CHAPTER 4 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY THROUGH HEAT EXCHANGERS

4.1 Sources of Waste Heat

Waste heat can be classified into three categories according to the temperature
such as

1. High Temperature range- refers to temperature above 650 0 C

2. Medium temperature range- 230 0C – 6500 C
3. Low temperature range : below 2300 C

High and medium temperature range waste heat is released by furnaces while
low temperature range waste heat is released by devices like condenser, solar
flat plate collector, etc.

4.2 Potential Applications of Waste Heat

1. Exhaust gas in the high temperature range can be used to preheat

the combustion air for
Boilers using air preheater
Furnaces using recuperators
Ovens using recuperators
Gas turbine using recuperators
2. Medium temperature exhaust gases can be used to preheat boiling
feed water using economizer.
3. Exhaust gases in the low temperature range and warm cooling
water from condenser can be used to heat water or other feed
stock (solid) in industrial processes.
4. High and medium temperature exhaust can be used to generate
steam from waste heat boiler to produce process steam, heat and
electricity.
5. Waste heat can be utilized to run absorption refrigeration systems
for air conditioning etc.

4.3 Essential considerations in making optional choice of waste heat

recovery device:

1. Temperature of waste heat. (Temperature is a measure of quality of

waste heat)
2. Flow rate of the fluid
3. Chemical composition of waste fluid
4. Properties of waste fluid (Cp, µ, ρ, κ )
5. allowable pressure drop
6. Minimum temperaure to which waste heat can be cooled
7. Corrosive elements in the exhaust fluid
8. Temperature to which the designed fluid is to be heated

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4.4 Waste Heat Recovery Systems:

Waste heat is reclaimed in industrial plants by making use of heat exchangers.

Industrial heat exchangers have many pendonyms, recuperator, regenerator,
waste heat boiler, condenser, heat pipe, heat wheel, heat and moisture
exchanger etc. Major waste heat recovery equipment are classified as:

1. Gas-to-gas heat exchanger

2. Gas-to-liquid heat exchanger
3. Waste heat boiler
4. liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger
5. Heat pump system
6. Incinerator

4.5 Some concepts on heat exchangers

4.5.1 Material of construction

Table 4.1 Material of construction and maximum temperature for sensible heat transfer

Sl No Maximum Temperature ( 0 C) Material

1 200 copper
2 300 brass
3 370 Cupronickel (copper+nickel)
4 400 Carbon steel
5 540 Stainless steel
6 1000 Alloysteel, increl

4.5.2 Determination of tube wall temperature

In some cases, gas or liquid carrying waste heat may be at very high temperture
(10000 C or above). Heat exchanger tubes can withstand such high temperature
although the temperature may be near to the melting point of the tube material.
The wall temperature is given by

Q = h1 A ( t1 − t w ) (4.1)

Q = h2 A ( t w − t 2 ) (4.2)

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 Fig 4.1: Heat transfer across a tube

Q = h1 A ( t1 − t w ) = h2 A ( t w − t 2 ) (4.3)

h1 t1 + h2 t 2 (4.4)
t w =
h1 + h2

Overall heat transfer coefficient ( U )

. . (4.5)
Q = m h c h ( t h1 − t h 2 ) = m c cc ( t c 2 − t c1 ) + Qloss

Q = U 0 A0 ∆t l .m (4.6)

For clean surface,

1 1 xw 1 (4.7)
= + +
U 0 h0 A0 k m Al .m hi Ai
For scaled surface,

1 1 xw 1 1 1 (4.8)
= + + + +
U 0 h0 A0 k m Al .m hi Ai hsi Ai hso Ao

Heat Transfer Rate

. (4.9)
Q = U A ∆t l . m

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4.5.3 Fouling factor

Mechanism of fouling is very complicated. No reliable technique is available to

predict the fouling factor. Some recommended values are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Fouling factors

Sl. No. Fluid m2. k

Fouling Factor ( )
W
1 Sea water 0.000088
2 Treated boiler water 0.000180
3 Fuel oil 0.009000
4 Diesel engine exhaust 0.001800

4.5. 4 Category of Fouling

1. Scaling or precipitating fouling: due to the crystallization from

solutions of dissolved substance on to the heat transfer surface.
2. Particulate Fouling: Accumulation of finely divided solids
suspended in the process fluids on to the heat transfer surface.
3. Chemical reaction fouling: The deposit formation on to the heat
transfer surface by chemical reaction.
4. Corrosion fouling: accumulation of corrosion products on to the
heat transfer surface.
5. Biological fouling: attachment of micro-organisms to a heat
transfer surface.
6. Solidification fouling: crystallization of a pure liquid or one
component from the liquid phase on a subcooled heat transfer
surface.

