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707e00.htm#top

1. GENERAL BACKGROUND

1.0 What is topography?

1.1 Purpose of this manual
1.2 Why do you need to know about topography?

Choosing a site
Surveying a site
Making a construction survey
Studying your water supply
Studying your soils

1.3 There are two kinds of lines in topography

1.4 How to plot lines in the field
1.5 How to make and use markers to plot your line
1.6 How to set out a straight line between two points

Setting out a straight line between two points visible from each other
Setting out a straight line between two points when you cannot see one from the
other

1.7 How to prolong a line you have marked in the field

How to prolong a line where there is no obstacle

Prolonging a line behind an obstacle

2. MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

2.0 Introduction

Measuring distances along straight lines

Expressing distances as horizontal measurements
Measuring distances along lines that run through obstacles
Choosing the most suitable method
Calculating perimeter lengths

2.1 How to measure distances with a ruler

Making your own ruler

Measuring short distances with your ruler

2.2 How to measure distances by pacing

Finding your own pace factor

Measuring horizontal distances by pacing
Pacing with a passometer or a pedometer
2.3 How to chain with a rope

Making your own measuring rope

Measuring horizontal distances with a rope

2.4 How to chain with bands or tapes

Measuring horizontal distances with a steel band or a tape

2.5 How to chain with a surveyor's chain

Measuring horizontal distances with a chain

2.6 How to measure distances by chaining

Chaining over horizontal ground

Chaining over sloping ground
Chaining over irregular ground
Improving the accuracy of your chaining

2.7 How to measure distances with a clisimeter

Making your own stadia staff

Measuring distances with a stadia staff
Measuring distances on sloping ground

2.8 How to measure distances by the stadia method

2.9 How to measure distances that run through obstacles

Measuring a distance across a lake or an agricultural field

Measuring a distance across a river

3. MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLES

3.0 Introduction

What is a horizontal angle?

Expressing horizontal angles
Some general rules about angles
Choosing the most suitable method

3.1 How to use the graphometer

Building your own graphometer

Using the home-made graphometer to measure horizontal angles
Measuring an angle with an inaccessible summit.
Measuring consecutive angles

3.2 How to use a magnetic compass

What is a magnetic compass?
Using the compass to measure horizontal angles
Measuring the azimuth of a line
Measuring a measure horizontal angle
Surveying a polygonal site
Checking when using a compass

3.3 Graphic methods for measuring horizontal angles

Using a simple compass and a protractor in the field

Using a plane-table and a protractor.
What is a protractor
Making your own protractor
Using the protractor to measure an angle you have drawn

3.4 How to measure horizontal angles by the right-angle method

3.5 How to measure horizontal angles with a theodolite
3.6 How to set out right angles or perpendiculars

What are right angles and perpendiculars

What are the main problems you will face
Dropping a perpendicular by the full-circle method
Dropping a perpendicular by the half-circle method
Setting out a perpendicular by the mid-point method
Setting out a perpendicular by the intersection method
Using the short-line intersection method
Using the long-line intersection method
Setting out a perpendicular by the 3:4:5 rule method
Making your own 3:4:5 measuring line
Using the short 3:4:5 line to set out a right angle
Using the medium 3:4:5 line to set out a right angle
Using the long 3:4:5 line to set out a right angle
Using a measuring tape to set out a right angle
Setting out a perpendicular with a cross-staff
Making your own cross-staff
Adjusting the home-made cross-staff
Using the cross-staff to set out a right angle

3.7 How set out parallel lines

What are parallel lines

Setting out parallels by the 3:4:5 rule method
Setting out parallels with the crossing-lines method
Setting out a series of rectangular areas

4. MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES AND SLOPES

4.0 Introduction
How to express the slope of a line
Converting percentage of a slope into degrees, or degrees into percentage
Measuring and calculating slopes
Using slope to calculate horizontal distances
Choosing a method to use for measuring slopes

4.1 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 1

4.2 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 2
4.3 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 3
4.4 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 4
4.5 How to use the clisimeter

Using the clisimeter to measure a slope

Using the clisimeter to lay out a slope

4.6 How to use the optical clinometer

4.7 How to use miscellaneous levelling devices
4.8 How to set out and check verticals

Setting out and checking verticals with a plumb-line

Making your own plumb-line
Using a plumb-line to set out a vertical
Checking small verticals with a mason's level

5. MEASURING HEIGHT DIFFERENCES - PART 1

5.0 Introduction

Height differences in fish culture

Types of problems you will be facing
Measuring the height of ground points
Making your own levelling staff
Choosing the best method for measuring height differences
Calculating height differences from slopes
Calculating height differences from vertical angles
Using height differences to calculate horizontal distances

5.1 How to use the straight-edge level

5.2 How to use the line level
5.3 How to use the flexible-tube water level
5.4 How to use the T-bone level
5.5 How to use the improved T-bone level
5.6 How to use the bamboo sighting level
5.7 How to use the hand level
5.8 How to use the the surveyor's level and theodolite

6. MEASURING HEIGHT DIFFERENCES - PART 2

6.0 Introduction: contour levelling methods

6.1 How to use the mason's level
What is a mason's level?
Using a mason's level to check horizontality

6.2 How to use the A-frame level

Making your own A-frame level

Adjusting the A-frame level
Using the A-frame for contouring

6.3 How to use the A-frame and plumb-line level

Making your A-frame and plumb-line level

Adjusting your A-frame and plumb-line level

6.4 How to use the H-frame water level

Making your H-frame water level

Adjusting your H-frame water level
Using your H-frame water level for contouring

6.5 How to use the semi-circular water level

Making your own semi-circular water level

Uing your semi-circular water level for contouring

6.6 How to contour with non-sighting levels

Using the straight-edge level for contouring

Using the line level for contouring
Using the flexible-tube water level for contouring

6.7 How to contour with sighting levels

Using the bamboo sighting level for contouring

Using the hand level for contouring
Using the surveyor's level or the theodolite for contouring

6.8 How to contour with slope-measuring devices

6.9 How to set graded lines of slope

Using slope-measuring devices for setting lines of slope

Using sighting levels for setting lines of slope
Using non-sighting levels for setting lines of slope

7. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS - PLAN SURVEYING

7.0 Introduction

What is a topographical survey?

What do topographical surveys involve?
Planning your topographical surveys
What are the main methods used in plan surveying?

7.1 How to survey by traversing

What is a traverse?
Which method should be used for traversing?
Choosing the route of a traverse
Surveying an open traverse with a magnetic compass
Adjusting an open traverse
Surveying a closed traverse with a magnetic compass
Adjusting a closed traverse

7.2 How to survey by radiating

What is a radiating survey?

