User Guide for Coal and Coal Based Power

Generation

India Energy Security Scenarios, 2047

1
 Contents

I. Coal Supply Scenario

I. a Introduction- Brief history of sector evolution in India......................................................................... 3

I. b Drivers & Enablers....................................................................................................................................................5

I. c Cost and Land requirement for Coal Mining.................................................................................................5

I. d Assumptions................................................................................................................................................................5

I. e Trajectories..................................................................................................................................................................6

II. Coal based power generation

II. a Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................9

II. b Drivers and Enablers.................................................................................................................................................10

II. c Cost and land requirement for coal thermal power plants.........................................................................11

II. d Assumptions....................................................................................................................................................................12

II. e Capacity Addition trajectories..................................................................................................................................12

II. f Assumptions for efficiency of coal based power generation..........................................................................13

II. g Trajectories for efficiency.............................................................................................................................................14

III. References & Bibliography.................................................................................................................................................15

2
I. Coal Supply scenario

I. a Brief history of sector evolution in India

Coal (including lignite) contributes over half of India’s primary commercial energy. Coal is being
considered as the best option for commercial use due to its purportedly abundant indigenous
availability. After nationalization of coal mines in 1973, coal production of India improved significantly
from about 78 million tons in 1973 to 582 million tons in 2012-13, as shown in the following figure
(Chakrabarti & Choudhary, 2004; CCO, 2012, p. 1).

Figure 1: Growth of Coal production in India

The coal sector in India is governed by the Ministry of Coal, which is part of the Government of India.
Coal India Ltd. (CIL), a public sector entity, is the world’s largest coal producer and produces nearly
80% of India’s coal. CIL has 8 subsidiaries, of which one is the Central Mine Planning and Design
Institute (CMPDI) which is responsible for detailed exploration of coal reserves in the country.
Singareni Collieries and Coalfields Ltd. (SCCL) is another, smaller public sector entity that produces
coal. Since around 1990, captive mining of coal for specific end-use sectors such as cement and power
was allowed, and several blocks have been allocated to such end-use companies. Coal is mainly
consumed by the power sector (69%) followed by steel, cement etc.

3
 Figure 2: Sector Wise consumption/supply of coal for 2011-12

Due to a combination of reasons such as falling prices of renewable energy, increasing pressures of
climate change and depleting resources, the share of renewable energy is gradually expected to
increase in the coming years. Nevertheless coal is likely to remain India’s most important source of
energy for the coming decade or two.

The increasing trend of coal production over the last few decades slowed down in the last 3-4 years due
to several factors like planning and governance issues, inefficiency of coal mining, issues with
environmental clearances etc. (Prayas Energy Group, 2013). As a result of this and continued significant
growth in demand from coal consumers, its imports have been increasing briskly in the fast few years.

Total coal imports increased by about 2.7 times in last 5 years from 50 MT in 2007-08 to 137 MT in
2012-13 (CCO, 2009, p. 4.35; PIB, 2013). The share of imports will further increase in the near future
considering swift capacity addition in various coal consuming sectors such as power generation,
cement, steel etc. A large number of captive coal blocks with reserves of about 43.5 billion tons were
allocated during 1993-2011, but the production from these has also been well short of expectations.

Official numbers of coal resources and reserves have been published every year by CMPDI using the ISP
procedure. According to this, total proved reserves in 2012 were a substantial 123 billion tons (CMPDI,
2012). However, there is some controversy about the quantity of actual techno-economically mineable
coal reserves in the country (Chand, 2008). Therefore, the long term role of coal in the country is still
not entirely clear.

4
I. b Drivers and Enablers

India’s current coal production is predominantly (about 90%) from opencast mining. Though coal
mining in India has been using old and inefficient mining technologies, coal mining companies in India
have recently begun to adopt latest technologies and practices. The major drivers for India’s coal
production will be as follows:

1. Availability of low-priced Indian coal leading to significant increase in coal demand mainly from
power generators and also from other consumers like cement, steel etc.
2. Coal production from captive blocks after resolving issues related to block allotment,
environmental and forest clearances, land acquisition, mining lease etc.
3. Streamlining of planning and governance processes by well co-ordinated approach
4. Deployment of new technology like long wall and large capacity heavy earth moving machinery
(HEMM) and better financing for the capital intensive coal sector
5. Efficiency enhancement of manpower and equipment

Infrastructure development for coal storage, washing, transport etc.