4.5.5 Methods of calculation of temperature difference of fluids

(a) LMTD
(b) ε-NTU method

# For heat transfer, parallel flow exchangers are not efficient

# Counter flow exchangers are good

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4.5.6 Heat Transfer Augmentation

To promote the heat transfer coefficient h, 3(three) different methods are used:
1. Active method
2. Passive Method
3. Combined active and passive method

Active Method employs supplementary power supply. Passive method includes

twisted tapes, ribbons, wire coils, indentation of heat transfer surface, etc to
break the thermal boundary layer to promote the heat transfer coefficient. In
some cases, both the active and passive methods may be combined to promote
the heat transfer coefficient.

4.6 Classification of waste heat recovery exchangers

4.6.1 Recuperator: In most of the heat exchangers, the fluids are separated
by a heat transfer surface and ideally they do not mix. Such heat exchangers
are called direct transfer heat exchanger or recuperator.

4.6.2 Regenerator: Heat exchangers in which there is an intermittent flow of

heat from hot to cold fluid via heat storage and heat rejection through the
exchanger surface or matrix are referred to as indirect or storage type heat
eaxchanger or regenerator. The regenerative type heat exchangers are either
static or dynamic.

4.6.3 Compact Heat Exchanger: A heat exchanger having surface to volume

ratio more than 700 m2/m3 is known as compact heat exchanger.

4.6.4 Static Type regenerator

No moving parts
Consists of a porous medium (balls, pebbles, powders, etc) through
which hot and cold fluid pass alternatively.
A flow switching device regulates the periodic flow of the two fluids
Compact for use in refrigeration and Stirling Engines.
Non compact in high temperature (900 – 15000 C) applications
Low cost and ruggedness are essential for the stationary type

4.6.5 Dynamic Type regenerator

Compact in nature, Very high surface to volume ratio (more than 6500
m2/ m3 )
Usually matrix rotates about an axis (i.e., Ljungstrom regenerative air
preheater)
Operating temperature is upto 8700 C
Usually used as gas-to-gas heat exchanger

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4.6.6 Classification according to the type of fluids

Heat exchangers may be further classified according to the type of fluids, such as
gas to gas, gas to liquid and liquid to liquid heat exchanger. Table 3 presents
the same.

(a) Gas-to-gas WHR exchanger

Plate-fin Heat Pipe Rotary Convection liquid

coupled
Prime surface regenerator recuperator heat exchanger

(b) Gas-to-liquid WHR exchanger

Waste heat boiler Economizer Fluidized bed Heat pipe

Heat exchanger heat exchanger

Fire tube Water tube

(c) Liquid-to-liquid WHR exchanger

Shell and tube plate

Table 3 Types of heat exchangers

4.7 Gas –to –Gas waste heat recovery

These types of heat exchangers require special arrangement to have high heat
transfer rate. Gases are having low heat transfer coefficient. Usually heat transfer
coefficients on opposite sides of the heat transfer surface are usually within a
factor of 3 to 4 of each other. The absolute values are generally lower than liquid
to liquid heat exchangers. Hence heat transfer enhancement is essential in such
heat exchangers. Application of fin, surface roughening, inserts are usually
employed. But pressure drop is also high. Leakage of either fluid may be
tolerated up to 4%. Constructions are lighter and less rugged. Various types of
gas to gas heat exchangers are

1. Plate-fin

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 2. primary surface exchanger
3. rotary regenerator
4. run around coil
5. radiation and convective recuperator
6. heat pipe

4.7.1 Temperature limitations

1. The minimum temperature to which the waste gas are cooled is an

important consideration in the design of gas-to-gas waste heat recovery
devices, i.e., air preheater. It is considered good practice to design so that
temperature of combustion gas (waste gas) leaving the heat exchanger
does not drop below 3000 F (148.880 C), because if this is not done,
corrosion may result as a result of condensation of sulphurous or
sulphuric acid. These substances are formed from the sulphur present in
most fuels reacting with the water vapor from combustion.