Choosing the observation station
Choosing a method for radiating surveys
Caraying out a radiating plan survey with a magnetic compass

7.3 How to survey by offset

What is an offset?
Surveying by offset

7.4 How to survey by triangulation

What is triangulation?
Using the triangulation method

7.5 How to use the plane-table

What is a plane-table?
Making a very simple plane-table
Making an improved plane-table
Making your own alidade
Using the plane-table
What are the advantages of plane-tabling?
What are the disadvantages of plane-tabling?
Covering the board with drawing paper
Setting up the plane-table
Orienting the plane-table
Plane-tabling methods for reconnaissance surveys
Plane-tabling for plotting details
Measuring horizontal angles by plane-tabling

8. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS - DIRECT LEVELLING

8.0 Introduction
What are elevation and altitude?
What are the main levelling methods?
What are the kinds of direct levelling?

8.1 How to level by differential

What is differential levelling?

What are backsights and foresights?
Surveying two points with one turning point
Surveying two points using several turning points
Making topographical surveys by straight open traverses
Making topographical surveys by broken open traverses
Checking on levelling errors
Making topographical surveys by closed traverses
Making topographical surveys by the square grid
Making topographical radiating surveys
Combining traversing and composite radiating
Making topographical surveys with non-sighting levels
Making bench-marks for topographical surveys

8.2 How to level by profile

What is the purpose of profile levelling?

What does profile levelling consists of?
Longitudinal profile levelling by radiating
Longitudinal profile levelling by traversing
Cross-section profile levelling

8.3 How to contour

What is a contour?
What is contouring?
What are the main methods for contouring?
Selecting the contouring method
Laying out contours on the ground with a sighting level
Laying out contours with a non-sighting level
Contouring by the indirect method

9. TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS

9.0 Introduction

What are topographical plans and maps?

Starting topographical plans and maps

9.1 How to make scales for plans and maps

What is the scale of a plan or map?

Expressing a scale
Choosing a scale
9.2. How to make a map by plane-tabling

Mapping an open traverse with a plane-table

Mapping an closed traverse with a plane-table
Mapping with a plane-table by radiating
Mapping with a plane-table by triangulation
Mapping with a plane-table by combined methods

9.3 How to map by protractor and scale

9.4 How to map contours

What is a contour line?

What are the characteristics of contour lines?
Choosing the contour interval of contour lines
Making a contour map

9.5 How to plot longitudinal profiles

Why are longitudinal profiles plotted?

Information from which longitudinal profiles can be plotted
Scales to be used for longitudinal profiles
Plotting profiles from contour maps
Plotting profiles from your own field survey

9.6 How to plot cross-section profiles

Plotting cross-section profiles from contour maps

Plotting cross-section profiles for earth-work estimates

10. MEASUREMENT OF AREAS

10.1 Introduction
10.2 How to use the strips method for measuring areas
10.3 How to use the square-grid method for measuring areas
10.4 How to subdivide the area into regular geometrical figures

Measuring areas by triangles

Using a base line to subdivide land areas
Subdividing land areas without base lines

10.5 How to measure areas bounded by a curve

11. TOPOGRAPHY AND FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE

11.0 What you have learned

11.1 How to make preliminary studies from topographical maps

Finding the size of the drainage area and the availability of water for fish culture
Finding the size of the area to be flooded
Obtaining ground profiles from topographical maps
Finding differences in elevation along a stream
Determining the shape of stream valleys
Making a slope map from a topographical map

11.2 How to make a reconnaissance survey of a possible site

Studying the longitudinal profile of the stream valley

Making cross-section profiles of the potential site
Contour-mapping of the potential site
Finding the maximum area of a reservoir

11.3 How to make a feasibility study of a potential site

Estimating the area of the future reservoir

Estimating the volume of the future reservoir
Estimating the volume of an earth dam
Using what you know about topography to install a pumping station

11.4 How to make levelling surveys for fish-farm construction

Staking out a water supply canal for construction

Staking out a pond bottom before construction

ANNEX I - Some useful mathematical formulae for regular geometrical figures

ANNEX II - Tangents and values of angles

ANNEX III - Cosine values of angles

1. GENERAL BACKGROUND

1.0 What is topography?

Topography is the science of
measuring the earth and its features,
and of making maps, charts and plans
to show them. These features may
be natural, such as plains, hills,
mountains, lakes, streams, rocks or
forests. They may also be man-made,
such as paths, roads, buildings,
villages or fish ponds. A topographical
map can also show the slope of the
ground. It can show not only which
places are high and which are low, but
also how steep the land is between
high and low points.

Sometimes topography is also

called surveying. A person whose
profession is making topographical
measurements and recording them on
maps, charts and plans is called
a surveyor.

1.1 Purpose of this manual

In this manual, you will learn what you

need to know about topography to
help you choose a good site for your
freshwater fish-farm, and to design
and build fish ponds, reservoirs for
storing water, and small dams. You
will also learn how to draw your own
topographical maps and how to use
topographical maps that are already
available.

To do all this you will learn:

 How to measure distances,

angles, slopes, and height
differences,
 How to set out straight lines,
perpendiculars, and parallels in
the field;
 How to determine horizontal and
vertical lines;
 How to survey an area of land to
find its size and its high or low, flat
or sloping features (called the
relief);
 How to make simple surveys that
will help you when you are ready
to build your fish-farm;
  How to prepare and how to use
topographical plans and maps;
 How to calculate areas and
volumes.

You will learn some of the technical language that land surveyors and civil engineers use. This way, you will be able to
discuss your plans and projects with them more easily, and you will better understand books on topography,
engineering and surveying.

1.2 Why do you need to know about topography?

Choosing a site

1. In other books in this series, Simple Methods for Aquaculture, FAO Training Series (4 and 6) , you
learned how to study water and soil on a site before deciding to build a reservoir for storing water and a fish-farm on
it. Topography is also very important when you are choosing a site. Good fish-farm construction is
possible only with the right topography.

2. After you choose a possible area of land for your fish-farm, you will need to measure:

 its size;
 the slope of its ground surface;
 its elevation (height) in relation to the source of water you want to use.

You will also need to find out:

 the distance between the source of water and the location of the ponds;
 the best way to supply water to the ponds;
 the easiest way of draining the ponds.

3. You will need to measure distances in different ways. You may have to measure very long distances; to do this,
you must know how to measure distances along a straight line, and how to keep this line straight. In addition, when you
measure on a slope, you will need to find the horizontal distance rather than the distance on the ground.
4. When you are looking for a site for a small dam, you will find that the best choice is a narrowing valley where
the stream slope is not too great and the valley walls are steep. You can use an existing topographical map to help you
find such a valley, or you can measure a valley yourself to see if it is a good dam site.

