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Natural Gas Industry B 6 (2019) 58e63
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Research Article

Logging-based identification and evaluation of karst fractures in the eastern

Right Bank of the Amu Darya River, Turkmenistan*
Zhang Shudong a,*, Ren Xingguo b, Luo Li a, Guo Tingliang a & Liang Xusheng a
a
Southwest Branch, CNPC Logging Company Limited, Chongqing 400021, China
b
Geological Exploration & Development Research Institute, CNPC Chuanqing Drilling Engineering Co., Ltd., Chengdu, Sichuan 610051, China
Received 7 February 2018; accepted 25 June 2018
Available online 29 January 2019

Abstract

Carbonate gas reservoir in the eastern area on the Right Bank of the Amu Darya River, Turkmenistan, are of low-porosity and with developed
fractures. In this area, fractures control reservoir properties and natural gas production, and karst fractures are the most important kind of
fractures, so their identification and evaluation are quite necessary. In this paper, fracture types were identified and their occurrence was extracted
by using conventional logging and image logging data after core calibration. Then, the distribution characteristics of karst fractures and their
controlling effect on reservoirs were studied according to the identification results. And the following research results were obtained. First, karst
fractures are mainly of high angle with the characteristic of mono system and the interactive relation of genesis. Second, they are mainly
distributed in the upper XVhp layer of CallovianeOxford Stage and the lower XVa2eXVI layer. Third, they are the main effective fractures in
this area. The dissolved pores are connected effectively through the expanded karst fractures by dissolution, and consequently reservoirs of high
porosity and permeability are formed and they are the important reservoir type and high-yield gas reservoir in this area. Fourth, karst fractures
are related to high-yield wells and high-yield layers in this area, and they also control the distribution of high-yield reservoirs in the lower part of
CallovianeOxford Stage. It is concluded that by virtue of imaging logging and conventional logging data, karst fractures, unfilled fractures,
semi-filled fractures and fully filled fractures can be identified and evaluated better. Furthermore, the identification and evaluation of karst
fractures deepen the understanding on fractured reservoirs in this area, improve the reservoir evaluation effect, and provide the basis for the
target horizon and azimuth optimization of horizontal wells and highly deviated wells. And it is also indicated that the reservoirs with developed
karst fractures are the subsequent important drilling targets.
© 2019 Sichuan Petroleum Administration. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Turkmenistan; Eastern area on the Right Bank of Amu Darya; Carbonate gas reservoir; Karst fractures; Filling characteristic; Imaging logging; Log
response; Natural gas production rate

