ELECTRONIC AND OPTICAL

MATERIALS OPTION A:
ELECTRONIC, OPTICAL AND
THERMAL PROPERTIES
MEASUREMENTS
Abstract:
The purpose of this 4-week lab was to get hand to hand practice and experience on

various machines, instruments to get to know about the electrical, optical and thermal

properties measurements. This lab reports contains a detailed description of the project

regarding the scanning electron microscopy, electrical sheet resistance and their transmittance,

deposition techniques and the thermal properties of the materials including thermal

conductivity, specific heat capacity, and thermal diffusivity. In addition to all this, different

observations, experiments, procedures, calculations are also provided with graphs which

proves the experiments done in the four weeks. These types of tests have been done on a wide

range of engineering materials to determine and differentiate their basic structures and their

different properties.
Introduction:
Different materials have different kinds of properties and these are the properties which

differentiate them from other materials. These properties define the chemical structure and

chemical integrity of the material. Electron microscopy is one of the methods to obtain the high

resolution images of the materials and this is done with the help of the electron microscope.

This can be termed as the domain of spectroscopy in which different electromagnetic radiations

are interacted with different materials which indicate their properties and different radiations

relieve different properties. Usually in spectroscopy, visible light is dispersed into its

components based on their wavelengths. This was the beginning era of spectroscopy and now

with the advancement of technology, spectroscopy can be done with the help of matter waves

and acoustic waves too. The result of spectroscopy is mostly in the form of energy spectrum as

a function of wavelength and frequency. An SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) is used to

produce the images of the materials using the electron beam because the wavelength of the

electron beam is very less as compared to the visible light.

The thermal conductivity of the materials is defined as the ability of the material to

conduct heat. This property can be easily proved when the substance of thin film is to be used.

In case of low thermal conductivity materials, the heat transfer takes place at a low rate as

compared to the materials having high thermal conductivity values.

Moving towards the properties of the materials, the electrical properties of the

materials include resistivity, conductivity, transmittance and many more define the basic

electrical and magnetic behavior of the samples. The properties can be easily studied with the

help of a system called the “4 point probe system (Jandel RM3000)”. This system is basically a
constant current source and a digital voltmeter and high accuracy and high precision including a

PC controlled software to store and provide data and up to 50 measurements can be stored in

it. A UV-VIS spectrophotometer is used to measure the transmission spectra over a wide range

of wavelength. The 4 point probe system ignores the contact resistance between the material

and the probe. But as compared to TPS 2500S, correction factors and initial calibration is

required before the sample is tested for the accurate readings.

The thermal properties of the materials are mostly the physical properties. These

properties can be examined using the Hot Disk TPS 2500S Thermal Property System. The

thermal properties include specific heat capacity, thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity.

The TPS 2500S can take the thermal conductivity measurements having the range of 0.005-

1800 W/m/K. The features that make TPS 2500S outstanding are that porous elements can

easily be tested, double sided testing, and initial calibration is not necessary and much more.

EXPERIMENT:

The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)

methods were used to study the different materials under the electron microscope to

understand the composition and integrity of the samples.

The thermal conductivities of different materials were measured including the thermal

diffusivity and specific heat. The Hot Disk TPS 2500 equipment was used to determine the

parameters; Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity and Specific Heat Capacity. All of

these parameters are calculated in single measurement. in this process, conductivity and

diffusivity are measured directly while the other parameter, specific heat, is measured with
the help of first two. Conductivity and Diffusivity are tested directly and specific heat

calculated from the former two. No repeated calibrations were required and the parameters

were measured using a small sample size of the material on which the which Hot Disk double

spiral was placed. Thermal conductivity was measured using thermal conductivity meter

present on Hot Disk TPS 2500.

The electrical properties of the samples were calculated with the help of 4 point probe

system. The materials for measuring the resistivity were taken in the form of thin wafers (a size

of a one millimeter). These wafers were deposited on a substrate. The four probes are arranged

in a line and are distanced equally so that electricity could be passed through the two probes.

The potential difference between the center 2 probes is measured. Sample is heated with the

help of an oven to measure its resistivity as the temperature of the heater inside the oven

increases. The temperature was varied up to 150o C and for each variation in the temperature;

voltage was measured using a digital multi-meter. These observations showed that the silicon is

the material which has the lowest resistivity.

High opposition or amendment shows up off and on again in electrical contacts to

semiconductors and in certainty is one of the serious issue. The variation in a single

semiconductor crystal is smooth and changes point to point with the change in temperature.