I. c Cost and Land requirement for Coal Mining:

Land: Due to large variance in geographical characteristics and depth of coal seams, the area required
for coal mining for unit coal production varies from mine to mine. The typical range of land required for
coal mining in India currently varies from 6 ha per million tons to 122 ha per million tons of extracted
coal (Green Clearance Watch, 2013).

Cost: It is taken as weighted average price of coal paid by the end user i.e. including taxes, duties etc. but
excluding transport. In 2012 year, the cost as about 1726 Rs/ton (173 Rs Cr/MTPA) of coal. It is
estimated to reach 2920 Rs/ton in 2047 in real terms with average CAGR of 1.5% for 35 years.

I. d Assumptions

Considering the significant role to be played by coal for India, four coal production levels are projected
till 2047 bearing in mind the impacts of various factors like Indian and international coal reserves and
trade situation, policy decisions, climate change deliberations, role of renewable energy etc. The future
supply of coal has been estimated under differing scenarios of 3 factors namely- ability to produce
enhancements in coal reserves and mines. Common assumptions across the scenarios are as follows:

i. Coal is intended to mean both coal as well as lignite.

ii. The average life of a mine is 30 years
iii. The current mine-ability (ratio of India’s techno-economically extractable reserves and proved
reserves) of Indian mines is 34.6%, as calculated from CMPDI’s UNFC classification of CIL’s
reserves (CMPDI, 2011; CIL, 2010).

5
 I. e Trajectories

Level 1 : Level 1 assumes that due to increasing coal prices, environmental concerns and climate change
considerations, only the currently operating, on-going and planned coal mining projects by CIL (437
MTPA) and SCCL (41 MTPA) and currently allocated captive blocks (43 billion ton geological reserves)
will come online (CIL, 2012; SCCL, 2012; Ministry of Coal, 2011). This is our Least Effort Scenario.
Production from current (non-captive) mines will reduce by 17% every 5 years (consistent with mine
life of 30 years) due to closure of mines. Production from captive blocks will start reducing from 2027
onwards as most of the currently producing captive blocks are new. Coal reserves and mine-ability of all
reserves will remain at present values. In this scenario, coal production gradually increases from 582
MTPA in 2011-12 to peak of 866 MTPA in 2037 and then it will start declining and reach 619 MTPA in
2047. About 85% of the mineable coal reserves will have been extracted by 2047 in this scenario as no
new reserves are added and there is no improvement in mine-ability.

Level 2: Level 2 projections are consistent with realistic (our Determined Effort Scenario) projected
scenario based the 12th Five Year Plan till 2022 (Ministry of Coal, 2011, pp. 54,78,79). Given that the
production for 2012-13 fell about 18 million tons short of the target of 575 million tons (Ministry of Coal,
2013), we assume that the total shortfall from the target in 2017 would be 50 million tons. This results in
an annual production increase of about 5% per annum up to 2017, and about 4% up to 2022. Proved coal
reserves will grow at a reduced pace of 1% p.a. as most of the prognosticated coal bearing area (75%)
has been explored. There would be some improvement in mine-ability due to technological
improvement. In this scenario, coal production will grow to peak at 1195 MTPA in 2037 and decline
marginally by 2047 to 1163 MTPA. About 62% of mineable coal reserves would have been extracted by
2047.

Level 3: This is the Aggressive Effort Scenario. Level 3 is consistent with the optimistic scenario
projections till 2022 in the 12th Five Year Plan (Ministry of Coal, 2011, pp. 54,78,79), tempered by
slower-than-expected increase in production. The rate of increase of production reduces slightly going
forward. Proved coal reserves will grow at about 1.3% p.a. and there would also be further improvement
in mine-ability. With these positive conditions for coal based energy supply, coal production will be
1407 MTPA in 2047. About 55% of mineable coal reserves would have been extracted by 2047.
Level 4: Level 4 is the most optimistic, our Heroic Effort Scenario, assuming full encouragement for
coal based energy supply due to efficient technology and manpower, infrastructure availability and
streamlining of regulatory processes. Proved coal reserves will grow at 1.5% p.a., production will reach
about 1400 MTPA in 2032 as anticipated in the Integrated Energy Policy document (Planning
Commission, 2006, p. 45), and mine-ability will increase better than in other levels. In this scenario, coal
production will increase to about 1602 MTPA in 2047, almost consistent with the high-case scenario of
global coal production as per Global Coal Production Outlook (Hööka, Zittel, Schindler, & Aleklett, 2010) .
In this scenario, about 48% of mineable coal reserves would have been extracted by 2047.

