Load cut off switch upon over voltage or under

voltage

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Technology (Electrical Engineering)

Submitted
By

Rahul Razdan
Enroll No. BTEE12/007

Under the Guidance of

Mr. UTTAM KUMAR

Department of Electrical Engineering

Nims Institute of Engineering & Technology
NIMS University jaipur
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
Nims Institute of Engineering & Technology
NIMS University jaipur

Dated: May 15, 2011

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “LOAD CUT OFF SWITCH
UPON OVER VOLTAGE OR UNDER VOLTAGE” submitted by Mr.
RAHUL RAZDAN in partial fulfillment for the requirements for the award
of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Electrical at Nims Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Jaipur is an authentic work carried out by him
under the supervision of the undersigned.
To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not been
submitted to any other University / Institute for the award of any Degree or
Diploma.

(Mr. UTTAM KUMAR)

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
H.O.D ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
NIMS UNIVERSITY JAIPUR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe a great many thanks to great many people who helped and supported ME for the
completion of this project effectively and moreover in time.

My deepest and sincere thanks to Mr.Uttam Kumar, Assistant Professor, (Hod)

Department of Electrical Engineering, NIET NIMS University, Jaipur for giving me an
opportunity to carry out this project under his supervision. He has been very kind and
patient to me while suggesting the outlines of the project and has also been very helpful
in the successful completion of the same.I thank him for his overall support.

I am equally thankful to the Assistant Professor, Mr. Anand Sharma Department of

Electrical Engineering, NIET NIMS University, Jaipur for their support and guidance.

Finally, let me say “Thank You” to my friends Mr. Aman Paul Singh and Mr. Sanchay Joshi
for their encouraging words and motivation.

Lastly i express my abysmal adoration and heartfelt devotion to my beloved parents for
their countless blessings, unmatchable love, affection and incessant inspiration that has
given me strength to fight all odds and has shaped our life and career till today.

In the end i must record my special appreciation to my almighty who has always been
source of our strength, inspiration and my achievements.
 CONTENTS

List of Figures
Abstract

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction

Chapter 2 MATERIALS & METHODS

 2.1 555 Timer

2.2 LED
 2.3 Voltage Regulator

2.4 Resistors
 2.5 Capacitors

 2.6 Diodes
 2.7 Relay

2.8 Lamp
 2.9 Transformer

Chapter 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Result
3.2 Advantages of

3.4 Limitation
3.5 Application

Chapter 4 CONCLUSION
4.1 Conclusion

Chapter 5 REFERENCE
5.1 Reference
S NO. LIST OF FIGURES

1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
3 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
4 TRANSFORMER
5 555 TIMER
6 INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE OF 555 TIMER
7 DIODE 1N4007
8 ZENER DIODE
9 CONNECTION OF ZENER DIODE
10 TRANSISTOR BC547
11 RELAY
12 INTERNAL CIRCUIT OF RELAY
13 LOGIC DIAGRAM
14 LOAD (BULB)
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to develop an under voltage and overvoltage cutoff mechanism to

protect the load from damage. It cuts off the load when the input voltage is above or below a

set value.

This proposed system trips the load in the event of the input voltage falling below or above a

set value. Two 555 timers are used forming a window comparator. This delivers an error

output if the input voltage to them crosses the range beyond the voltage window. A relay is

then operated the contacts of which are used to cutoff the load for safety reasons. A lamp is

used as a load in this project.

The concept in future can be extended by integrating an alarm, which sounds when voltage

fluctuation occurs. It can also be interfaced with a GSM modem to convey alert message to

the user via SMS to take appropriate action.

 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
 1.1 Introduction

 The aim of the project is to make a low voltage and high voltage indicator.

 This system will save costly electrical and electronic

appliances from the adverse effects of very high and very Low mains voltages.

 The circuit features auto reset and utilizes easily available components. It makes use
of the comparators available inside 555 timer ICs.

 Supply is tapped from different points of the power supply circuit for the display and
control circuit operation to achieve reliability.

This is an over and under voltage protection to all electrical appliances to make them
safe. We use electronic circuits which cut off currents with power relay.

I’ve presented this way, it is Over & Under Voltage protection circuit. But today,
I’d recommend this because there is a very good following.