5. When you have chosen the best site for your fish-farm, topographical methods will help you to decide whether
you can do all the work that is needed on it.

Surveying a site

6. After you choose a possible site for your fish-farm, you will need to survey the site, keeping in mind your plan for
the farm. For this survey you will measure distances, directions, areas, slopes and height differences in more detail.

7. To do this, you will have to draw a detailed topographical plan. This plan will show the position of boundaries,
the different heights of land forms such as hills, and the location of existing physical features such as paths, roads,
streams, springs, forests, rocks and buildings. Such a plan is very important because it gives you the basic horizontal
and vertical elements of the area, which will guide you in your design of the farm. It shows you the direction the water
will have to take, from higher to lower points. It guides you in choosing where the water-supply canal, the ponds and the
drainage ditches will go. It becomes the basis for estimating how much earth you will have to move as you build, and
how much all the work will cost.

8. All the physical features of your fish-farm depend directly on the topography of the site. These features
include the type, number, size and shape of the fish-ponds, and how they are placed in relation to each other. The
supply of water and the type of drainage also depend on the topography of the site.

Fish farm Plan

Making a construction survey

9. Once you have made a detailed survey of the site you have chosen, and designed the fish-farm or dam (see next
volumes in this series), you will use topographical methods to help guide you as you build.

10. You will need to make sure that your fish-ponds regularly get the right amount of water. To do this, you must build a
water supply canal with the right size and bottom slope. First, you will need to stake out the water supply canal,
along its centre-line. You will then need to tell the workers helping you exactly how wide, deep and long the canal must
be, and how much earth they must remove at each point of the canal.

11. You will need to stake out the bottom area of each pond and tell the workers how much earth to remove and
where to transport it. This will allow you to drain all the water out of the ponds in a natural way. It will then be easy to
harvest your fish and to manage your pond.

Canal Pond

12. You will need to stake out the dikes of each pond and show the workers where to remove soil and where to
add soil. You will also need to mark the location, height and width of each dike, as well as the slopes of their walls.
Usually, you will need to set out perpendicular*(crossing) and parallel* (side-by-side) lines to do this.

13.You will need to follow the exact plan of your fish-farm as you work. To do this, you will have to be sure where each
structure should be built, and you will have to check these locations during construction. You will need to measure
differences in height between the different parts of the farm to make sure that the water will flow naturally in the right
direction. The water will have to flow, for example, from the water source to the ponds, from the pond inlets to the
outlets and from the outlets into a drainage ditch, which carries the water away from the farm site.

Plan Working from the plan

Studying your water supply

14. In Water for Freshwater Fish Culture, FAO Training Series (4), you learned how to use simple
topographical methods:

 for finding the surface area and the water volume of ponds (see Section 2.0);
 for finding the water flow of a stream (see Section 3.3);
 for using a weir (see Section 3.6);
 for measuring the heads of water pipes and siphons (see Sections 3.7 and 3.8);
 for choosing the site of a dam (see Section 4.1);
 for estimating the volume of a reservoir (see Section 4.2).

Measuring the volume of a pond Choosing a site for a reservoir

Studying your soils

15. In Section 1.3of Soil and A map for studying your soil
Freshwater Fish Culture, FAO Training
Series (6), you learned that the
qualities of soils vary depending on the
topography of the area. Shallow soil is
found on sloping land and deep soil is
found on flatter land, for example. You
learned that alluvial soil, which is
found in sedimentation plains, often
contains large amounts of clay. The
clay in this soil helps it to retain water,
and makes it a good material for
building dams.

16. You will need to use topographical

methods to draw a map showing the
different kinds of soil present in an
area of land. In Soil and Freshwater
Fish Culture, Sections 2.4 and 2.5, you
learned how to use two of these
methods: reconnaissance surveys and
detailed soil surveys.

1.3 There are two kinds of lines in topography

1. Almost all topographical methods Straight line
are based on lines. There are two kinds
of lines, lines of measurement and lines
of sight.

 Lines of measurement may be

either horizontal or vertical or they
may follow the level of the ground.
These lines are clearly plotted in Broken line
the field with markers to show the
exact path along which you will
measure. A line of measurement
can be:
o a straight line, which runs
in one direction between
two marked end-points;
o a broken line, which Curved line
changes direction more
than once between two
marked end-points, with
each point at which the
direction changes also
marked;
o a curved line, which is
marked like a broken line,
but with markers much
more closely spaced so
that the curve is clearly
followed.
 A line of sight is an imaginary line
that begins at the eye of the
surveyor and runs towards a fixed
point. Lines of sight are either
horizontal or oblique (between
horizontal and vertical).

1.4 How to plot lines in the field

1. Lines of measurement are always plotted on the ground either as one straight line or as many connected
straight lines. The markers that show where the line goes can be pegs, small concrete pillars, simple wooden stakes
or ranging poles (see next Section).

2. Lines of sight* are always straight lines. The object or point you look toward, called the point of reference, is
marked either by a ranging pole or a levelling staff (see Section 5.0).

3.Vertical lines of measurement can be formed with the help of a plumb-line (see Section 4.8).

Some field markers A ranging pole A plumb-line

1.5 How to make and use markers to plot your line

1. You can make wooden pegs to use when you plot your line. Get straight pieces of wood 3 to 8 cm in diameter and
0.1 to 1 m long. With a knife, shape the pieces at one end to make sharp points so that they can be easily driven into
the ground. Your pegs will last longer if you make them out of hard wood and coat them with used engine oil to prevent
rotting.

2. You can use iron pegs, made of cut pieces of iron rod or tube about 1.3 to 2 cm in diameter. You can also use long
wire nails. Iron pegs last longer than wooden pegs, but they cost more and they are heavier and more difficult to carry
when you are working in the field.
3. When you have a point on the ground that you will need to refer to for a long time, you can mark it with a
small, upright pillar made of concrete. Such pillars should be from 15 to 30 cm square, and 10 to 60 cm high. You
can build them on the site, placed on a small concrete base.

Note: to make your measurements in the field more accurate, you will often need to mark a point on your peg or
pillar. This will show exactly where you must take the measurement, or place a measuring instrument. To do this, you
can drive a nail into the flat top of the wooden peg, or you can set a nail into the top of the concrete pillar.