6
 Figure 3
The comparison of these four coal production levels with historic production of five top coal producing
countries is shown as below.

Figure 4

7
The above exercise simulates the likely coal production under most optimistic extremities. It indicates
that India needs to ramp up the mine-ability of our reserves and be able to produce more as well. In
favourable conditions large volumes of coal would have remained unexploited even at the end of the
study period. As India plans large expansions to its coal based thermal power capacity, it also faces
large coal imports. The growth domestic coal production is the key to both energy availability and
security.

II. Coal based power generation

II. a Brief history of sector evolution in India

Coal-based thermal power generation is considered as the best option for India due to the supposedly
abundant indigenous availability of coal with proved reserves of about 123 billion tons (CMPDI, 2012).
So, its installed capacity in India has increased from 756 MW in 1947 to about 125,000 MW in 2012,
with coal-based capacity contributing 58% of India’s power generation capacity and 71% of total
electricity generation in 2012. Significant capacity addition was achieved in the last decade, which
increased coal based capacity from 70 GW in 2002 to 125 GW (CEA, 2013, pp. 8,20,50,54). The overall
coal based capacity since independence (1947) is shown in following figure.

Figure 1: Total installed and Coal based power generation capacity

But, still India’s low per-capita electricity consumption of around 900 kWh per year (1/3rd of world’s
average) and low levels of electricity access (almost 32% of the population without electricity access
and poor quality of supply in rural areas) demands significant addition in electricity supply (CEA, 2013,
p. 1; PIB, 2012). For satisfying this demand, substantial coal based capacity addition is planned, with
about 63GW of coal based capacity proposed to be added by 2017 (Planning Commission, 2012).

8
Power is a ‘concurrent’ subject in India that is handled by both the Government of India as well as State
Governments. The Electricity Act of 2003 introduced many reforms in the sector such as de-licensing
power generation (allowing any private sector operator to set up a power plant) and introducing
independent regulatory commissions in states and the Centre to fix tariffs, resolve disputes and oversee
the sector. The National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), a public sector entity, is India’s largest
coal-based power producer though several private players in coal-based power generation since the
Electricity Act was passed. Power distribution is handled by distribution utilities, which are
predominantly state owned, though some private distribution utilities have also established their
presence.

In 2012, almost entire coal based capacity was sub-critical technology based, which is very inefficient.
This was mainly due to the unavailability of new efficient technologies in India, and cost constraints. In
addition, recently, the power sector in India has been faced with a shortage of domestic coal availability,
resulting in power generators seeking higher tariffs, increased coal imports etc. Distribution utilities in
India are also financially stressed, and the Government of India has recently proposed a Financial
Restructuring Package for them which is being rolled out. The recent power sector reforms have had a
salutary effect both on ramping up generation capacity and ushering in efficient technologies in the
power generation sector. Imports of high quality thermal coal have also helped in setting up large
highly efficient thermal power plants.

II. b Drivers and enablers

Demand for electricity especially coal based generation from domestic, agriculture and industrial
sectors will increase significantly in the coming period.

Figure 2
1. Coal based power generation is still the cheapest in India and likely to be so for the near future.
2. Availability of domestic coal supply or relatively affordable coal imports
3. Coal based power is likely to remain the most suitable option for base load supply.
4. Generation technology in India currently uses old sub-critical technology, though more efficient
technologies like super critical, ultra super critical and Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
(IGCC) technologies are likely to be introduced in the future.

9
 5. Coal companies adopt better social and environmental practices and gain greater acceptance
from local communities

II. c Cost and Land requirement for Coal based thermal power plants:

Land: Land requirement for Indian coal based plants is assumed as 279 ha/GW whereas the same for
imported coal based plants is almost half that is 154 ha/GW due to its lower ash content (CEA, 2007).