1. The relay will work all time in under or over voltage range.

2. This circuit will time delay all time when under or over voltage or power outage
awhile.

3. Can use fully performance, though under voltage to 12 volts or over voltage to 380
volts

4. Can be adapted to the circuit breaker when the power falls to 180 volts (or much –
less).
5. Can be adapted to the circuit breaker when the power is too high from 240 volts or
more (or much-less).

Chapter 2
 Materials & Methods

2.1 -555 TIMER

 The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and

multi vibrator applications.

 The original name was the SE555 (metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was

described as "The IC Time Machine".

 Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20

transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistor son a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-

in-line package (DIP-8)

 The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer

and multi vibrator applications

The 555 has three operating modes:

• Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications

include timers, missing pulse detection, switches, touch switches, frequency divider,

capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc.

• Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED

and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,

pulse position modulation, etc.

• Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is

not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches,

etc.
Internal architecture of 555 timers
Pin Name Purpose

1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)

2 TRIG OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC.

3 OUT This output is driven to +VCC or GND.

4 RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND.

5 CTRL "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).

6 THR The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.

7 DIS Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.

8 V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.

2.2 LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n

junction diode, which emits light when activated.[4]When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy
in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be
used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted low-
intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in
remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer
electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red.
Modern LEDs are available across the visible,ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising,general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes
and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain
somewhat more expensive, and require more precise current and heat management, than
compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology.

LED USED

LEDs are highly monochromatic, only emitting a single pure color in a narrowfrequency
range. The colour emitted from an LED is identified by peak wavelength which is measured
in nanometres (nm). The peak wavelength is a function of the material that is used in the
manufacturing of the semiconductor. Most LEDs are produced using gallium-based crystals
that differ in one or more additional materials such as phosphorous toproduce distinct
colours. Different LED chip technologies enable manufacturers to produce LEDs that emit
light in a specific region of the visible light spectrum and replicate different intensity levels.
Thus, one would vary the material used in the production of LEDs in order to obtain the
desired results. The graph below depicts the variation in response time for thespecific
wavelength of light.

Wavelength of light

Principle & Mechanism

The essential portion of the Light Emitting Diode is the semiconductor chip.Semiconductors
can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsicsemiconductors are those inwhich the electrical
behaviour is based on the electronic structure inherent to the pure material. When the
electrical characteristics are dictated by impurity atoms, the semiconductor is said to be
extrinsic. This chip is further divided into two parts or regions which are separated by a
boundary called a junction. The p-region is dominated bypositive electric charges (holes) and
the n-region is dominated by negative electric charges (electrons). The junction serves as a
barrier to the flow of the electrons between the p and the n-regions. This is somewhat similar
to the role of the band-gap because it determines how much voltage is needed to be applied to
the semiconductor chip before the current can flow and the electrons pass the junction into
the p-region.
Cross section of a typical semiconductor LED showing the n and p-type semiconductor
layers.
2.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear
voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not
give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at
input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Voltage Regulator Used

Pin No Function Name

1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input

2 Ground (0V) Ground

3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

PIN DESCRIPTION OF IC 7805

Features:

• Output Current up to 1A

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

2.4 RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. Resistors may be used to reduce current flow, and, at the same
time, may act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used
to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission
lines among other uses. High-power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical
power as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit
elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light,
humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented withinintegrated
circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.
2.5 CAPACITOR

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store electrical energytemporarily in an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates)
separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The
conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc.
The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials
commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica,
and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric fielddevelops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to
collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor,
a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is
defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).
The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between
them, the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as
the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.
A capacitor is an electronic component whose function is to accumulate charges and then
release it.

To understand the concept of capacitance, consider a pair of metal plates which all are placed
near to each other without touching.

CAPACITOR

If a battery is connected to these plates the positive pole to one and the negative pole to the
other, electrons from the battery will be attracted from the plate connected to the positive
terminal of the battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one plate will be left with an
excess of electrons, the other with a shortage, and a potential or voltage difference will exists
between them. These plates will be acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: -

(1) Fixed type like ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitors-these names refer to the
material they are made of aluminium foil.
 (2) Variable type like gang condenser in radio.

CAPACITOR USED

In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is written over its body and variable
type has three leads. Unit of measurement of a capacitor is farad denoted by the symbol F. It
is a very big unit of capacitance. Small unit capacitor are pico-farad denoted by pf
(Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's two terminal are
marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in the circuit in right direction.
Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operational.