2. Oxidation of carbon steel becomes a serious problem for gas temperature

in excess of 1000 F ( 537.780 C). Hence ceramic material is to be used.
For example, the air preheater for steel and blast furnace are ordinarily
made of ceramic.

4.7.2 Applications of gas to gas recovery units

1. Air preheater for steam power plant

2. Gas fired heater for industrial processes

3. Gas turbines- overall thermal efficiency may be doubled with gas-to-gas

regenerative type heat exchanger. Used as intercooler between stages
and compressor.

4.8 Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger

It is a form of plate heat exchanger usually made of stainless steel. It is often

used in cellulose industries where heat exchanger is subjected to severe fouling
and corrosion. The plates of this type of heat exchanger are very long and
thickness of passage between the plates must be rather small so that after the
sheets forming the upper and lower surfaces are welded together, the unit can be
wrapped into spiral. The technical features of this type of heat exchanger are:

1. Flow rates are relatively low

2. Pure counterflow heat exchanger
3. Highly compact (more than 700 m2/ m3)

106
 4. can withstand pressure upto 10 bar only

Fig 4.2 Spiral Heat Exchanger

4.9 Heat Wheels /Rotary regenerator/Ljungstrom Air Preheater

4.9.1 Features

1. Annulus is divided into numbers of sectors

2. Matrix is filled up in these sectors
3. Out of these sectors, few are kept empty so that hot fluid/cold fluid
can not flow through the empty region.
4. Matrix rotate at low RPM (3-4 RPM) driven by a motor through
appropriate reduction gear in mesh.
5. Heat capacity of matrixes are more than that of the gases
m c p | matrix > m c p | gas , hence it is useful for gas-to-gas recovery
6. For gas-to-liquid or liquid-to-liquid recovery, it is not useful as
m c p |matrix < m c p |liquid

107
 Fig 4.3 Heat Wheel

4.9.2 Advantages
1. Cheap
2. Compact (~ 6500 m2/ m3), large surface area, hence high heat transfer rate.
3. Can operate upto 870 0 C with metal matrix

4.9.3 Disadvantages

1. Large pressure drop through the matrix

2. Fouling of surfaces with entrained solid particles causing reduction in flow
passage area leading to increase in pressure drop.
3. Leakage of one fluid in the duct to the duct where other fluid is flowing-
requires extra space to separate the the flow passages.
4. Energy required to rotate the wheel

4.9.4 Applications

Heat wheels are widely used in thermal power plants to pre-heat air by the
exhaust gases.

4.9.5 Heat Transfer in a Heat Wheel

Let,

hH = Heat transfer coefficient between the hot fluid and matrix

108
hc = Heat transfer coefficient between the cold fluid and the matrix
tw = Matrix temperature
−
t m = Average matrix temperature
∆t w = Temperature difference of matrix material
−
t gH = Average temperature of waste gas

−
t wH = Average temperature of matrix material in touch with the hot waste fluid
−
t wc = Average temperature of matrix material in touch with the cold working fluid
( say, air)

Amount of heat transferred from the hot fluid to the matrix

− − (4.10)
Q p = hH A t gH − t wH .τ H

Heat transferred from matrix to the cold fluid

− − (4.11)
Q ' p = hc A t wc − t gc .τ c

Assuming that Q p = Q p'

Surface temperature ( tw ) to be eliminated from Eq. (4.10) and Eq. (4.11)
Now,
− − (4.12)
∆tw = t wH − t wc
Temperature difference of matrix

− − − − (4.13)
∆t w = t wH − t m − t m − t wc
−
where t m = Average temperature of matrix material.

