VIRTUAL

EDUCATION IN
RUBBER
TECHNOLOGY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES
2007
VERT
A professional training program for the rubber industry called Virtual Education in
Rubber Technology (VERT) has been developed by different European universities
and companies:

• Tampere University of Technology, Finland

• Nokian Tyres Plc., Finland
• University of Twente, the Netherlands
• HAN University, the Netherlands
• Läroverket AB, Sweden
• Alexander Dubcek University, Slovak Republic
• Matador Rubber s.r.o., Slovak Republic

This work is supported by the EU within the Leonardo da Vinci program.

The VERT training program is a unique in the sense that it presents an educational
program covering the full knowledge on components, design and production of
rubber products up to the assessment of the performance of the rubber end-products
(e.g. tyres) as part of a complete systems (e.g. vehicles) for the first time. It is a
flexible program in the sense that an individual choice of the relevant parts of the
training material can be made.

The program contains following modules:

Orienting phase
Orienting studies
Orienting courses
Organic chemistry
Rubber Physics
Rubber Chemistry
Elastomeric materials
Basic studies Raw materials and compounds in the rubber
industry
Processing of elastomeric materials
Test methods of rubber materials and products
Special topics of rubber technology
European Tyre School
Reinforcing materials in rubber products
Special courses
Tyres as car components
Planning of project work
Project work
 Orienting Phase
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Minna Poikelispää
Tampere University of Techmology
The Laboratory of Plastic and Elastomer Technology
minna.poikelispaa@tut.fi

This module prepares students for virtual learning processes. The chapters focus on the
following subjects:

- Web-based learning
- How do we learn?
- Me as a learner
- Study methods on the web
- My study plan

The first chapter focuses on the basics of web-based learning. This section compares
learning in general and learning on the web. In web-based learning are used web-based
technologies or tools in learning process. The biggest difference between web-based
learning and traditional learning is in communication issues. Communication can take
place via various communication tools such as e-mail, telephone, chat etc. In a traditional
way of learning communication and interaction take place mostly at the same time and
place as face-to-face meetings. In addition, advantages and disadvantages of web-based
learning are discussed.

The second chapter introduces different learning styles and strategies. It helps students to
understand their own learning styles. On the following chapter is considered what kind of
learner student is and is web-based learning for him.

The chapter “Study methods on the web” gives an overlook on different ways to study on
the web and the skills especially relevant to web-based learning. Web-based learning
means working independently and alone, with a computer and books or some other
written or visual material. However, it may also include communication and
collaboration with the trainer, tutors and other students. Communication and
collaboration on the web is somewhat different from face-to-face situations.
Communication, as well as many of the exercises and assignments, requires writing skills
and information literacy, so they are introduced as well.
Another important chapter is My study plan. Good planning helps students to ensure that
the study activities will be more effective and successful in a learning process. This
chapter helps students to make their study plan.

After studying this course, the student will understand the differences between web-based
learning and traditional learning and they are aböe to study on the web successfully.
 Orienting courses
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Minna Poikelispää
Tampere University of Techmology
The Laboratory of Plastic and Elastomer Technology
minna.poikelispaa@tut.fi

This course introduces different activities of firms. The chapters focus on the following
subjects:

- Management and administration

- Research and product development
- Production
- Marketing and sales

The first chapter introduces management and tools for management, strategy and quality
system. Management and leadership are the key aspects of an organization's
administration. The strategy gives long-term perspectives for the organization. Quality
systems tend to guarantee high-quality activities of the organization.

The second chapter focus on product development, which is one of the key functions in
any commercial company. The aims and phases of product development as well as
success in product development and productive creativity are covered. Also areas of
research and product development in rubber industries are discussed.

The chapter Production introduces the production process. It also covers logistics and
quality of the products. The main tasks of production are to produce and deliver products
in certain periods and amounts. Sufficient quality with minimum costs is the requirement
in production.

The last chapter Marketing and sales covers marketing strategies, brands, segmenting and
cash flow. arketing is an important function in an organization's strategy. Its main tasks
are scanning of demands, influencing demands and satisfying demands.