Cost: The capital costs of sub-critical (SubC) and supercritical (SC) TPPs, which are being used in India,
are in the range of 4500-5000 and 5500-6000 Rs Cr/GW respectively (MoEF, 2012). The costs for more
efficient technologies like ultra-supercritical (USC) and Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)
are not available for India. So, their costs for India have been estimated based on their international
costs relative to international costs for other coal based generation technologies. The estimated capital
cost of a USC plant using Indian coal is about 25% higher than sub-critical plants (Toshiba Corporation,
2012, p. 7). For IGCC technology, the capital costs in United States cost are 29-69% higher than a USC
plant (US EIA, 2013). So, the capital costs are as given in following table.

Technology wise capital costs for coal TPP (Crore INR/GW) for India

Technology of TPP Low estimate High estimate

SubC 4500 5000

SC 5000 5500

USC 5625 6500

IGCC 7256 10985

Table 1

The operation and maintenance costs are assumed to be 3% per year of capital cost.

10
II. d Assumptions

Given the importance of coal-based generation in India’s energy mix, it is necessary to estimate the
future coal based electricity generation capacity, electricity generation and corresponding coal
requirement. Different trajectories are provided for coal-based power capacity addition and adoption of
advanced technologies for coal-based power generation. At the present exercise is aimed a choice of
energy pathways that enhance energy security of India, higher levels (Level 4) suggest larger supplies
of domestic energy. Coal based power generation will be dependent on capacity additions as well as
efficiency of thermal power plants. It may be noted that in the IESS, 2047 the coal supplies needed for
the tool is first supplied by domestic coal, and the balance is drawn from imports.

 The capacities mentioned include utility and captive power plants fired by coal or lignite,
though a lower PLF is assumed for them as they would be used less often.

 Captive power plants do not use efficient technologies as they are mostly small sized while
newer technologies (e.g. supercritical technology) need larger capacities.

 The energy generation and coal requirement computed for different capacity addition
trajectories shown here also depend on efficiencies of coal-fired thermal power plants. Such
efficiency trajectories are described separately in a later section.

 The coal based power capacities have also been roughly cross-checked with coal production
scenarios to ensure that imports of coal for power production do not become unrealistic.

II. e Capacity Addition Trajectories

Level 1: This is the Least Effort Scenario. Coal based power generation is discouraged due to
increasing fuel prices, import dependence, pressure to reduce carbon emissions, reducing prices of
renewable energy etc. Installed capacity grows slowly to a high of 270 GW in 2032, corresponding to
the least coal scenario of the Integrated Energy Policy (Planning Commission, 2006, p. 46), and will
reduce thereafter to 253 GW by 2047. PLF of power plants remains 73% up to 2032 and improves to
74% thereafter. As a result, total electricity generated in 2047 from coal-fired power plants would be
1584 TWh, compared to 772 TWh in 2012.

Level 2: This is the Determined Effort Scenario. Level 2 projections are in line with Planning
Commission’s projections for next decade with a reduced growth rate thereafter. Installed capacity will
grow rapidly to 297 GW in 2027, and then grow slowly to 333 GW in 2047 due to increasing coal prices,
increasing import dependence and increasing pressures to reduce emissions. PLF is assumed to
improve to 75% for next two decades and to 76% thereafter. Total electricity generated from coal-fired
plants in 2047 would be 2141 TWh.
Level 3: This is the Aggressive Effort Scenario. Level 3 assumes a coal-fired capacity addition slightly
lower than what is assumed for the 8% GDP growth scenario in the interim report of the Expert Group
on Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth. The growth rate of capacity addition is assumed to
reduce subsequently. In this scenario, installed capacity will grow to 381 GW by 2032, and then slow

11
down to reach 459 GW by 2047. Current PLF will improve to 77% for next two decades and to 78% for
further next two, resulting in total generation of 3051 TWh in 2047.

Level 4: This is the Heroic Effort Scenario. Level 4 assumes a coal-fired capacity addition slightly
lower than what is assumed for the 9% GDP growth scenario in the interim report of the Expert Group
on Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth. The growth rate of capacity addition is assumed to
reduce subsequently. Installed capacity will grow to 591 GW in the next 35 years due to improved
domestic coal supply, softening of imported coal prices and availability of more carbon space to
countries like India. Current PLF will improve to 79% for next two decades and to 80% for the further
two decades, resulting in electricity generation of 4138 TWh in 2047.