The nail shows the exact point

4. Ranging poles are the most Ranging pole White card for sighting
commonly used markers in
topographical surveys. Ranging
poles are long, thin poles. You can use
them to mark a point on the ground that
you need to see from a distance. You
can easily make your own ranging pole.
Get a straight wooden pole, 2 to 3 m
long and 3 to 4 cm thick. Shape the
lower end into a point to make it easier
to push into the ground. At the other
end of the pole, cut a slit 5 cm deep into
the top side. Then, starting from the top
end, paint one 40 cm long section red;
paint the next 40 cm section white.
Continue painting the pole in alternating
red and white sections until you reach
the end.
Colourful flags for sighting

5. Sometimes you will need to sight a

ranging pole from a long distance. To
make the pole easier to see, fasten two
small flags of different colours, one
above the other, near the top of the
pole. Or you can place a 15 x 25 cm
piece of white cardboard in the slit at
the top of the pole.

6. You must always drive ranging poles vertically into the ground. To check that your pole is vertical, take a few
steps back and look at it. If it seems straight, walk one-quarter of the way around the pole, and check that it also looks
straight from the side. Adjust it if necessary until the front and side views are both vertical.

7. At times you will have to centre a ranging pole over a marker and leave it in position for some time. To do this,
you can use a series of guys. These are ropes or wires which you will tie around the pole, and fasten to pegs in the
ground. You can also use guys with the pole on hard ground, whenever you cannot drive the pole deep enough into
the ground to keep it in a vertical position.

Check from both sides that the ranging pole is A guy to hold the ranging pole steady
vertical
1.6 How to set out a straight line between two points
1. When you carry out a simple survey,
you will often need to set out straight
lines between two given points, called A
and B, which are more than 50 m
apart. To do this, you will "range" line
AB. This means that you will
plot intermediate points along line AB at
intervals preferably shorter than 30 m.

2. When you range a line, you will face

one of two possible situations:

 you can see point A from point B

and vice versa;
 you cannot see point A from point
B. In this case, an obstacle (a
forest, river, lake, etc.) is in the
way.

Setting out a straight line between two points visible from each other
3. You want to set out line AB. Mark Setting out line AB with ranging poles
the beginning of the line, point A, with
a ranging pole. Then mark the end of
the line, point B, with another ranging
pole. You will now need an assistant to
help you.

4. Stand about 1 m behind ranging

pole A and look at ranging pole B.
Your assistant should stand at ranging
pole B. Ask him to walk, carrying
another ranging pole, about 40 paces
from B towards A, and stop.

5. Ask your assistant to move slowly

sideways while he holds the ranging
pole vertically in one hand between his
thumb and forefinger. When the
ranging pole he is holding hides
ranging pole B,ask him to stop and to
drive his pole vertically into the
ground. This is intermediate point C.

6. Ask your assistant to walk 40 paces

toward you, from C toward A. Then
repeat the same procedure as above
with a fourth ranging pole. Mark the
new intermediate point D.

7. If the distance from D to A is greater than 50 m, you should repeat the same procedure and mark the next
intermediate points E, F, G

Note: always make sure that the ranging poles are vertical.

Make sure the ranging poles line up exactly

Setting out a straight line between two points when you cannot see one from
the other
8. You have to set out line AB, which
runs through a forest. Mark points A
and B with ranging poles. Choose a
point X, which is beyond point B, and
which you can see clearly from point
A. Mark point X with a ranging pole or
a marking peg. Then set out a line as
above from point A to point X,
avoiding the forest.

9. Look at Section 3.6 of this manual,

and learn how to drop a
perpendicular. Then, from point
B, how to drop a perpendicular. Then,
from point B, drop perpendicular
BC onto line AX. The lines will cross
at point C.
Set out line AX

Drop perpendicular BC

10. Choose a point D on line AX,

close to the forest, and set out
perpendicular DY. Point Y must be on
the other sideof line AB.

11. Measure horizontal

distances horizontal distances AD, Set out perpendicular DY
AC, and CB, using one of the
methods described in Chapter 2.

12. Intermediate point E will be the

place where line DY intersects line
AB. To find its exact location, you
must calculate horizontal distance DE
using the formula:

DE = AD x (CB ÷
Set out perpendicular FZ
AC)
13. To mark point E, you must
measure this distance DE
horizontally. Starting from D, pace off
the distance DE along line DY. Mark
intermediate point E with a ranging
pole.
Connect the points you have found to form line
14. Walk along line AX to the other AGEB
side of the forest. Set out a
perpendicular FZ close to the forest,
using one of the methods described in
Section 3.6. Point F is on line AX;
point Z is beyond line AB.

15. Measure horizontal distance AF

(see Chapter 2).

16. Point G will be the intersection of

lines AB and FZ. To find it you must
first calculate horizontal distance FG
as:

FG = AF x (CB ÷
AC)

17. Measure this distance FG

horizontally. From F, measure along
line FZ to determine point G. That is,
the intersection of line FZ and line AB.
Mark intermediate point G with a
ranging pole.

18. You have now clearly laid out and

marked line AB in the field as line
AGEB

1.7 How to prolong a line you have marked in the field

1. You will often need to make a
straight line you have marked longer;
this is called prolonging a line. As in
the previous section, you will have to
consider two different situations:

 prolonging a line where there is

no obstacle;
 prolonging a line behind an
obstacle.

Prolonging a line where there is

no obstacle

2. Mark a straight line AB in the field

with a ranging pole at each end. If you Line up all the ranging poles alone
are working alone, take a ranging pole
and walk away from point B, following
the direction of line AB as closely as
you can. After you have walked about
40 paces, stop and turn around to
face ranging poles B and A.

3. Hold your ranging pole vertically in

front of you between your thumb and
forefinger. Then move slightly
sideways, if necessary, until your pole
seems to hide ranging poles B and
A from your view. Drive your pole into
the ground in a vertical position.

4. Step back 1 to 2 m along the line

and check to see if ranging poles B
and A are still hidden behind your
ranging pole. If they are not, move ... or with an assistant
your pole a little to the left or right,
and step back and check again.
Repeat this procedure until your pole
is in the right position. This then
marks point C, which prolongs line
AB.

5. If you are working with an assistant,

stand 1 to 2 m behind ranging pole A
to determine a line of sight AB. Your
assistant should stand by ranging
pole B.

6. Ask your assistant to walk, carrying

a ranging pole, about 40 paces from
ranging pole B in the direction away
from you. He should then stop and
turn around to face you.
7. While your assistant holds his
ranging pole vertically, ask him to
move to the left or right until ranging
poles A and B hide his ranging pole.
At that point, direct your assistant to
drive his ranging pole vertically into
the ground. This marks point C, which
prolongs line AB.

Prolonging a line behind an

obstacle
8. You want to prolong line AB to a
point behind a forest. Set
out perpendiculars AX and BY from
points A and B respectively, using one
of the methods described in Section
3.6.