The eastern Right Bank of the Amu Darya River (hereinafter
referred to as “eastern block”), Turkmenistan, is located in the
Beschkent depression and the Southwest Gissar fold uplift,
which comprises a large-scale petroleum-rich zone containing
multiple localized structures, such as Agayry, Dashburun, West
*
This is the English version of the originally published article in Natural
Gas Industry (in Chinese), which can be found at https://doi.org/10.3787/j.issn.
1000-0976.2018.06.007.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhangsd-007@163.com (Zhang SD).
Peer review under responsibility of Sichuan Petroleum Administration.
Joramergen, Joramergen, Hojagurluk, East Hojagurluk, Tagara
and Gokmiyar [1e4]. Regional faulting and multi-stage tectonic
evolution have an important control on the development and
distribution of fractures [5e7]. The eastern block experienced a
relatively intensive tectonic compression, which weakens to-
wards the central block. Accordingly, the eastern block is
rich in fractures characterized by multiple formation stages,
various types and high development degrees, and reservoirs are
of moderate to low porosity and low to extra-low permeability
[8e12]. Well logging data interpretation reveals that, the eastern
block has higher shale content, thinner high-energy facies belt,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ngib.2019.01.008
2352-8540/© 2019 Sichuan Petroleum Administration. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 Zhang SD et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 6 (2019) 58e63
and less well-developed lithofacies-controlled dissolved
poresevugs than the central block. Fractures have a relatively
strong control on reservoir distribution and production.
1. Core and logging characteristics of different types of
fractures
1.1. Correlation of core and logging characteristics of
different fracture types
Based on the latest results of core observation and well
logging interpretation, macro-fractures in the study area can be
classified into 4 types: fully filled fractures, semi-filled frac-
tures, karst fractures and unfilled fractures. They were formed
in different periods. Fully filled fractures have various types
and complex genesis, and were formed earlier than the other
types of fractures. Semi-filled fractures are of high angle or
vertical with large aperture, and were formed at the early
stage. Karst fractures are mainly of high angle with the
characteristics of mono system, and were formed at the early
stage or early to late stage, prior to or during the large-scale
karstification, consisting of fractures formed by groundwater
dissolution-induced enlargement and dissolved poresevugs
formed along both sides of fracture surface (Fig. 1). Unfilled
fractures are mainly of oblique to high angle with the char-
acteristics of mono system, and were formed at the late stage,
which are basically free of dissolution or filling effects. They
are interpreted to be the result of the late-stage tectonic
movement, corresponding to the period following the forma-
tion of large-scale karstification or hydrocarbon migration
stage or the later stage (Fig. 2). Karst fractures and unfilled
fractures are deemed to be effective, followed by semi-filled
fractures. Fully filled fractures are ineffective [13]. Well
Fig. 1. Characteristics of early-stage karst fractures in Well Jor21 (wide fractures with dissolution on both sides).
59
logging interpretation of multiple wells suggests that, effective
fractures have their own development and distribution laws
and are independent from one another in a single interval.
1.2. Reservoir characteristic of karst fractures
The value of fractures lies in connecting dissolved
poresevugs as much as possible and enhancing reservoir
permeability. Different combinations of fractures and dissolved
poreevugs make different levels of contribution to enhancing
the reservoir permeability. In the study area, there are 3 com-
bination modes of fractures and dissolved poresevugs: (1)
unconnected fractures and dissolved poresevugs (Fig. 3a); (2)
fractures intersecting dissolved poresevugs (Fig. 3b); and (3)
dissolved poresevugs formed along fractures (Fig. 3c). These
combination modes successively yield increasing better effec-
tiveness of reservoir. Karst fractures correspond to Mode (3),
unfilled fractures to Mode (2) and sometimes Mode (1), and
semi-filled fractures mostly to Mode (1).
Formation of karst fractures is the result of relatively good
matching of the occurrence periods of fracturing and kar-
stification. Fractures provide favorable pathways for ground
water. Dissolution occurs first along fracture surfaces and then
is enlarged continuously to form wide dissolution belts
(Fig. 3c). Accordingly, an integrated reservoir permeability
system comprising dissolved poresevugs and fractures with
high porosity and high permeability can be formed.
As to the relationship between unfilled fractures and
poresevugs, karst vugs were formed earlier in the strata than
fractures; fractures intersect poresevugs, and there is no ge-
netic relation during karstification. Thus, only partial
poresevugs are connected by fractures, karst vugs are isolated
from fractures, and permeability of partial reservoir spaces can
60 Zhang SD et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 6 (2019) 58e63
Fig. 2. Characteristics of late-stage unfilled fractures in Well Aga22 (high-density and low-width fractures).
be enhanced. A good matching of fractures and poresevugs
provides the possibility of high-yield gas well [14,15], and a
bad matching yields poor reservoir.
For example, numerous dense fractures present in the
3293e3318 m reservoir interval of Well Aga22 have relatively
high aperture and low porosity, as shown on well logs.
Poresevugs are partially connected by fractures, indicating a
typical reservoir containing late-stage unfilled fractures. This
interval revealed a tested gas production rate of 28.1  104 m3/
d (Fig. 2).
Karst fractures in the 3212e3234 m interval of Well Aga23
have high aperture and moderate porosity, as shown on well
logs. Dissolved poresevugs developed along fractures to form
high-permeability dissolution belts, which are typical reser-
voirs formed as a result of fractures enlarged by dissolution.
Resistivity imaging correlation reveals that, this well encoun-
ters numerous dissolved poresevugs and fractures. Due to the
high dissolution degree along both sides of fracture surface,
good connectivity between fractures and vugs, and presence of
numerous karst fractures in the same well interval, the well
revealed a tested gas production rate of 121.89  104 m3/d,
much higher than that of Well Aga22 (Fig. 4).
2. Logging-based identification of karst fractures
2.1. Imaging logging
Karst fractures formed by groundwater-induced enlarge-
ment exhibit quite evident logging features and hence are
readily recognized. These fractures are relatively wide and the
electrical characteristics vary greatly along fracture surfaces
and between fractures. Dissolved poresevugs are distributed
along the direction of fractures, rather than along layers; as a
result, the fracture surface boundary becomes unclear and
appears in the form of dissolution belt, with quite evident
interior heterogeneous dissolution and irregular electrical
characteristics of dissolution. Both dissolution and filling
occur in partial fractures. Fractures are mainly of high angle
and present in groups or systems. In Well Jor21, for example,
Fig. 1a shows that the karst fracture overlained by the
mudstone layer passes through the top surface of the limestone
section, and the dissolution belt formed is relatively narrow;
the fracture is within the low-energy sedimentary environment
at the top, under which the limestone deposited is fine-grained,
diversified in lithology, argillaceous, and unfavorable for
karstification. Fig. 1b shows another fracture present in the
low-energy facies belt, where the rock deposited is fine-
grained and relatively less dissolved. In either case, this type
of fracture development can be interpreted as effective reser-
voir. Moreover, Fig. 1(c and d) shows the fracture present in
the high-energy facies belt, where karstification is quite active,
rock is coarse-grained and relatively highly dissolved [16,17],
and a relatively wide dissolution belt is formed. Dissolution
degree and width, however, vary at both sides of fracture
surface. Meanwhile, partial filling effect is observed.
2.2. Conventional well logging
Karst fractures are identified with 3 conventional well
logging characteristics. First, high-quality reservoir exhibits
the well logging responses of high neutron porosity, high
density porosity and high sonic porosity, which are different
 Zhang SD et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 6 (2019) 58e63 61

Fig. 3. Three combination modes of karst vugs and fractures.

