
throughout the industry, prohibiting the use of synthetics is a significant step towards
reducing injuries to electrical workers.

HAZARDS
Michael Crane
OSHA in its preamble to the Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution Standard (29 CFR Part 1910.269) states that “overall accident incidence
rates for the electric services industry (that is, the electric utility industry, SIC-491)
are slightly lower than corresponding rates for the private sector as a whole” and that
“except for electrical and fall hazards, electric utility employees face hazards that
are similar in nature and degree to those encountered in many other industries”
(OSHA 1994).The preamble goes on to cite US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)
files identifying the major sources of injury for electric utilities:

· falls

· overexertion

· being “struck by or against an object”, leading to sprains and strains, cuts,

lacerations and contusions/bruises.

The preamble specifically notes that electric shock does not constitute a major (or
frequently reported) injury category. However, labour, industry and OSHA files
reveal that electrical accidents are the most frequent type of fatal or serious injuries
in the electrical utility industry, followed by motor vehicle accidents, falls and
“struck by/crushed.”

Many other hazards confront electrical utility workers in performing the varied tasks
required by employers. The authors of individual articles in this chapter note many
of these in detail; here I will simply mention some of the hazardous exposures.

Musculoskeletal injuries are the most common injuries occurring in this physically
active workforce and include:

· vibration white fingers due to jackhammer use

· whiplash due to motor vehicle accidents

· low-back sprain

· head injury

· foot and ankle trauma

· torn medial meniscus.

Electrical workers can work in a wide variety of environments: they climb to the top
of rural transmission towers and splice cables in manholes under busy city streets;
they swelter on the top floors of the power stations in summer and shiver as they
repair overhead distribution lines downed by a blizzard. The physical forces that
confront the workers are enormous. A power plant, for example, pushes steam under
such pressure that a ruptured pipe may mean scalding and suffocation. Physical
hazards in plants in addition to heat include noise, electromagnetic fields (EMF),
ionizing radiation in nuclear facilities and asphyxiation in confined spaces. Asbestos
exposure has been a major source of morbidity and litigation, and concerns are being
raised about other insulating materials. Chemicals such as caustics, corrosives and
solvents are widely used. Plants also employ workers in specialized jobs like fire-
fighting or scuba diving (to inspect water intake and discharge systems), who are
exposed to the unique hazards intrinsic to those tasks.

While modern nuclear power stations have reduced workers’ radiation exposure
during normal operating periods, substantial exposure may occur during
maintenance and refuelling shut-downs. Excellent radiation monitoring capabilities
are required to properly protect workers entering radiation areas during these
periods. The fact that many contract workers may enter a nuclear plant during a shut-
down and then move on to another plant, creates a need for close coordination
between regulatory and industry authorities in monitoring the total annual exposure
for an individual worker.

The transmission and distribution systems share some of the hazards of the power
station, but also are characterized by unique work exposures. The enormous voltages
and currents intrinsic to the system predispose to fatal electric shock and severe
burns when workers ignore safety procedures or are inadequately protected. As
transformers overheat, they may catch fire and explode, releasing oil and possibly
PCBs and their breakdown products. Electrical substations share with power stations
the potential of exposure to insulation, EMF and confined space hazards. In the
distribution system, the cutting, burning and splicing of electrical cable expose
workers to lead and other metals both as dusts and fumes. The underground
structures which support the system must also be considered potential confined-
space hazards. Pentachlophenol, a pesticide used to preserve wooden utility poles,
is an exposure that is somewhat unique to the distribution system.

Finally, meter readers and outdoor workers may be exposed to street violence;
fatalities in the course of robbery attempts are not unknown to this workforce.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUES

Alexander C. Pittman, Jr.

All human activity has an environmental impact. The magnitude and consequences
of each impact varies, and environmental laws have been created to regulate and
minimize these impacts.

Electrical power generation has several major potential and actual environmental
hazards, including air emissions and water and soil contamination (table 76.4). Fossil
fuel plants have been a particular concern because of their emissions into the air of
nitrogen oxides (see “Ozone” below), sulphur oxides and the “acid rain” question,
carbon dioxide (see “Global climate change” below) and particulates, which have
recently been implicated as contributing to respiratory problems.

Table 76.4 Major potential environmental hazards of power generation

Type of plant Air Water* Soil

Fossil fuel NO2 PCBs Ash
SO2 Solvents Asbestos
Particulates Metals PCBs
CO Oil Solvents
CO2 Acids/bases Metals
Volatile organic compounds Hydrocarbons Oil
Acids/bases
Hydrocarbons
Nuclear Same as above plus radioactive
emission
Hydro Chiefly leachate from soils to water
behind dams

Disturbance of wildlife habitat

* Should include such “local” effects as increases in temperature of the body of water
receiving plant discharges and reductions in fish population due to the mechanical
effects of feedwater intake systems.