After studying this course, the student will understand the different functions of firms and
their interconnection. They also will understand the importance of different functions.
 Organic Chemistry
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Iva Sroková,
Trencin university of Alexander Dubcek,
Faculty of industrial technologies in Puchov

The Organic Chemistry obtained:

Fundamental of Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry
- basic terms in Organic Chemistry, alkanes, alkenes, dienes, alkynes, synthesis,
structure and reactivity. Industrial using of unsaturated compounds for preparation
of vinyl – and diene monomers
- aromatic compounds – structure and reactivity in electrophilic substitution.
- the alkyl halides-nucleophilic substitution and elimination.
- alcohols, phenols, ethers – using for preparation of monomers.
- nitroderivatives , basicity of amines , diazo- and coupling reactions.
- isocyanates - structure and reaction, hydrolysis and reduction of nitriles.
- Acrylonitrile- basic compounds for production of polyacrylonitrile – synthetic
fibres
- aldehydes, ketones in addition reactions , condensation reactions – aldol
condensation.
- the carboxylic acid and its derivatives- characteristic reactions
- acyl halides, anhydrides, esters, amides. Nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions.
- basic terms in macromolecular chemistry, classification of polymers.
- properties of polymers in solid state and of amourphous polymers.
- crystallinity, glassy, high elastic and plastic state
- free - radical and ionic polymerization. Copolymerization.
- block-, solution-, suspension- and emulsion polymerization
- modification of polymers, crosslinking, stabilization, degradation of polymers.
- types of average molar masses, methods for determination of molar masses.
 Rubber Physics
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Pavol Koštial, Trencin university of Alexander Dubcek, Faculty of industrial

technologies in Puchov, kostial@fpt.tnuni.sk

The module ‘Physics of polymers’ is the field of physics associated to the study of
polymers, understanding of the mechanical, physical, electrical and thermodynamic
properties of polymeric materials. Current areas of focus include structural and
mechanical behavior of networks, segmental relaxation and the glass transition, miscible
polymer blends, and polymer-based composites. Polymer physics is part of the wider
field of polymer science.

All of these aspects are discussed in this module, which consists therefore, of the
following seven parts:

• Structure of polymers & Physical and phase states of polymers

• Mechanical properties of solid state polymers
• Payene effect & Viscosity and mechanical properties of viscous and viscoelastic
materials & Fracture properties of polymers
• Models of viscoelastic behavior of materials
• Selected physical properties of polymeric materials
• Electrical properties of polymers
• Physical Processes Influencing Surface Contact of Two Materials

The first sub-module discusses polymer materials; their basic structure units, that is good
for better understanding of distinctiveness of polymers as materials, it is purposeful to
consider the conception of the hierarchic disposition of macromolecular materials. We
have tried to explain the constitutional unit, there are shown here some types of polymer
chains. Density of cohesive energy is explained here and we introduce for polymers
derived quantity, namely the parameter of solubility and geometry of polymer chain.

The aim of the second part of the first sub-module that is called physical and phase states
of polymers explains basic states for polymers as gaseous, liquid and solid state,
structural and phase transformation that takes place in them. Readers can obtain
iformation about 14 different crystal lattices, called Bravais Lattices. It describes also
phenomenological description of glassy state. Next there is phase transitions described as
transition of state, transformation of amorphous substance into crystalline and vice versa,
or transformation of one crystalline system into another. Glass transition temperature
defined as temperature, at which bend or discontinuity occurs on dependence of specific
volume on temperature. There are defined several methods for the determination of glass
transition temperature.

The second sub-model deals with a description of deformation of solid elastic materials
as well as to set up phenomenological values describing mechanical properties of these
substances. We are going to learn about thermodynamic and microstructural aspects of
the process of elastic deformation. Later on these concepts and knowledge will be
generalized on polymers and rubber.

The third sub-module has three important parts. First part deals with a description of
Payne effect and also with its physical description. The second one introduces the
viscosity terms and viscoelastic behaviour of materials under loading. There is presented
the terminology of complex physical parameters (modules), WLF transformations and
results of rubber mixtures measurements and temperature dependence of viscosity. And
the third one is devoted to the issue of the fracture attributes of polymeric materials,
where fracture mechanics provides a methodology evaluating the structural integrity of
components containing such defects, and demonstrating whether they are capable of
continued, safe operation. The basic criterion in any fracture mechanics analysis is to
prevent failure. You can find there information about the historical overview where are
presented some approaches.