from the low porosity characteristics of fractures. Second, the
sonic log shows a large cycle skip and the sonic porosity is
much higher than the neutron porosity. Third, RLLD and
RLLS decrease largely and exhibit a quite clear positive
variance [18]. A typical example comes from the
3225e3228 m interval of Well Aga23 (Fig. 4).
3. Distribution of karst fractures
3.1. Vertical distribution
the similar dip and the same trend (as shown in Fig. 1aec, the
interpreted fracture dip on the right trace is consistent with the
trend). Karst fractures mainly trend NE or SW, and their strike,
however, is basically NWeSE, which suggests that, they are
distributed in groups or systems and have a genetic relation
with one another [19]. Since karst fractures are more widely
spaced than late-stage unfilled fractures, it can be concluded
that, karst reservoirs are usually large-scaled, extend over a
long distance, cover a broad area, and hence have influence on
reservoir distribution over a broad area.

Karst fractures are mainly distributed on the top or middle
or upper part of the XVhp layer of CallovianeOxford Stage,
followed by between XVa2 and XVI layer, and a few in the
XVa1 layer. According to statistics, this type of fractures is
mainly of high angle and appears in groups or systems, sharing
3.2. Planar distribution
Karst reservoirs are present primarily in the Joramergen
(Wells Jor21 and WJor21), Hojagurluk (Wells Hojg21,
Hojg22, eHojg21 and eHojg22) and Agayry (Well Aga23)

Fig. 4. Interpretation results of fracture and pore development in Well Aga23.

62 Zhang SD et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 6 (2019) 58e63
areas, as well as some wells drilled in the central block, such
as Wells Pir23, Yed21, San21, Yal21, Ber22, wOja21 and
Bush21.
4. Control of karst fractures on reservoir
4.1. Control of karst fractures on reservoir development
Since karstification-induced dissolution occurs along frac-
tures, the dissolved poresevugs and fractures comprise a
highly connected reservoir permeability system, and large-
scale fractures provide a high-permeability pathway [20],
which have greatly enhanced the connectivity and oil & gas
productivity of reservoir, forming the major high-yield reser-
voir type in the eastern block. Usually, an effective reservoir
can be formed by a fracture after dissolution. For example, a
dissolved fracture present at 3256 m in Well Aga23 is inter-
preted to be a gas layer (Fig. 4). In addition, this type of
fracture allows for the formation of reservoir, even high-yield
reservoir, although it is present in the low-energy facies belt
(the interval with relatively high GR). For example, 4 fractures
are present in the 3210e3252 m interval (XVa2eXVI layer) of
Well Jor21, which reveals a tested gas production rate of
118  104 m3/d.
4.2. Control of karst fractures on vertical reservoir
distribution
Unlike reservoirs formed by dissolution along layers,
dissolved poresevugs of karst fractures are distributed along
fracture surfaces, which appear in the form of mono system,
and likewise reservoirs formed are present along fracture
surfaces in groups and systems. Therefore, reservoirs are
formed along the extension of fractures. The length, dip,
orientation and group and system of fracture control the
spatial distribution of this type of reservoirs. In particular,
the development of effective reservoirs in the lower part
(XVa1eXVI layer) is related to the development of this type
of fractures, which is the reason why high-production res-
ervoirs are formed in high-GR strata in the lower part. This
suggests that, the development and distribution of reservoirs
in the lower part are controlled jointly by the development
degree of dissolved poresevugs and distribution of effective
fractures, which are a significant factor for the discontinuous
lateral distribution of reservoir in the lower part [21]. For
example, the lower part reservoir is present in the relatively
deeply buried XVI layer in Wells Hojg22 and eHojg21,
relatively shallowly buried XVa2 layer in Well eHojg22 and
more shallowly buried XVa1 layer in Well Gok21, due to the
fact that the fractures are encountered by wells at different
locations.
4.3. Control of karst fractures on production
High-yield wells are closely related to the development of
karst fractures. Wells that encounter karst fractures usually
yield high production, and the majority of production of high-
yield wells is delivered by reservoirs formed by karst fractures.
According to statistics, 6 of 9 wells that produce over
50  104 m3/d of gas encounter the reservoirs formed by karst
fractures, accounting for 66.7%; 11 of 19 interpreted layers
that produce over 50  104 m3/d of gas can be classified as
reservoirs formed by karst fractures, accounting for 58%.
These data suggest that, karst fractures make a great contri-
bution to high-yield wells in the eastern block.
5. Conclusions
1) Effective fractures formed in the eastern block are
dominated by karst fractures. Karst fractures enlarged by
dissolution provide an effective connection to dissolved
poresevugs, forming reservoirs with high porosity and
high permeability. This type of reservoir is the major
high-production gas layer in the eastern block.
2) Karst fractures, unfilled fractures, semi-filled fractures
and fully filled fractures can be well identified and
evaluated with imaging logging and conventional well
logging data.
3) Karst fractures are mainly distributed in the upper part
of the XVhp layer and XVa2eXV1 layer. They are
mainly of high angle and appear in groups and systems.
Highly-deviated well or horizontal well is recommended
for increasing the possibility of encountering this type of
reservoir.
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