These four levels of coal capacity and corresponding electricity generation will be as follows:

Figure 3 Figure 4

II. f Assumptions for efficiency of coal based power generation

We need to understand what levels of of coal imports may be necessary to sustain the likely coal based
generation capacities. The efficiency of our power plants will have a bearing on this. This has been
examined in the following section.

1. Average life of a power plant is 40 years

2. Gross calorific value of Indian coal for power generation = 3541 Kcal/kg (CEA, 2012, p. 116)
3. Gross calorific value of imported coal = 5500 Kcal/kg
4. The coal consumption figures shown in following efficiency scenario description correspond to
level 2 of capacity addition as described above.
5. Specific coal consumption for different technologies using Indian coal is as follows:

12
 Specific Coal consumption (kg/gross
kWh)1
Subcritical (SubC) (current India) 0.74
Supercritical (SC) 0.64
Ultra supercritical (USC) 0.49
IGCC 0.45

Table 2

The analysis in IIa to IIf captures the likely growth in coal based power generation capacity in India
under differing scenarios. The above will be largely dependent on the demand for the energy and
the overall environment for coal based power. Availability of fuel (discussed in section Ia to Ie) will
be a major driver as well as the pricing scenario. The basic objective of this exercise being to assess
India’s energy security.

II. g Trajectories for efficiency

Level 1: New technology development/deployment will be slow. Subcritical capacity addition will
stop only after 2027, ultra supercritical technology will be introduced only in 2022 and integrated
gas combined cycle (IGCC) is introduced in 2032. The share of IGCC in the coal-fired capacity
addition during 1942-47 would be only 30%, and its share of the total capacity in 2047 would be
only 12 GW at level 2 capacity addition, amounting to just 3.8%, while 53% of the capacity would be
super-critical. Total demand for Indian grade coal in 2047 in this scenario is 1383 million tons.
Level 2: New technology development/deployment will be slightly faster than scenario A.
Subcritical plant addition will stop after 2017 as per current Government plans (Ministry of Power,
2012, p. pdf 39). Ultra supercritical technology will be commercialized after 2017 and IGCC after
2027. IGCC will contribute 50% of the capacity addition in the 18th five year plan (1942–47). The
share of IGCC in the coal-fired capacity in 2047 would be 7%, and super-critical technology would
have a share of 47%. Total demand for Indian grade coal in 2047 in this scenario is 1345 million
tons.
Level 3: New technology development/deployment will be encouraged and hence its adoption
would be faster. Sub-critical capacity addition will stop after 2017, ultra supercritical technology
will be commercialized in 2017 and IGCC in 2022. IGCC’s share of the capacity addition in the 18 th
five year plan (1942–47) would be 65%. In 2047, the share of IGCC in the coal-fired capacity would
have increased to 13% and super-critical technology would have reduced to 37.6%. Total demand
for Indian grade coal in 2047 in this scenario is 1309 million tons.
Level 4: New technology development/deployment will be aggressively promoted and hence
adopted very fast. Subcritical capacity addition will stop after 2017. 20% of new capacity addition in
the 13th five year plan from 2017 would be ultra-supercritical technology and 20% of new capacity
addition in the 14th five year plan from 2022 would be IGCC. Of the capacity addition in the 18th five
year plan ending in 2047, 80% would be IGCC, resulting in its share in the total installed capacity in
2047 being 17.6%. Total demand for Indian grade coal in 2047 in this scenario is 1277 million tons.

1
Source: (CEA, 2012, p. 112; Economic Times, 2012; IEA, 2012; Mitsubishi)

13
The share of different technologies in total coal based installed capacity for these four scenarios in 2032 and
2047 year will be as follows:

III BIBLIOGRAPHY

CCO. (2009). Coal Directory of India 2008-09, part 1: Coal Statistics. Kolkata: Coal Controller's
Organization.
CCO. (2012). Provisional Coal Statistics 2011-12. Kolkata: CCO.
CCO. (2009). Coal Directory of India 2008-09, part 1: Coal Statistics. Kolkata: Coal Controller's
Organization.
CCO. (2012). Provisional Coal Statistics 2011-12. Kolkata: CCO.
Chakrabarti, P., & Choudhary, J. (2004). Wage-Productivity Relationship in Coal India Limited. Retrieved
November 25, 2013, from http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-08-0-000-000-2004-
Web/JSS-08-1-001-084-2004-Abst-PDF/JSS-08-1-029-043-2004-Chakrabarti/JSS-08-1-029-043-2004-
Chakrabarti.PDF
Chand, S. K. (2008). The Coal Dilemma.
CIL. (2010, August 2010). Draft Red Herring Prospectus. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from
www.sebi.gov.in/dp/coaldrhp.pdf
CIL. (2012). Annual report 2011-12.
CMPDI. (2011). CIL - Coal Resources/Reserves as per UNFC as on 01.04.2011. Retrieved November 26,
2013, from http://www.cmpdi.co.in/unfccil.php
CMPDI. (2012, Apr 1). Coal Inventory Summary. Retrieved Aug 8, 2012, from CMPDI:
http://www.cmpdi.co.in/coalinventory.php
Green Clearance Watch. (2013, November). Environmental Clearance data of Coal Mining Projects.
Retrieved November 27, 2013, from http://www.greenclearancewatch.org/node/3234
Hööka, M., Zittel, W., Schindler, J., & Aleklett, K. (2010). Global coal production outlooks based on a
logistic model. Fuel Volume 89, Issue 11, 3546–3558.
Ministry of Coal. (2011, December 16). Details of Captive Coal Blocks Allocated. Retrieved July 31, 2012,
from http://www.coal.nic.in/allocated161211.pdf
Ministry of Coal. (2011). Report of the Working Group on Coal and Lignite for the 12th Five Year Plan.
Ministry of Coal. (2013). Coal Production and Distribution. Retrieved December 5, 2013, from
http://www.coal.nic.in/cpddoc.htm

14
PIB. (2013, Aug 6). Export of Coal. Retrieved Oct 8, 2013, from
http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=97715
Planning Commission. (2006). Integrated Energy Policy.
Prayas Energy Group. (2013). Black and Dirty: the real challenges facing India's coal sector.
SCCL. (2012, January). SCCL's ongoing coal mining projects. Retrieved November 26, 2013, from
http://scclmines.com/cpp/ongoing_projects.xls

CEA. (2007, December). Report on the Land Requirement of Thermal Power Stations . Retrieved
December 9, 2013, from http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/articles/thermal/land_requirement.pdf
CEA. (2012). All India Electricity Statistics- General Review. New Delhi: CEA.
CEA. (2013, July). Growth of Electricity Sector in India from 1947-2013. Retrieved November 27, 2013,
from http://cea.nic.in/reports/planning/dmlf/growth.pdf
CMPDI. (2012, Apr 1). Coal Inventory Summary. Retrieved Aug 8, 2012, from CMPDI:
http://www.cmpdi.co.in/coalinventory.php
Economic Times. (2012, February 27). NTPC to build Ultra Supercritical Thermal Power Plant. Retrieved
November 27, 2013, from http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-
27/news/31104416_1_power-plant-carbon-dioxide-ntpc
IEA. (2012, December 4). Technology Roadmap: High-Efficiency, Low-Emissions Coal-Fired Power
Generation. Retrieved November 27, 2013, from
http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/name,32869,en.html
Ministry of Power. (2012). Report of The Working Group on Power for Twelfth Plan (2012-17). New
Delhi.
Mitsubishi. (n.d.). Features of MHI's IGCC System. Retrieved November 27, 2013, from
http://www.mhi.co.jp/en/products/detail/igcc_demonstration_power_plant02.htm
MoEF. (2012, April). Environment Clearance Status Query Form. Retrieved April 2012, from
http://environmentclearance.nic.in/
PIB. (2012, March 13). Final Figures of Houselisting & Housing Census, 2011 Released . Retrieved October
21, 2013, from http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=80811
Planning Commission. (2006). Integrated Energy Policy.
Planning Commission. (2012). Twelfth Five Year Plan.
Toshiba Corporation. (2012, October). Advanced Ultra-Supercritical Power Plant (700 to 760C) Design
for Indian Coal (2012). Retrieved October 30, 2013, from
http://www.babcock.com/library/pdf/BR-1884.pdf
US EIA. (2013). Updated estimates of power plant capital and operating costs. Retrieved October 30,
2013, from http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/capitalcost/xls/table2.xls

15