In the fourth sub-model are introduced basic theoretical approaches describing

viscoelastic behavior of materials. Readers will be familiared with basic models:
Maxwell, Voigt and their combinations.

The fifth sub-model provide readers with a schematic review of results of measurements
of selected physical quantities (especially mechanic and thermal) gained for various
polymeric materials and rubber as well as their connection with theoretical background
knowledge presented in previous parts. At the same time we are going to point out
differences between physical properties of elastomers and polymers.

The sixth sub-model introduces the specific resistivity and conductivity, dielectric
properties of polymers, electrical stress of polymers and finally percolation threshold.

The last one sub-model presents hysteretic attributes of viscoelastic materials in the
process of their deformation. Some theoretical approaches of hysteresis explanation from
the point of view of solids' contact are discussed. It also deals with gluing questions and
adhesion at mutual contact of materials problems, as well as with theory of friction.
 Rubber chemistry
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Matador Rubber s.r.o

peter.janypka@matador.sk

Rubbers - elastomers - are polymeric materials characterised by their ability of reversible

deformation due to external deforming forces. Their deformation rate depends on the
structure and molar mass of the deformed rubber and on external conditions of the
deformation. This characteristics, referred to as elastic and/or hyper elastic deformation,
is entropic in nature and results from the ability of rubber macromolecules to form a more
organised state under influence of deforming forces without deformation of chemical
bonds between atoms of the polymer chain or without deformation of their valence
angles. Ideally, the macromolecules can restore their initial position once the deforming
forces are removed.

Rubbers usually have long and regular macromolecule chains without bulk substitutes
with spatially oriented structural units. This is the reason why their segments are movable
and able to rotate around simple chemical bonds even at low temperatures, as it can be
seen in their low vitrification temperature Tg. They are tough and similar to plastomers
below the vitrification temperature or crystallisation temperature (if rubber can be
crystallised). When heated, rubbers change their elastic and/or hyper elastic state to a
viscoelastic state; and they become plastic and flow above the softening temperature
(Tm). It is advantageous if rubbers crystallise at normal temperature only when subjected
to voltage and their Tg is significantly lower that the temperature they are used at.

Natural rubber comes from a plant. In industrial applications, it is obtained primarily

from Hevea Brasiliensis tree grown in orchards in South-East Asia, Western Africa and
northern parts of Southern America. Synthetic rubbers are made by constructional
polyreactions of chain or grade nature. In terms of their application and basic properties
they can be divided into:
• general - they have properties satisfying requirements of multiple products,
often with various properties; they are relatively cheap; manufactured and
consumed in large volumes (butadiene-styrene, butadiene, synthetic isoprene
rubbers, natural rubber);
• special - in addition to the basic elastic properties they have at least one
special feature, such as resistance to aging, resistance to chemicals, resistance
to budding in non-polar oils, resistance to high/low temperatures etc. They are
usually manufactured and consumed in lower volumes than general rubbers
and they are much more expensive (ethylene propylene, chloroprene, acrylic,
silicone, urethane, epoxy, fluorine rubbers and others).
Rubbers are used most often in the form of vulcanizates - a vulcanized rubber. They can
be brought to this form by vulcanization. This process is based on creation of chemical
and physical transverse bonds between rubber macromolecules resulting in a spatial
vulcanizate mesh, giving unique properties to the material. Various chemical -
vulcanizing - agents are used to create the chemical transverse bonds between rubber
macromolecules (such as sulphur, peroxides, metal oxides, resins, quinones and others),
which can react with appropriate functional rubber groups in the process of vulcanization
to create transverse bonds between them. The cross-linking can be induced also by
radiation, however its energy must be sufficient to generate reactive forms of rubber
macromolecules - radicals in most cases. They react with each other giving rise to
transverse bonds. Cross-linking can occur also due to microwave energy or ultrasound.
Most rubbers require vulcanisation; though it is not inevitable for some type of
thermoplastic rubbers.