9. On these two You must prolong line AB through the forest

perpendiculars, measure equal
horizontal distances AA' = BB' You
must make sure that this distance is
far enough along the perpendiculars
so that the line joining points A' and B',
when prolonged, will just clear the
obstacle.

10. Prolong line A'B' through C' and

D',well past the obstacle, using the
method described above in steps 2-7.

11. At points C' and D' set

out perpendicular lines C' Z and D'W
(see Section 3.6).
Set out perpendiculars AX and BY, then find points
A' and B' and join them with a line
12. On these two perpendiculars,
measure horizontal distances equal to
AA' (see step 9 above) and determine
points C and D. Mark these points with
ranging poles. You have now
prolonged line AB with line CD.

Prolong line A'B' to points C' and D'

 Set out perpendiculars C'Z and D'W

Find points C and D and join them to prolong AB

2. MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

2.0 Introduction
Measuring distances along straight lines
1. In topographical surveys, you measure
distances along straight lines. These lines
either join two fixed points or run in one
direction starting from one fixed point.
They are plotted in the field with pegs,
pillars or ranging poles.

Expressing distances as horizontal measurements

2. You should always measure distances
as horizontal distances. You may have to
measure on ground which has no slope, or
only a very small slope that is less than or
equal to 5 percent (see Section 4.0). The
distance measured on this type of ground
will be equal to or very close to the
horizontal distance. When the slope of the
terrain is greater than 5 percent, however,
you will have to find the horizontal
distance. To do this, you must
either correct any measurements you
made along the ground (see Section 4.0)
or use another method of measurement
(see following sections). Unlevelled ground
also requires particular methods of
measurement.

Measuring distances along lines that run through obstacles

3. Usually, you will be able to reach all
the points of the straight line you want
to measure. But in some cases an
obstacle such as a lake, a river or a
cultivated field will be in the way, and
you will have to take indirect
measurements. This means that you
will calculate horizontal distances
along the original straight line (see
Section 2.9).
Chaining with a rope

Choosing the most suitable method

4. There are many good ways to measure distances. The method of measurement
you use will depend on several factors:

 the accuracy of the result needed;

 the equipment you have available, to use;
 the type of terrain you need to measure.

In the following sections, you will learn how to use the various methods of
measurement. Table 1 will also help you to compare these methods and to select the
one best suited to your needs.

TABLE 1

Distance measurement methods

 2
1 Error per 3
Section Method Distance Remarks Equipment
100 m2
Medium 1 to 2 m For quick, rough
22* Pace count None
to long or more estimates
Pacing with a
1 to 2 m For quick, rough Passometer or
22* passometer or Long
or more estimates podometer
podometer
Especially useful
0.05 to Ruler (mason's level,
21* Ruler Short for sloping
0.10 m plumb line)
ground
Chaining using Medium 0.5 to 1 Liana or rope, string,
23** Cheap
a rope to long m marking line
Chaining using Medium less than Best results with Steel band, measuring
24**
a band or tape to long 0.05 m steel lines tape
Chaining using Medium 0.02 to
25** Stronger quality Surveying chain
a chain to long 0.10 m
For quick and Clisimeter (lyra-)
27*** Clisimeter Medium 1 to 2 m
rough estimates (2 m stadia staff)
For quick and
Medium 0.1 to 0.4 Telescope with stadia
28*** Stadia accurate
to long m hairs, levelling staff
measures

1
* Simple ** More difficult *** Most difficult.
2
Error increases as the terrain becomes more difficult (slope, vegetation, obstacles).
3
In addition to ranging poles (setting out the line), marking pegs (intermediate points), and
notebook/pencil. In italics, equipment you can build yourself, as explained in text.

Calculating perimeter lengths

5. The perimeter of an area is its outer
boundary. The length of the perimeter of
regular geometrical figures can be
calculated from the mathematical formulas
given in Annex 1, at the end of this manual.

Perimeter WXYZW

AB + BC + CD + DE + EF + FA = Perimeter
ABCDEFA

2.1 How to measure short distances with a ruler

1. To measure short distances, use a measuring stick called a ruler, 4 to 5 m long.

You can make your own by following the steps below. A ruler is particularly useful for
measuring horizontal distances on sloping ground.

Making your own ruler

2. Get a piece of wood which is straight and flat. It should be about 5 cm wide, and a
little more than 4 m long. You can also use a shorter length, if the distance you are
going to measure is shorter.

3. It is best to use a planed piece of wood, but if you cannot get one you may use a
straight wooden pole. If you use a pole, you should plane at least one of its surfaces.

Measuring with a ruler A planed piece of wood is best...

... but you can also plane one side of a pole

4. You should now add graduations to it. Graduations are marks which show exact
measurements, in centimetres, decimetres, metres, etc. To do this, you need to get
two ready-made measuring tapes, such as the 2 m ribbon tapes that tailors use. Glue
one of these measuring tapes onto the planed face of your piece of wood. Take care
to align the zero mark of this tape with one of the ends of the piece of wood. Glue the
second tape next to the end of the first tape; this should reach near the end of the
piece of wood. Drive several small nails through the tapes to secure them better.

5. You can also make the graduations yourself. Using a measuring ruler or tape, mark
the graduations on the piece of wood with a pencil. With a knife or saw, make a
straight, shallow cut every 10 cm. A carpenter, with his tools, can help you to do this
more accurately. Identify the graduations with numbers (for example, every 0.5 m)
using paint or ink; or you can use a piece of hot wire to burn the graduations and
their numbers into the wood.

Use glue and nails to secure the tapes

Mark your ruler accurately

Measuring short distances with your ruler

6. When you have to measure a short
distance on horizontal terrain, mark
each end of the distance with ranging
poles. Place your ruler on the ground
with its end at the first ranging pole,
making sure the ruler follows the
straight line. Put a marking peg at the
other end of the ruler. Then take the
ruler and place its first end at this
marking peg. Continue in this way until
you reach near the end of the line,
keeping an accurate count of the
number of ruler lengths. You will
usually need to use only part of the
ruler's length to measure the last part
of the line. Take care then to read the
graduations on the ruler correctly.
 Read the graduations carefully

7. When you need to measure a distance on

sloping terrain, your ruler will be very useful
for finding horizontal distances. You
proceed downhill, and for each
measurement:

 make sure that the ruler is

horizontal, using a mason's level (see
Section 6.1);
 determine the point where you need to
place the marking peg, using a plumb-
A mason's level
line at the end of the ruler (see Section
4.8).

