THEORY

The information signal can rarely be transmitted as is, it must be processed. In order to use
electromagnetic transmission, it must first be converted from audio into an electric signal. The
conversion is accomplished by a transducer. After conversion it is used to modulate a carrier
signal.

A carrier signal is used for two reasons:

 To reduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and reception (the optimum
antenna size is ½ or ¼ of a wavelength). A typical audio frequency of 3000 Hz will
have a wavelength of 100 km and would need an effective antenna length of 25 km! By
comparison, a typical carrier for FM is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 m, and could
use an antenna only 80 cm long.
 To allow simultaneous use of the same channel, called multiplexing. Each unique signal
can be assigned a different carrier frequency (like radio stations) and still share the same
channel. The phone company actually invented modulation to allow phone
conversations to be transmitted over common lines.

The process of modulation means to systematically use the information signal (what you want
to transmit) to vary some parameter of the carrier signal. The carrier signal is usually just a
simple, single-frequency sinusoid (varies in time like a sine wave).

The basic sine wave goes like V(t) = Vo sin (2 p f t + f) where the parameters are defined
below:

V(t): the voltage of the signal as a function of time.

Vo: the amplitude of the signal (represents the maximum value achieved each cycle)
f t: the frequency of oscillation, the number of cycles per second (also known as Hertz = 1
cycle per second)
f: the phase of the signal, representing the starting point of the cycle.
To modulate the signal just means to systematically vary one of the three parameters of the
signal: amplitude, frequency or phase. Therefore, the type of modulation may be categorized
as either

AM: amplitude modulation

FM: frequency modulation or

PM: phase modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM)

It is a process in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of modulating voltage. The amount of change in frequency is determined
by the amplitude of the modulating signal. As seen in fig, frequency of the carrier signal
increase as the amplitude of the modulating signal rises while decreases as the amplitude of the
modulating voltage drops down. When the amplitude of the modulating signal is zero the
carrier signal has frequency at its normal value “fo" called resting or center frequency.

 The amounts of frequency variation (frequency deviation or shift) depend on the

amplitude of the audio signal. Greater the audio signal, higher will be the frequency
shift and vice versa. According to the international law regarding frequency spectrum
the maximum frequency deviation should be 75 KHz.

The rate of frequency deviation depends on signal frequency.The total variation in frequency
from lowest to highest called Carrier swing (CS), obviously the carrier swing =2 * frequency
deviation. We know that max deviation of 75Hz is allowed for commercial FM broadcast
stations in range 88-168MHz within VHF band, hence FM channel width =2 * 75 =150Hz,with
a guard band of 25KHz on either side. The channel width become 2(75 +25) =200 KHz. The

purpose of guard band is to prevent a signal from its adjacent channel interference.
Advantages of FM modulation

Both FM and AM are practical system but differ in performance and characteristics:
1. FM system is more immune to noise so higher signal to noise ration (S/N)
2. Due to guard band interference from adjacent channel does not take place.
3. All the transmitted power in FM is useful, while in AM most of the power in carrier
and useless.

Modulation index: It is given by the expression: Frequency deviation/Modulating frequency

=∆f/fm.
Deviation Ratio: In the modulation index equation if we allow max frequency deviation and
max modulating frequency then it become “Deviation
Ratio" Deviation ratio = (∆f) max /fm (max).

Drawbacks of FM modulation
1) Required much wider band almost 7-15 times the AM.

2) Sophisticated and expensive equipment are required.

3 )Coverage area for the FM is reserved, while the only hindrance to AM is line of sight (LOS)
problem
FM Modulation Waves

What Is Amplitude Modulation?

In order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or for two
way radio communication, it must be modulated or changed in some way. Although there are
a number of ways in which a radio signal may be modulated, one of the easiest is to change its
amplitude in line with variations of the sound.

In this way the amplitude of the radio frequency signal varies in line with the instantaneous
value of the intensity of the modulation. This means that the radio frequency signal has a
representation of the sound wave superimposed in it.

In view of the way the basic signal "carries" the sound or modulation, the radio frequency
signal is often termed the "carrier".
AM Modulation Waves

Amplitude modulation, AM, is one of the most straightforward ways of modulating a radio
signal or carrier. It can be achieved in a number of ways, but the simplest uses a single diode
rectifier circuit.

Other methods of demodulating an AM signal use synchronous techniques and provide much
lower levels of distortion and improved reception where selective fading is present.

One of the main reasons for the popularity of amplitude modulation has been the simplicity of
the demodulation. It enables costs to be kept low - a significant advantage in producing vast
quantities of very low cost AM radios.
Advantages & disadvantages of amplitude modulation, AM

As with any technology there are advantages and disadvantages to be considered. The summary
below gives a highlight of the basic pro's and con's.

Advantages

 It is simple to implement

 it can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components

 AM receivers are very cheap as no specialised components are needed.

Disadvantages

 It is not efficient in terms of its power usage

 It is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to twice
that of the highest audio frequency

 It is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based and obviously
AM detectors are sensitive to it.