Anyway, the optimum vulcanizate (rubber) properties cannot be achieved only by cross-
linking rubber molecules, but other additives must be added. Besides cross-linking agents
and antidegradants (used to slow down the process of aging), they include fillers that
have a positive influence on some of the utilisation properties and make them cheaper, as
well as additives allowing admixture of all the powdery or liquid additives, often referred
to as supplementary processing additives.

Rubbers, just like any other chemical compounds, can participate in other chemical
reactions (polymer-analogical reactions) under suitable conditions because they have
reactive function groups in their macromolecules (double bonds, reactive α-hydrogen,
other function groups). These usually include modification of undesired properties of
rubbers (e.g. resistance to aging, polarity, adhesion to other materials, linkage of
antidegradants), or production of rubbers with some new properties (CIIR. BIIR,
carboxyl rubbers). Intermediary reactions (cyclisation, isomerisation, degradation, cross-
linking and others) can occur simultaneously with the main chemical reaction.
 Elastomeric Materials
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Minna Poikelispää
Tampere University of Technology
The Laboratory of Plastic and Elastomer technology
minna.poikelispaa@tut.fi

On this course the students will get the basic information on different grades of rubber
and thermoelasts. The chapters focus on the following subjects:

- Introduction
- Rubber types
- Rubber blends
- Thermoplastic elastomers
- Processing
- Design of elastomeric products
- Recycling and reuse of elastomeric materials

The first chapter introduces shortly the history of rubbers. In addition, it cover
definitions, manufacturing of rubbers and general properties of elastomers. In this chapter
students get grounds to continue the studying.

The second chapter focus on different grades of elastomers. It describes the structure,
properties and application of the most common used rubbers. Some special rubbers are
also covered. The most important rubber type is natural rubber; other generally used
rubbers are polyisoprene rubber, which is synthetic version of NR, and styrene-butadiene
rubber, which is the most important sort of synthetic rubber.

Rubbers always contain some additives. The following chapter introduces the additives
used in rubbers and some common receipts of rubber.

The important chapter is Thermoplastic elastomers. Thermoplastic elastomers are a

polymer group whose main properties are elasticity and easy processability. This chapter
introduces the groups of thermoplastic elastomers and their properties. It also compares
the properties of different thermoplastic elastomers. The chapter Processing give a short
survey to a processing of rubbers and thermoplastic elastomers.
The following chapter covers design of elastomeric products. It gives the most important
criteria in choosing an elastomer. In addition, dimensioning and shaping of elastomeric
product are discussed

The last chapter Recycling and reuse of elastomeric materials introduces recycling
methods. It also covers processing of recycled rubber and applications of waste rubber.

After studying this course, the students have the basic information on different grades of
rubber and thermoplastic elastomers. They will know the recycling practices of rubbers
and they will understand the design practices of elastomeric materials.
 Raw Materials and Compounds in Rubber Industry
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Wilma Dierkes
University Twente
Faculty of Engineering Technology
Department of Elastomer Technology & Engineering
w.k.dierkes@utwente.nl

Within this module, the different types of compounding ingredients are discussed. The
chapters focus on the following ingredients:

- Polymers
- Fillers
- Curing systems
- Plasticizers
- Anti-degradants

For all these ingredients, the most relevant details concerning production processes and
structure are given, and their properties and application fields are discussed. Interactions
between different ingredients are explained, and preferred combinations are mentioned.
Elastomers are always used in functional applications, like tires, hoses, bearings, sealings
etc., where energy savings, safety, and the specific properties like rubber elasticity play a
crucial role.