DIFFERENT CAPACITORS
2.6 DIODE

. In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one

direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow
of current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.
A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece
of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical
[5]
terminals. Avacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode.
Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery
of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The
first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of
mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other
semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes used The most common
function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the
diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, including extraction ofmodulation from radio signals in radio
receivers—these diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action, because
of their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting
electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward
direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a
forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature;
this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a voltage reference.
A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting
the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during
manufacture. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many
different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to
protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and
TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn
diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and
IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching
circuits.
Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as shot-noise generators.

1N4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
ZENER DIODE
2.7 RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit
and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges
and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor
or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving
parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in one
direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the same
input have no effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where interrupted
power should not be able to transition the contacts.
Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the
relay will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset
when the polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the
reset coil the contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils
that employ steering diodes to differentiate between operate and reset commands.
2.8 LAMP

INDUCTIVE LOAD:
An inductive load consists of a load created by a wire

Wound coil, such as in a relay or solenoid, a transformer,

Or any load which uses a winding over a magnetic iron core.

Breaking an inductive load is usually more severe than

Breaking a resistive load and will generally produce

Heavy arcing.
2.9 TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an
electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power
applications.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive
force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making
use of Faraday's Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic
permeability core properties, transformers can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages
from one voltage level to another within power networks.
Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885, transformers have
become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current
electrical energy.[3] A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and
electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a
cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power gridweighing hundreds of tons.
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors — the transformer's coils or "windings". Except for air-core
transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around
separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the first or "primary" winding
creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary"
winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
220V/12V STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding
and electrical energy will flow from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load.
In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to
the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary to
the number of turns in the primary as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
(AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making
NS less than NP.

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden

inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect
portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the
range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers
in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices
designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power
transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically practical.
POWER SUPPLY USED IN THE PROJECT

Basic principle

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil
of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing
the current in the primary coil changes the magnitude of the applied magnetic field. The
changing magnetic flux extends to the secondary coil where a voltage is induced across its
ends.

FIG4. BASIC TRANSFORMER

CONSTRUCTION

Induction law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:
where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and Φ
equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic field strength
B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional
area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the
excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary coils in an ideal transformer. the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding
equals the ideal power equation.

Ideal power equation

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is
perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the
magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric
power must equal the outgoing power.

Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS

giving the ideal transformer equation

If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS>VP), then the current is decreased (stepped down)
(IS<IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable
approximation.

The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.For example, if
an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the
primary circuit to have an impedance of . This relationship is reciprocal, so that the
impedance ZP of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be .

Practical considerations

Leakage flux

FLUX PATH IN TRANSFORMERS

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all
the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it
outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in
series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being
alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power
supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage
regulation, causing the secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary,
particularly under heavy load.Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low
leakage inductance.

However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths,
air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a transformer's design
to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.Leaky transformers may be used to supply
loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon
signs; or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric
arc welders.Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-
frequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings.

Effect of frequency

The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral of
the applied voltage. Hypothetically an ideal transformer would work with direct-current
excitation, with the core flux increasing linearly with time. In practice, the flux would rise to
the point where magnetic saturation of the core occurs, causing a huge increase in the
magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All practical transformers must
therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.
 Chapter 3

Result and conclusions

3.1 RESULT & CONCLUSION
The result is observed that the load is operated at a constant voltage of 220 v. If the voltage is
above or below 220v the switch designed cuts off the circuit using relay.

Thus we have designed a switch that operates through a relay which cuts off the circuit at
high as well as low voltage from a predetermined value of voltage.
 Chapter 5

References
5.1REFERENCES

1 www.edgefxkits.com/load-cut-off-switch-upon-over-voltage-or-under-voltage
2 www.efxkits.com/load-cut-off-switch-upon-over-voltage-or-under-voltage
3 https://www.elprocus.com/under-and-overvoltage-protection-circuit/
4 www.circuitsgallery.com/2012/11/over-voltage-protection-circuit.html

5 www.slideshare.net/saigoud8121/over-voltage-under-voltage-tripping-mechanism
6 nevonprojects.com/over-voltage-under-voltage-load-protection-
projectwww.electrosal.com/core.../303-load-cutoff-switch-upon-over-voltage-or-under-
voltage.
7 electronic devices and circuits jb gupta 2009