The concerns with nuclear plants have been with the long-term storage of nuclear
waste, and the possibility of catastrophic accidents involving the release of
radioactive contaminants into the air. The 1986 accident at Chernobyl, in Ukraine,
is a classic example of what can happen when inadequate precautions are taken with
nuclear plants.

With hydroelectric power plants, the main concerns have been leaching of metals
and disturbance of both water and land wildlife habitats. This is discussed in the
article “Hydroelectric power generation” in this chapter.

Electromagnetic Fields

Research efforts regarding electromagnetic fields (EMF) around the world have been
growing since the study by Wertheimer and Leeper was published in 1979. That
study suggested an association between childhood cancer and utility wires situated
near homes. Studies since that publication have been inconclusive and have not
confirmed causality. In fact, these subsequent studies have pointed to areas where
greater understanding and better data are needed to be able to start to draw
reasonable conclusions out of these epidemiological studies. Some of the difficulties
of performing a good epidemiological study are related to the problems of
assessment (i.e., the measurement of exposure, source characterization and levels of
magnetic fields in the residences). Even though the most recent study released by
the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences (1996)
determined that there was not enough evidence to consider electric and magnetic
fields threatening to human health, the issue will probably remain in the public’s eye
until the widespread anxiety is alleviated by future studies and research which show
no effect.

Global Climate Change

Over the past few years public awareness has increased concerning the impact that
humans are having on the global climate. Approximately half of all greenhouse
emissions from human activity are thought to be carbon dioxide (CO 2). Much
research on this issue on a national and international level has been and continues to
be done. Because utility operations make significant contributions to the release of
CO2 to the atmosphere, any rulemaking for the control of CO 2 releases has the
potential to impact the power generation industry in serious ways. The UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change, the US Climate Change Action Plan
and the Energy Policy Act of 1992 have created strong driving forces for the power
industry to comprehend just how it might have to respond to future legislation.

Presently, some examples of the areas of study taking place are: the modelling of
emissions, determining the effects of climate change, determining the costs
associated with any climate change management plans, how humans might benefit
by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and predicting climate change.

A major reason for concern about climate change is the possible negative impacts
on ecological systems. It is believed that systems that are not managed are the most
sensitive and have the highest probability for significant impact on a global scale.

Hazardous Air Pollutants

The US Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) has sent to the US

Congress an Interim Report on Utility Hazardous Air Pollutants, which had been
required by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. The EPA was to analyse the risks
from fossil fuel-fired steam electric generating facilities. EPA concluded that these
releases do not constitute a public health hazard. The report delayed conclusions
about mercury pending additional studies. A comprehensive Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) study of fossil-fired power plants indicates that greater
than 99.5% of the fossil power plants do not yield cancer risks above the 1 in 1
million threshold (Lamarre 1995). This compares with the risk due to all emission
sources, which has been reported to have been as high as 2,700 cases per year.

Ozone

Reduction of ozone levels in air is a major concern in many countries. Nitrogen

oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produce ozone. Because
fossil fuel power plants contribute a large component of the world’s total
NOx emissions, they can expect tighter control measures as countries tighten
environmental standards. This will continue until the inputs for the photochemical
grid models that are used for modelling tropospheric ozone transport are more
accurately defined.

Site Remediations

Utilities are having to come to terms with the potential costs of manufactured gas
plant (MGP) site remediation. The sites were originally created through the
production of gas from coal, coke or oil, which resulted in onsite disposal of coal tar
and other by-products in large lagoons or ponds, or in the use of offsite for land
disposal. Disposal sites of this nature have the potential to contaminate groundwater
and soil. Determining the extent of groundwater and soil contamination at these sites
and the means to ameliorate it in a cost-effective manner will keep this issue
unresolved for some time.

REFERENCES
Lamarre, L. 1995. Assessing the risks of utility hazardous air pollutants. EPRI
Journal 20(1):6.

National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences. 1996. Possible

Health Effects of Exposure to Residential Electric and Magnetic Fields. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.

United Nations. 1995. 1993 Energy Statistics Yearbook. New York: United Nations.

Uranium Institute. 1988. The Safety of Nuclear Power Plants. London: Uranium
Institute.

US Department of Energy. 1995. Electric Power Annual 1994. Vol. 1. Washington,

DC: US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Office of Coal,
Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels.

US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

1994. 29 CFR Part 1910.269, Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution: Electrical Protective Equipment; Final Rule. Federal Register, Vol. 59.
US Environmental Protection Administration (EPA). Interim Report on Utility
Hazardous Air Pollutants. Washington, DC: EPA.

Wertheimer, N and E Leeper. 1979. Electrical wiring configurations and childhood

cancer. Am J Epidemiol 109:273-284.