The first sub-chapter focuses on the different types of polymers. The most important one
is natural rubber (NR): Still 45% of the worldwide rubber consumption consists of
natural rubber, which is a durable resource. Besides this ecologic aspect, natural rubber
plays an important socio-economic role in the Far East where a significant part of the
economy benefits from natural rubber production. As a natural product it’s properties are
influenced by environmental and seasonal variations. Natural rubber has one unique
property: it shows strain crystallization, making the material exceptionally strong.
Isoprene rubber (IR) is the synthetic counterpart of NR, but the properties of IR are
significantly different from the properties of NR. It is mainly used in combination with
other general purpose rubbers. Styrene-Butadiene rubber (SBR) is by far the most
important synthetic rubber and widely used in tire applications. It is sulfur-vulcanizable
and gives rubber-elastic properties; the styrene accounts for the damping, needed for the
skid resistance of tires.
Ethylene-propylene-diene rubber (EPDM) and its saturated counterpart EPM are very
durable rubbers. EPM can only be vulcanized with peroxides as it is fully saturated.
EPDM has an unsaturation in the side chain giving it a very good aging resistance. Butyl
rubber (IIR) is a specialty rubber that is used in inner tubes because of its low gas
permeability.

Butadiene-acrylonitrile rubber (NBR) distinguishes itself from NR and SBR in its good
resistance against non-polar substances like gasoline, diesel fuel, oils and fats, good
ageing resistance and good resistance to chemicals. Chloroprene rubber (CR)
distinguishes itself by good flame-resistance properties due to the chlorine atom.
Contrary to the other diene rubbers, CR is vulcanized with metal oxides like MgO and
ZnO, not with sulfur. Fluororubbers (FKM) allow the highest use temperatures, up to
240°C. These products have a very good oil resistance. Silicone rubbers (Q) distinguish
themselves by a good high temperature, ozone and UV resistance, good cold flexibility,
little temperature dependence of the mechanical properties.

The second sub-chapter is focused on fillers, active or reinforcing fillers and non-active
or non-reinforcing fillers. With activity or reinforcement, commonly all kinds of
rubber/filler interactions are described which express themselves in physical properties.
The processes occurring during mixing of polymers with fillers are described. The
general properties the fillers and their effects on the structure of the material and the
properties of the rubber are discussed. Carbon black and silica are discussed more in
detail and compared in terms of filler and properties and reinforcing effect.

The following sub-chapter deals with plasticizers: They are added to the compound in
order to improve the processability and to reduce the material costs. Mineral oils, or oils
directly obtained from crude oil refining, as well as synthetic oils are used. The choice for
a mineral oil is made based on the VGC index, a measure of the polarity of the oil. The
synthetic oils are all highly polar and mainly used for polar elastomers.

Another important sub-chapter is vulcanization. The basics of sulfur vulcanization are

given, and the most important accelerators, activators and retarders are described. This
crosslinking process can be used for unsaturated polymers. In contrast to this, peroxide
curing can be applied to all polymers which do not tend to decompose under the
influence of radicals. Typical peroxide/coagent combinations are given. Sulfur- and
peroxide-crosslinked polymers are compared in terms of properties. Other curing systems
such as oxides, resins and amines are briefly elaborated.

Rubber compounds can be degraded by a wide variety of environmental influences:

oxygen, ozone, light, metal ions and heat. Therefore antidegradants are important to
protect rubber against aerobic aging (oxygen) and ozone attack. The last sub-chapter is
dedicated to these additives. The most important classes of antidegradants are discussed
and their efficiencies are compared
After studying this module, the student has a good overview of the different types of
polymers, fillers, curing agents, plasticizers and anti-degradants, their properties and
application fields. He can make a choice of different compound ingredients depending on
the final application of the material and the required property profile.
 Processing of Elastomeric Materials
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Läroverket AB
info@laroverket.com

We welcome students to a module where processing methods of elastomeric materials are

discussed. Starting off with the mixing process of raw materials and continuing to
describe all the different processing methods used to produce rubber products. Everything
described for cured rubber as well as for thermoplastic elastomers.

Students may very well choose to study the module separately as an introduction to
rubber technology and benefit from the fact that there is included a short description of
polymers used in the rubber industry. The module deals with the following processing
techniques of elastomeric materials.

Main chapters:
• Mixing • Mould curing
• Textile treatment • Rubber-metal bonding
• Calandering • Vulcanisation
• Spreading • Latex processes
• Extrusion • Urethane rubber

Mixing
In the mixing process an uncured compound is manufactured in order to be used for
further processing into a rubber product.