The inquiry is the measure of this variety instead of any inquiry of its quality. Regularly, in any

case, it is expectedly expressed that the resistivity is consistent inside some rate and when the

variety does in reality fall inside this resilience, it is disregarded.

As a precaution, the electrical current must not be kept high enough that it may induce a

change in temperature. Injecting effect (injecting of electrons) may also be induced due to high

electric current. This situation can be controlled by minimizing the potential difference across

the probes. Four probe method is based on following assumptions:

 Resistivity is uniform in the sample

 Surface upon which probe is placed is even

 No surface leakage is present

 Probes are contacted with the sample’s surface that are placed in a straight line

 diameter of the contact that is established between the sample and probes is smaller

than the gap between the metallic probes

The thermal conductivity in this project is measured for various materials but the factor

which influences the thermal conductivity is the surrounding temperature. In this lab, the

external temperature due to the presence of individuals around the equipment effects greatly

the recording value of the material due to which various trials were conducted.
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

The following images were captured using the SEM techniques of the different materials under

observation
 Fig: Element Composition using EDS

The Spectroscopy analysis was done on various elements and the percentage weight was

calculated which gave the following information.

 40
35

Weight by percentage
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Hf Ni Ti Cu Zr C Rb Re
Series1 34.2 22.5 13.3 12.3 8.6 4.7 3 1.6
Spectrum

Fig: Spectrum obtained from EDS

These observations were calculated using the SEM technique:

Sheet Resistivity of ITO = 5.24 mΩ

Sheet thickness = 2 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚

Resistivity of ITO = 0.00524 × 2 × 10−5 = 1.0048 × 10−7 Ωcm

Sheet Resistivity of GaP = 0.013 Ω

Sheet thickness = 0.1 𝑐𝑚

Resistivity of GaP = 0.013 × 0.1 = 1.3 × 10−3 Ωcm

Sheet Resistivity of Si = 0.001121 Ω

 Sheet thickness = 0.1 𝑐𝑚

Resistivity of ITO = 0.001121 × 0.1 = 1.121 × 10−4 Ωcm

The graphical representation of the wavelength with raw data for all the three materials

including Indium tin oxide/ITO, Gallium Phosphide/GaP and Silicon/Si are shown below

ITO

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2 RawData ...
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Fig 1: Graph of ITO

 GaP (T%)
160
140
120
100
80
GaP (T%)
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Fig 2: Graph of GaP

Silicon (T%)
12

10

6
Silicon (T%)
4

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-2

Fig 3: Graph of Si
We can see from these graphs that the different materials have different behavior at high

wavelengths. Silicon at high wavelength produces better result and the curve goes upwards.

In case of GaP there is an abnormal behavior in which at high wavelengths the data seems to

become almost constant.

In case of Indium Tin Oxide, the data have high values at ow wavelengths and as the

wavelength increases, the data reaches down to zero and becomes constant at high values of

wavelengths.

Wavelength (nm) Band Gap Energy (eV)

GaP 550 2.25
Silicon 1000 1.24
ITO 300 4.13
Table: Band Gap Energy

The SEM technique’s results and OM technique results are very much different from each

other. Based on the pictures below, we can say that the resolution of SEM due to the less

wavelength of electrons is better as compared to OM.

Fig: Difference between Om and SEM technologies

Thermal Conductivity:
Different trials were carried out to measure the thermal properties of the materials and these
trials along with their results are given below in the table

Trials on Metallic Alloy:

Trial 1: (many people were closed to the analyzer)
Probing depth = 5 mm
Duration = 20 s
Thermal conductivity = 94.47 W/mk
Diffusivity = 31.25 mm2/s
Specific heat = 3.119 MJ/m3k
Trial 2: (one person was very closed to the machine)
Thermal conductivity = 0.4515 W/mk
Diffusivity = 0.2858 mm2/s
Specific heat = 1.580 MJ/m3k

Trial 3: (some of the steel samples experienced rusting)

Thermal conductivity = 16.36 W/mk
Diffusivity = 31.73 mm2/s
Specific heat = 0.5154 MJ/m3k

Trial 4: (not recordable and out of range)

Thermal conductivity = 15.79 W/mk
Diffusivity = 0.001136 mm2/s
Specific heat = 11532 MJ/m3k

Trial 5:
Sample was changed but the same material was used.