Note: when you measure a distance on

sloping ground, remember that you should
proceed downhill. A plumb-line
2.2 How to measure distances by pacing

1. You may measure distances roughly by pacing. This means you count the number
of normal steps which will cover the distance between two points along a straight
line. Pacing is particularly useful in reconnaissance surveys, for contouring using the
grid method (see Section 8.3) and for quickly checking chaining measurements (see
Sections 2.3 to 2.5).

2. To be accurate, you should know the average length of your step when you walk
normally. This length is called your normal pace. Always measure your pace from
the toes of the foot behind to the toes of the foot in front.

Count your steps as you walk

Finding your own pace factor

3. To measure the average length of your normal pace (the pace factor, or PF):

 take 100 normal steps on horizontal ground, starting with the toes of your back foot from a
well-marked point, A, and walking along a straight line.
 mark the end of your last step with peg B, at the toes of your front foot.
 measure the distance AB (in metres) with, for example, a tape and calculate your pace factor
PF (in metres) as follows:
 PF = AB ÷100

Walk 100 paces

Example

If for 100 paces, you measure a distance of 76

m, then your pace factor is calculated like this:
PF = 76 m ÷ 100 = 0.76 m.

Mark the distance

Note: to determine a more accurate

pace factor:

 walk over a longer distance (at

least 250 paces);
 repeat the measurements at least
three times and calculate the
average PF.

Example

For 250 paces, you measure successively

185 m, 190 m and 188 m; in total, for 3 x
250 = 750 paces, you have walked 185 +
190 + 188 m = 563 m; your average pace
factor, PF = 563 m ÷ 750 = 0.75 m.
4.Your pace factor will vary, depending
on the type of terrain you are
measuring. Remember that:

 your pace will be shorter in tall

vegetation than in short
vegetation;
 your pace will be shorter walking
uphill than walking downhill;
 your pace will be shorter walking
on sloping ground than on flat
ground;
 your pace will be shorter walking
on soft ground than on hard
ground.

To get the best results, you should first

make your paces as nearly the same
length as possible. To do this, walk
over known distances, both on level
ground and on uneven or sloping
ground. Adjust your pace so that it is
as regular as possible.

Measuring horizontal distances by pacing

5. Clearly plot the straight lines you
have to measure, using wooden pegs
or ranging poles. If necessary, remove
any high vegetation standing in the
way.

6. Walk along the straight lines, Plot the lines you want to measure
carefully counting your steps.

7. Multiply the number of steps N by

your pace factor PF (in metres) to get a
rough estimate of the distance in
metres, as follows:
 Distance (m) = N x
PF

Example

To measure ABCD, pace distances AB =

127 steps; BC = 214 steps; and CD = 83
steps. ABCD = 127 + 214 + 83 = 424
steps.
If PF = 0.75 m, ABCD = 424 x 0.75 m =
318 m

Note: to avoid errors when counting

your steps:

 count only double steps or strides,

and multiply the total count by 2;
 take count of the hundreds with
your fingers (using one finger for
each hundred steps);
 take count of the thousands by
ticking them off on paper;
 when crossing obstacles such as Estimate the size of obstacles
fences and small streams,
estimate the number of steps,
strides or half-steps it would take
to cross them.
Pacing with a passometer or a pedometer
8. You can register your paces
mechanically by using a simple device
called a passometer. The passometer
is about the size of a watch. You
should wear it on a point near the
centre of your body, attached to a belt
or waistband for example. At each
pace you take, the jolt of your step
makes a pointer in the passometer
turn. This pointer shows the number of
paces. The passometer counts your steps

9. The pedometer is a similar device,

but it registers distance. This is usually
expressed in kilometres and fractions
of kilometres.

10. You should check these two

devices for accuracy before you use
them. To check a passometer, walk a
few hundred paces, counting them
carefully. Then compare your total The pedometer measures distances
count of paces with the number of
registered paces, and adjust the device
as necessary. To check a pedometer,
walk at a normal pace along a straight
line over a known distance. Compare
this distance with the registered
distance, and adjust the device as
necessary.

2.3 How to chain with a rope

1. For greater accuracy in
measurement, especially over difficult
terrain, you can use a measuring
line made from rope. Depending on the
distances you need to measure, you
can make a measuring rope 10, 20 or
30 m long.

Making your own measuring rope

2. Get a rope 1 to 1.5 cm thick, made
of natural fibres. Ropes of man-made fibres,
such as nylon, may change over time, but
natural materials, such as jute, will shrink or
stretch very little. A piece of used sisal rope is
better to use than a new one. You can also
use a piece of supple liana, which you can
easily find in the forest.
Choose the right size rope
3. Put the first mark- the zero mark- about 20
cm from one end of the rope. From this point,
accurately measure the length you need one
metre at a time. Leave about 20 cm at the
other end of the rope. Mark each metre point
with durable waterproof paint, dye, ink or
coloured wax. Keep these metre marks as
thin as possible to avoid inaccurate
measurements. You can use thin string for
the marks instead, threading the string
through the rope so that it does not shift
position.

4. Reinforce the two ends of your measuring

rope. To do this, tightly wind some light string
around the last 10 cm of each end of the
rope.

Reinforce the ends with string

Make each mark easy to read

Measuring horizontal distances with a rope

5. Clearly plot the straight lines you
want to measure, using wooden pegs,
for example. On either side of each of
these lines, clear a narrow strip of
ground completely, removing
vegetation and large stones.

6. If the distances are shorter than your

rope, or about the same length, you Clear the ground where you are working
can take their measurements directly.
To do this, carefully stretch the rope
from one peg to the next. If a distance
fails between the metre marks on your
rope, measure this shorter length with
a ruler or a tape graduated in
centimetres.

7. If the distances are longer than your

rope, you will need to use one of the
chaining methods described later (see
Section 2.6). These methods can be
used with all measuring lines, including
ropes, bands, tapes or chains.

Stretch the rope straight

Measure the difference with a ruler

2.4 How to chain with bands or tapes

1. You can buy bands and tapes in
stores. A measuring band is made of a
strip of steel, usually 6 mm wide and
30 or 50 m long. Metres, decimetres
and centimetres are clearly marked on
the band. Bands are wound onto an
open frame, with a spindle and handle
for rewinding. A measuring band

2. Measuring tapes are made of steel,

metallic cloth or fibreglass material.
They come in lengths of 10 to 30 m or
more. They are usually marked at 1 m
intervals, with the first and last metres
graduated in decimetres and
centimetres. They are wound into a
case, with a handle for rewinding.
Tapes can present some problems.
Steel tapes can easily become twisted
A measuring tape
and break. Cloth tapes are less precise
than the others, since they often vary
slightly in length.
Measuring horizontal distances with a steel band or a tape

3. Plot the straight lines you need to measure. If the lines are the same length as
your measuring band or tape or shorter, you can measure the distances directly. To
do this, stretch the band or tape from one peg to the next one.