Textile treatment
Reinforcing material has to be treated to obtain dimension stabilized products with good
bonding between rubber and the reinforcing material.

Calandering
An important process to make flat sheeting, rubber coated fabrics as uncured products or
as semi product parts.

Spreading
A technique for manufacturing thin rubber coated fabrics.
Extrusion
A technique for manufacturing long length products e g tubes or profiles which can be
cured to final products or be used as parts in confectioned rubber products.

Mould curing
Main technologies for moulding rubber are compression, transfer and injection moulding
and methods for post-processing of cured products.

Rubber-metal bonding
To achieve a good bonding between rubber and metal, the metal has to be degreased and
treated with bonding agents before moulding or autoclave curing.

Vulcanization
All different curing methods used to cure products shaped by the processes mentioned
above.

Latex processes
The processes used for manufacturing of products from liquid rubber latex in contrast to
the methods presented above, where dry rubber is used.

Urethane rubber
A presentation of the special processes used for manufacturing of products from liquid
urethane rubber.

Thermoplastic elastomers
The following processing methods for thermoplastic elastomers are discussed; injection
moulding, extrusion and some techniques for melt calandering and blow moulding.

Facts of processing methods

The choice of different processing methods and the economical view on techniques and
qualities aspects are dealt with in this chapter.

Environment and recycled rubber

Finally the student will find a chapter dealing with environment matters and the methods
of recycling of rubber.

After studying this module, the student has obtained a good overview and knowledge of
different processing methods used for producing all kinds of products manufactured of
cured rubber or thermoplastic elastomers. The student will also be able to choose a
suitable technique that will optimize costs and quality.
 Test Methods of Rubber Materials and Products
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Matador Rubber s.r.o

peter.janypka@matador.sk

Chapter “Rubber Raw Material Testing”

describes chemical analyses of raw materials used in the rubber and tyre-making
industry. This part is dedicated to a principal explanation of basic determinants in raw
material analysis. Such analyses are used primarily to determine basic chemical and
physical-chemical constants that are directly related to purity of the used raw materials.
The second part describes chemical analyses of vulcanizates. More complex procedures
are used and instrumental analytical methods are applied in chemical analyses of
vulcanizates. This part explains principles of instrumental analyses used in rubber-
making practice.

Chapter “Rubber Compound and Vulcanizate Testing”

is related to the chapter on “Rubber Raw Material Testing” and provides a
comprehensive description of the system of testing rubber compounds, materials and
vulcanizates, starting from sampling and testing vessels up to evaluation of test results
according to specific standards.

The chapter is divided into four parts as follows:

• Rubber Compound Testing
(determining viscosity, scorching, vulcanization characteristics)
• Testing Rheologic Properties of Compounds
(rheologic properties of elastomer systems, liquid classification, factors affecting
polymer viscosity, rheometry)
• Vulcanizate Testing
(determining stress-strain properties, hardness, rebound resilience, tear strength,
resistance to abrasion, aging test, dynamic tests, adhesion tests)
• Dynamical-Mechanical-Thermal Analysis of Vulcanizates

Chapter “Laboratory Tyre Testing”

discusses measuring and testing tyres in laboratory conditions. Laboratory tests are
divided according to two criteria – into specific categories of vehicles (passenger, utility,
agricultural and special vehicles) depending on their intended use and into dynamic and
static tests depending on the condition of the tyre to be tested. The chapter describes
preparation of tyre casings for the tests, simple and more complex measurements, speed
tests, endurance tests and special dynamic measurements of tyre casings for passenger,
utility and agricultural vehicles based on international, regional and national testing
methodology.

Chapter “Tyre Testing in Real Conditions”

deals with a classification of tests in terms of vehicle’s behaviour on the road, in terms of
the tested roadway surface, specialties and the character of the assessment process and
with measurement of properties. Tyre preparation before tests is an important part. The
subsequent section describes life testing methods and special tests and their classification
into subjective and objective tests.
 Reinforcing materials in Rubber Products
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Nokian Tyres plc

sirkka.hagman@nokiantyres.com

As described in the other modules of the VERT learning program, many elastomer types
are too weak to be used without some reinforcing system. This means that most practical
rubber products like tyres, hoses and different kinds of belts include the concept of
reinforcing the elastomer matrix with some reinforcing agent.