Now, for transient heat transfer without heat generation,

1 ∂t (4.14)
∇ 2t = =C
α ∂τ
Hence,
dt (4.15)
= c1 x + c2
dx
and,
x2 (4.16)
t = c1 + c2 x + c3
2

109
Applying the boundary conditions

dt
1. At x = 0 , =0
dx
Hence C2 = 0
x2 (4.17)
∴ t = C1 + C3
2

2. At x = b / 2 , t = t wc

b2 (4.18)
∴ t wc = C1 + C3
8
Now,

dt − − Qp (4.19)
−k = hc twc − t gc =
dx x=
b Aτ c
2
or,
− − Qp (4.20)
− k [ c1 b2 ] = hc t wc − t gc =
Aτ c
or,
2hc − − (4.21)
c1 = t wc − t gc
kb

dt Q 2l (4.22)
∴ |w = − p =
dx Aτ c k b

Q pb (4.23)
∴l=
2kAτ c

l
Considering a parabolic temperature profile with height of parabola =
2

− − 2 l l (4.24)
∴ t m − t wc = . =
3 2 3

− −
1 Q pb 1 Qb (4.25)
∴ t m − t wc = = . p
3 2kAτ c 6 kAτ c

Similarly, by symmetry

110
 − − Q ' pb (4.26)
t wH − t m =
6kAτ H

− − − − − − Q pb 1 1 (4.27)
∴ t wH − t wc = t wH − t m + t m − t wc = +
6kA τ c τ H
Again,

− − Qp (4.28)
t gH − t wH =
hH Aτ H

− − Qp (4.29)
t wc − t gc =
hc Aτ c
From Eqs (4.28) & (4.28),

− − − − Qp QP (4.30)
t gH − t gc + t wc − t wH = +
hH Aτ H hc Aτ c
or,
− − Qp Qp − − (4.31)
t gH − t gc = + + t wH − t wc
hH Aτ H hc Aτ c
Qp Qp Q pb 1 1
= + + +
hH Aτ H hc Aτ c 6kA τ c τ H
Qp 1 1 b 1 1
= + + +
A hHτ H hcτ c 6k τ c τ H
− −
A t gH − t gc
∴ Qp =
1 1 b 1 1
+ + +
hHτ H hcτ c 6k τ H τ c

Rate of heat transfer in a cycle

− − (4.32)
A t gH − t gc
. Qp
Q= =
τ H +τc 1 1 b 1 1
(τ H + τ c ) + + +
hHτ H hcτ c 6k τ H τ c

111
4.10 Storage Type or Regenerative Heat exchanger

In this heat exchanger energy is stored periodically. Medium is heated or cooled

alternatively. Heating period and cooling period constitute 1(one) cycle.

4.10.1 Features

Periodic heat transfer-conduction

Heat transfer fluid can be a liquid, phase changing, non phase changing
Solid storage medium is called matrix
Matrix may be stationary or rotating

Fig 4.4 Storage Type/Regenerator Type Heat Exchanger

4.10.2 Classical Applications

1. Gas turbine regenerators: Heating the compressed air by the gas turbine
exhaust before the air goes to the combustor.
2. Reversed Stirling engine for liquefaction of air- Philips refrigeration
machine.

112
4.11 Rothemuhle Regenerator

This type of heat exchanger is extensively used in steel plants for heat recovery.
In this heat exchanger, the matrix is stationary and the hood rotates. One half of
the hood is perforated. Air at ambient condition is passed through the central
core of the heat exchanger. On one side of the central pipe also, perforation is
provided to facilitate air movement to the matrix. Hot gas containing the waste
heat enters from the top, passes through the perforated hood to the matrix
thereby exchanges heat through the matrix and goes out at the bottom.
Simultaneously, air passes through the other half of the previously hot matrix and
get heated. Two different positions of this heat exchanger has been shown in
Fig.

Fig 4.5 : Rothemuhle Heat Exchanger

4.11.1 Matrix Material etc.

Usually knitted aluminium or stainless steel is used

For moisture removal from air, hygroscopic material like asbestose fibre
impregnated with LiCl can be used

4.11.2 Disadvantage

Pressure drop is large

Subjected to fouling

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4.12 Pebble Bed Heat Exchanger

An interesting type of heat transfer matrix, and one specially

Fig4.6: Pebble Bed Heat Exchanger

4.13 Plate Heat Exchanger

Extensively used in liquid-to-liquid heat exchange processes. Very popular in

process industries where mixing, evaporation, reaction, distillation, separation
processes are involved. It is one of the compact counterflow heat exchangers.
Q
Effectiveness ε = act is as high as 0.95. Temperature and pressure are the
Qmax
main drawbacks in case of gasketed units. But with advance technology, better
gaskets are available and can withstand high temperature and pressure.