 Out of range

Trial 6:
 Out of range
 
Trial of Graphite foam:
Thermal conductivity = 10.00 W/mk
Diffusivity = 0.2550 mm2/s
Specific heat = 392.4 MJ/m3k
Trial of Teflon:
Thermal conductivity = 0.3306 W/mk
Diffusivity = 0.1274 mm2/s
Specific heat = 2.594 MJ/m3k
Trial of Polypropylene:
Thermal conductivity = 0.2478 W/mk
Diffusivity = 0.1278 mm2/s
Specific heat = 1.939 MJ/m3k
Trial of Aluminum Oxide:
Thermal conductivity = 0.7445 W/mk
Diffusivity = 0.5406 mm2/s
Specific heat = 1.377 MJ/m3k

The following results were concluded in the end

Thermal Specific Heats Thermal

Conductivity Diffusivity
Polymer 0.2478 1.9390 0.1278
Polypropylene
Graphite Foam 0.2478 392.4000 0.0255
Al2O3 0.7445 1.3770 0.5406
4140 Steel 30.900 17.5800 2.3270
Teflon 0.3306 2.4940 0.1275

Table: Thermal Properties

 These Results are not very accurate due to the presence of people around the

equipment due to which the equipment sensitivity decreases and the equipment fails to

provide the correct thermal conductivities, diffusivity and specific heats of the samples,

however, very close values were calculated in repeated trials and we can say that the

experiment provided approximately perfect results.

The Electrical properties of various thin films were conducted during the week 4

Volts (mV) Current (mA) Resistance

0.196 25 0.00784

0.311 50 0.00622

0.435 75 0.0058

Sheet Resistance = 25.21 ohms ; Resistivity = 554.62 ohm m

Table: Current and Voltage Relationship

Graph for the above table

CONCLUSIONS:

Different methods and different techniques were applied to calculate the different

parameter of materials, including the thermal properties and electrical properties too. This lab

provided the basic knowledge about how different machines work and how they are used to

calculate the different parameters. The electrical resistivity of the different materials, including

the film thickness and conductivity were also measured and these values gave some error in the

first few trials but later these values are approximately the same as the theoretical values.

APPENDIX:
Answer Question 1:
Indium tin oxide, which is a type of transparent conducting oxides (TCO), are mainly

used in inorganic films. These type of materials are mostly required in places of electrical

equipment where low resistance is required and with the use of its transparency too. These

type of materials have greater energy gap as compared to visible light and few photons which

have less energy as compared to above ones, due to which these type of materials which

possess both the properties are very rare.

Answer Question 2:
ADVANTAGES:
 These type of processes protect the original metal from corrosion with

the help of the coating of non-corrosive materials.

 In case of CVD, film deposition techniques only rely on the reaction of

gaseous compounds.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Skilled personal is required since these processes are time consuming and

occur at high temperatures and high vacuums.

 High temperature requires high energy coolant systems making these

processes costly and time consuming.

Answer Question 3:
The graphite foam has low density and its thermal conductivity is high due to which

effective thermal conductivity increases having greater specific area making it a suitable and

good material for thermal management. For non-porous materials, the thermal conductivity

𝑙
depends on the ration of the pore size to the free path of the phonon as given by 𝑅𝑜 .By this
𝑝

𝑙
equation, If 𝑅𝑜 > 1 as the porosity increases, the thermal conductivity decreases. And if
𝑝

𝑙𝑜
< 0.1, the thermal conductivity decreases with the increase in porosity.
𝑅𝑝

Answer Question 4:
The three items which was implemented in the lab were

1. Wearing Protective shoes

2. Wearing protective transparent glasses

3. Wearing a safety helmet

Applied Engineering Problem:
Proximity sensor is a sensor which detects nearby objects based on the infrared light

which is released by this sensor and it detects the total distance travelled by the radiation to

and from the object and depending on that distance, proximity sensor shows its work. This

sensor converts the information it received into an electrical signal.

The transmittance of and IR radiation varies in an abnormal behavior with its

wavelength. At small values of wavelength the transmittance is almost constant, it increases in

a certain range of wavelength rapidly, and then again it becomes constant over a certain range.

The graph of the transmittance with the wavelength is given below:

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 Reed, S. J. B. (2005). Electron microprobe analysis and scanning electron microscopy in

geology. Cambridge university press.

 Reimer, L. (2013). Scanning electron microscopy: physics of image formation and

microanalysis (Vol. 45). Springer.

 Saleh, I. M., Ruyter, I. E., Haapasalo, M. P., & Ørstavik, D. (2003). Adhesion of

endodontic sealers: scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy.

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