There are two main possible reinforcing principles: either the elastomer matrix is
compounded with reinforcing fillers or the product is provided with some fibre consisting
components applied in the product assembly phases.

The primary function of reinforcing filler is to improve the mechanical properties of the
rubber compound, whereas the fibre based components have the extra purpose to give
adequate functional properties to the product. In both cases it is crucially important, that
the additional components of rubber compound and the product are well bonded to the
elastomer segments of the matrix.

In this module of the Virtual Education for Rubber Technology (VERT) we tend to
provide a general background and awareness of reinforcing fibres, and to give the rubber
technologists an improved basic understanding of the uses, processes and potential
problems associated with the use of fibre components in rubber products. The VERT
module “The raw materials and compounds” handles the fundamentals of the topics of
reinforcing additives and fillers.

The first part of this module covers the definitions and classification of the most common
used textile fibres for example cotton, rayon, polyamide, polyester and aromatic
polyamides. It includes as well the basic technologies of the processes like twisting,
texturing, weaving, sizing and rubber/textile composite assembling by calendering or
coating. In the context of the properties of reinforcing fibres, particular attention is given
to the aspects of adhesion, heat setting, adhesive treatments and processing and the
assessment of adhesion. The first part also presents different kinds of test methods, which
are used in textile cord testing.

In the second part, the basic technologies of steel based fibres, steel cords, bead wires and
the processes like calendering, extruding, cutting and splicing, which are used in
preparing these components are handled. Again, attention is directed to the aspects of
adhesion, to illustrate how the optimum reinforcement and performance for a particular
application. Just like in the first part the in this part also different kinds of test methods
for steel wire and cord testing are introduced.

The third part of this module sheds light to the principles of applying fibre reinforcement
techniques in different rubber products. Short descriptions are presented on the use of
reinforcing fibres and components in the tyre products as well as in industrial and
consumer rubber good applications like belts, hoses and miscellaneous applications of
reinforced rubber including inflatable and non-inflated structures.
 Tyre as a car component
Virtual Education in Rubber Technology (VERT), FI-04-B-F-PP-160531

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Joop Pauwelussen, Wouter Dalhuijzen

HAN University, Mobility Technology Research
joop.pauwelussen@han.nl

The module ‘Tyre dynamics, tyre as a car component’ deals with the tyre properties in
relationship with car performance.

The first sub-module on tyre handling performance discusses the tyre-road interface,
and the tyre input and output parameters. Next, the rolling tyre, the braking tyre and the
tyre under cornering conditions are treated, including saturated slip behaviour, using tyre
models such as the empirical Pacejka model. Both pure slip and combined slip are
discussed, where cornering and braking may occur simultaneously In addition to an
empirical tyre description, some physical models are treated related to the brush and
string approach. The module closes with a treatment of first orde dynamic behaviour
(relaxation) and higher order (belt-) dynamics.

The second submodule on driver judgement of tyre handling characteristics gives

a survey of the impact of different tyre and road surface parameters on the judgement
of vehicle handling performance.

The third submodule on tyre rolling resistance starts with the definition of rolling
resistance and a discussion how rolling resistance can be explained physically. In the next
sections of this submodule, possible sources for varying rolling resistance are treated.

The fourth submodule on tyre noise discusses the relative impact of the tyre on the
emitted vehicle noise in comparison to powertrain and aerodynamic noise. This includes
sound generation mechanisms, sound enhancement mechanisms, and an outline of
factors, contributing to tyre noise.

The final submodule on tyre wear discusses the various tyre wear mechanisms, the
impact of tyre wear on vehicle performance and vice versa, as well as the dependence of
wear on driving conditions.

The module includes queries for on-line verification that one is sufficiently mastering the
material. The questions are mainly asking for understanding the mechanisms, rather then
asking for facts. In that way, the student is forced to process the material as offered in the
module to a sufficient abstract level, supported by continuous feed-back.