114
 Fig4.7: Plate Heat Exchanger

4.14 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchangers are most widely used heat exchangers
for liquid to liquid waste heat recovery. There are 3(three) types:
1. Fixed bed tube sheet
2. Floating head: When tubes are fixed, during heat transfer, the tubes
gets expanded due to heat and as both ends are fixed, the tubes may
be bend due to expansion. To prevent this, floating head is
maintained.
3. U-tube bundle: used in feed water heater (very popular)

4.15 Metallic Radiative Recuperator

Features:

Height upto 50 m

Diameter 0.25-3 m

Natural draught, no need for a fan or blower

Heat transfer is chiefly by radiation

Examples: Metallic recuperators are used in

Steel plants

115
 Glass Melting Furnaces

Fig 4.8: Metallic Recuperator

4.16 Run Around Coil

A run around coil is a heat recovery system which connects two recuperative
heat exchangers by a third fluid exchanging heat with each fluid in turn. A run
around coil can be used where two fluids which are required to exchange
heat are too far apart to use a direct recuperative heat exchanger. It can also
be used where there is a risk of cross contamination between the two primary
fluids such as flow of corrosive gases, biological contaminants in hospital, etc.

Fig 4.9 Run Around Coil

116
 Intermediate fluid can be suitably chosen to meet the heat transfer duty.
Water can be used as intermediate fluid upto 1800 C. Oil and dowtherm can
be used upto 3000 C. For increasing the heat transfer rate, fin can be used.

4.16.1 Disadvantages

1. Pump is the moving part, requiring maintenance

2. Low effectiveness of the system

4.16.2 Heat recovery from a fluid at one stage in a process to the same fluid
at different stage
. . . (4.33)
Q = m C (Th1 − Th 2 ) = m C (Tc1 − Tc 2 ) = m C (Ts1 − Ts 2 )
h c s

Assume
. . . (4.34)
mC = mC = mC
h c s

Th1 − Th 2 = Tc1 − Tc 2 = Ts1 − Ts 2 (4.35)

Th1 − Ts1 = Th 2 − Ts 2 , Ts1 − Tc1 = Ts 2 − Tc 2 (4.36)

The three temperature lines are therefore straight lines and parallel
∆ Tlm = ∆ Ti = ∆ Te (4.37)

Q Q (4.38)
(UA)h = (UA)C = =
Th1 − Ts1 Ts1 − Tc1

The temperature line for the secondary fluid must be midway between the
temperature lines for the hot and cold fluids.
T + Tc1 (4.39)
Ts1 = h1
2

Th 2 + Tc 2 (4.40)
Ts 2 =
2

when the inlet temperature of hot and cold fluids are known, then total heat
recovery is
T − Tc1 (4.41)
Q = (UA)h h1
2

117
 and since,
Q (4.42)
Tc1 = Tc 2 + .
mC
c

Then
(UA )h (Th1 − Tc 2 ) (4.43)
Q=
(UA )
2 + .
h

mC
c

When the thermal capacities of the hot and cold fluids are not the same.

(LMTD )0 = (LMTD )h− s + (LMTD )s −c (4.44)

and therefore
1 1 1 (4.45)
= +
(UA) O (UA) h (UA)c
At any cross section
Ts − Tc (UA)h (4.46)
= = Y = cons tan t , say
Th − Tc (UA)c

Ts1 − Tc1 Ts 2 − Tc 2 (4.47)

Y= =
Th1 − Ts1 Th 2 − Ts 2

Ts1 = (Tc1 + Y Th1 ) / (1 + Y ) (4.48)

Ts 2 = (Tc 2 + YTh 2 ) / (1 + Y ) (4.49)

Ts1 − Ts 2 =
(Tc1 − Tc 2 ) + Y (Th1 − Th 2 ) (4.50)
1+ Y

118
 1 Y (4.51)
.
+ .
mc mc
1
= c h
.
1+ Y
mc
s

. . (4.52)
.
mc mc (UA )h + (UA )c
ms = h c
. .
cs mc (UA )c + mc (UA )h
h c

Mass flow rate of the secondary fluid is independent of the temperatures of the
fluids and on the heat transfer characteristics of the two heat exchangers.

The effectiveness and NTU are given by

1− e ( )− NTU 1− R (4.53)
ε= − NTU (1− R )
1− R

where NTU is

(UA)h (UA)C (4.54)

NTU = .
mc (UA)h + (UA)c
min

119