4. If the lines are longer than your band or tape, use one of the methods described
later (see Section 2.6).

Note: you should pull bands and tapes tight, so that they do not sag, especially when
you are measuring long distances. But, you should avoid over-stretching them
(especially fibreglass tapes), since this could lead to errors.

Keep the band or tape straight and tight

Read the measurement at the peg

2.5 How to chain with a surveyor's chain

1. Surveyor's chains are also sold in
stores. They are made of a series of
steel links; each link is the same
length, usually 20 cm. The links are
attached to each other by steel
rings. The length of one link includes its
straight portion, its two rounded ends,
and the two half-rings that connect it to
the links on either side. Each metre of
the chain is usually marked by a brass
ring. At each end of the chain, there is
a metal handle which you should
include in the measurements. The total
length of the chain is usually 10 or 20
m. Chains are less accurate than Measuring with a surveyor's chain
bands and tapes, but they are much
stronger.

2. When you use a surveyor's chain,

you should be careful of the following:

 make sure that the rounded end of

one length does not remain on top
of the one next to it. This can make
the chain shorter. At the start of
each survey, check for this by
sliding the entire length of the
chain through your hand and
straightening all the links;
 avoid leaving the chain in the sun
since the heat may cause the
chain to become longer;
 pull the chain tight enough for
accurate measurement. Make sure the links are straight

Measure the length of each link with a ruler

Check the length of the chain

3. When using a chain for the first time, you Example

should carefully measure the length of each
link, using a ruler. Remember that this If each link is 0.20 m long, there should be five
length includes the straight part and its two links per metre of chain.
rounded ends, as well as the two connecting
half- rings. At each end of the chain, the
handle, one shorter link, and half the
connecting ring make up the length of a link.
After measuring the length of the links,
check that 1 m of chain equals the expected
number of links.
4. You should always fold the surveyor's chain as follows:
 take the two handles together in your left  collect two links at a time with your right
hand, doubling the chain; hand, putting them slantwise.

Take both handles in your left hand

Collect the links two at a time

5. To unfold a surveyor's chain, hold the two

handles in your left hand and throw the chain
in the direction of the measurement you want
to make.

Throw the chain in the direction of the

measurement

Measuring horizontal distances with a chain

6. The chain is used for measuring the lengths of straight lines, which should be
marked at each end with a ranging pole. You will need an assistant to help you. The
method of chaining you use depends on the type of terrain you are measuring (see
Section 2.6).
When you measure with a chain,
you will need an assistant

Hold the chain tight against the marker

2.6 How to measure distances by chaining

1. As you have learned, measuring lines can be ropes, bands, tapes or surveyor's
chains. When you measure long distances, the way you use the measuring line will
depend on the slope of the terrain. When the terrain is flat or nearly flat (that is, with a
slope of 5 percent or less - see Section 4.0), you can measure the horizontal
distances by following the ground surface. This method is usually used in measuring
fish culture sites, where steeper slopes must be avoided. When the slope of the
terrain is steeper than 5 percent, you should be especially careful when you measure
the horizontal distances because in this case the surface measurement is always
greater than the horizontal measurement.

On flat ground, measure directly

... the surface measurement is longer

The horizontal distance is the true

measurement...

Chaining over horizontal ground

2. Mark each straight line you need to
measure with a ranging pole at each
end. On lines longer than 50 m, place
intermediate markers at regular
intervals,

3. To measure long distances

accurately, you will need marking
pins. You can use thin wooden stakes
about 25 cm long, which you can easily
carry in a small basket. These marking
pins will be driven vertically into the
ground as you proceed with the
chaining.

4. Chaining is carried out by two

persons, a rear chainman and a head
chainman. The rear chainman is
responsible for the measurements. He
notes the results. He also guides
the head chainman to make sure that
the consecutive measurements are
made exactly along straight lines
between the marked ground points.

5. Start the measurements at one end

of the straight line. Remove the
ranging pole and drive the first marking
pin into the ground at exactly the same
point.

6. The rear chainman places his end of

the measuring line against this marking
pin. The head chainman, taking with The rear chainman stays at the first point...
him a number of marking pins, walks
away along the straight line with the
other end of the measuring line.
7. The head chainman stops when the
measuring line is stretched out tightly
to its full length on the ground. He then
looks towards the rear chainman. If the
measuring line is not placed exactly
along the straight line, the rear
chainman then tells the head chainman
how to correct the position of the
... and helps the head chainman find the second
measuring line. point

8. When the measuring line is correctly

placed, the rear chainman signals to
the head chainman to place a second
marking pin at the end of the
measuring line.

9. The rear chainman

immediately notes down this When the second pin is placed...
measurement.

10. The rear chainman then removes

the first marking pin, putting it in his
basket, and replaces the ranging
pole at the starting point.

... the rear chainman notes the

measurement
... and puts the first pin in his basket...

11. Still holding their ends of the

measuring line, both chainmen move
forward along the straight line, always
keeping the measuring line well
stretched. This is particularly important
when using a surveyor's chain.

12. The rear chainman stops at the Both chainman move forward...
second marking pin and places his end
of the measuring line against it.

13. The head chainman tightens the

measuring line along the ground,
corrects its position following any
directions from the rear chainman, and
places a third marking pin at the end of
the measuring line when signalled to
do so.
 ... to measure the distance between
the second and third pins

14. The rear chainman notes down this

measurement. Then he puts the
second marking pin in his basket
before moving on.

15. The process in steps 10 to 14

should be repeated along each section The head chainman notes each distance
of the straight line until the end is
reached.

Note 1: when the end of the line is

reached, the number of marking pins in
the basket of the rear chainman
shows the number of complete
measuring-line lengths measured. You
can use this to check on the
measurements noted down.

Note 2: using a set of 11 marking

pins makes it easier to keep track of
the number of measurements
completed. When the rear chainman
has ten pins in his basket, ten complete
measuring-line lengths have been The number of pins in the basket helps
measured. He notes this down and you keep count
gives the ten pins back to the head
chainman, leaving the eleventh pin in
the ground; this is the starting point of a
new series of measurements.

10 chain lengths have been measured

Example

Using a chain 10 m long, the rear

chainman has marked 4 x 10 pins in his
notebook. He has 6 marking pins in his
basket. At the marking pin still in the
ground, he has measured a distance of (4 x
10) + 6 = 46 chain lengths or 46 x 10 m =
460 m.

Chaining over sloping ground

16. When you are measuring on
ground with a slope greater than 5
percent (see Section 4.0), you will
need to use the measuring line
differently to find the horizontal
distances.

17. Proceed as described in the

previous section. Mark the straight
lines with ranging poles at each end
and intermediate pegs. Remember
to work downhill for greater accuracy.

18. The head chainman should hold

the measuring line horizontal, above
the ground, in this case.

19. When the measuring line is in the

right place and is fully stretched, the
head chainman finds the exact point on
which to place the marking pin, using
a plumb-line (see Section 4.8).

20. Keep proceeding in this way along

the slope.

Note: on steep slopes, use a shorter

measuring line (such as 5 m, rather
than 10 m).

21. As you measure on sloping ground, remember these important requirements:

 horizontal measuring line;  well-stretched measuring line;

Horizontal measuring line
Well-stretched measuring line

 exact placement of the marking pins.

Note: you may also measure along the

ground on a slope. But to obtain horizontal
distances, you will need to correct these
ground measurements afterwards by
using mathematical formulas .

Exact placement of the marking pins

Chaining over irregular ground

22. You may need to measure
distances over irregular ground that
has ridges, mounds, rocks, trenches or
streams in the way. In such cases, you
need to lift the measuring line above
the obstacle. Make sure that you do
the following:

 keep the measuring line well

stretched. The head chainman
may shorten it by looping it in his
hand if necessary;

 keep the line horizontal, using a

mason's level for the best
accuracy (see Section 6.1);
 lift the back end of the measuring
line exactly above the marking
pin, using a plumb-fine if
necessary (see Section 4.8).
23. Instead of using a plumb-line, you
can use longer marking pins, such as
ranging poles, set vertically in the
ground.

Ranging poles are taller than marking pegs

24. In very hard or rocky soils, you will Painted rock or block
not be able to use marking pins. In
such cases, mark t he points with
objects you can see easily, such as
painted rocks or blocks of wood. Make
sure that your markers will not blow or
roll away. Or, you can make a mark on
the ground with a stick, or make a
mark on a rock with chalk.

Improving the accuracy of your chaining

25. To make your chaining more
accurate, you should repeat the
measurements at least once; start
measuring at the point where you
finished, and continue back along the
line. This second measurement should
not differ too much from the first one Measure twice for accuracy
(see Chart below).

26. If the two measurements agree, you

can calculate their average value. The
average value is taken as the true
measured distance.
 Maximum permissible difference between two
consecutive
distance measurements, per 100 m

Steel band or tape 0.1 m

Other tape 0.2 m
AB + BA = Average Surveyor's chain 0.2 m
2
Home-made rope 1.0 m

Example

Using a surveyor's chain, you take the

following measurements:

 first measurement: 312.6 m;

 second measurement: 313.2 m; First measurement
 real difference: 313.2 m - 312.6 m
= 0.6 m;
 acceptable difference: 0.2 m x
(312.6 m ÷ 100)
= 0.2 m x 3.12 m = 0.62 m
which is larger than the real
difference and therefore agrees;
 average distance: (312.6 m +
313.2 m) ÷ 2 = 312.9 m

Second measurement

27. If the two measurements differ by

too much, you should take a third
measurement. Compare this with the
first two measurements. Then
calculate the average value from the
two most similar values, as shown
above.
First measurement
Example

Chaining with a steel tape, you take the

following measurements:

 first measurement: 754.4 m; Second measurement

 second measurement: 753.2 m;
 real difference: 754.4 m - 753.2 m
= 1.2 m;
 acceptable difference: 0.1 m x
7.54 m = 0.75 m, which is smaller
than the real difference and
therefore does not agree;
 third measurement: 753.9 m; Third measurement
 difference 754.4 - 753.9 m = 0.5
m which is acceptable, being
smaller than 0.75 m;
 average distance: (754.4 m +
753.9 m) ÷ 2 = 754.15 m.

28. If you find you have very different

measurements of the same line, you may not
have been measuring along the true straight
line. To reduce such errors, put more ranging
poles on the line between the endpoints. If
you tie white or brightly coloured pieces of
cloth to the poles, you will be able to see
them better. Also, be sure to guide the head
chainman carefully as you measure.
A crooked line gives the wrong measurement

More ranging poles increase your accuracy

Flags make sighting easier

29. Further improve the accuracy of your

measurements by:

 inspecting the full length of the

measuring line before using it to measure
a series of straight lines;
 keeping a uniform tension on the
measuring line during each measurement; Check your line before use
 accurately marking each point of
 measurement;
 keeping an accurate count of these points;
 using the right device, such as a ruler, to
measure distances less than the
measuring-line length, and knowing how
to read the graduations on it (see Section
2.1).

Note: it is better if the head chainman holds

the zero end of the measuring line. The rear
chainman can then directly make and note
down any intermediate readings.

Always stretch it tight

Mark and count points accurately

2.7 How to measure distances with a clisimeter

1. The lyra clisimeter is a simple
instrument which can be used for
measuring distances. It is also used for
measuring ground slope (see Section
4.5). The clisimeter is not as accurate
as a measuring line, but you can get A folded clisimeter
a quick estimate of distances from it
without having to walk the length of the
line. The longer the distance you
measure with it, however, the less
accurate the measurement will be. For
good estimates, do not exceed 30 m
distances. For rough estimates, you
may measure distances up to 150 m.

2. The lyra clisimeter consists of

a sighting device, a hanging ring, and a
bottom weight to keep the instrument in
a stable vertical position. The
clisimeter folds into this weight so that
it can be easily carried.

Sighting with a clisimeter

3. When you look through the sighting The scale inside a clisimeter
device, you will see three vertical
scales. A scale is a series of marks
along a line at regular intervals. You
will use the central scale,
the stadimetric scale, for measuring
horizontal distances. Note that this
central scale is made up of two parts:

 The top part, marked 150, 100 ...

7 m;
 The bottom part, marked 150,
100 ... 10 m.

4. To measure a distance with the

clisimeter, you need an assistant to
help you, and a reference height (called
the base). The method you use with
the clisimeter will depend on the kind
of base you choose.

 You may use a 2 m base, clearly

marked on a wooden stake called
a stadia staff. In this case, you will
use the top part of the distance
scale, marked BASE 2.00 m.
 Or you may take the height of
your assistant as the base; in this
case, you will use the bottom
part of the distance scale, marked
BASE 1.70 m.

Making your own stadia staff

5. Get a straight piece of wood 2.50 m
long. A rectangular stake with a cross-
section of 8 x 4 cm is best, but you can
use a round pole with a cross-section
of 6 to 8 cm instead.

6. Get two wooden boards measuring

30 x 40 cm each.
Materials
7. Nail these boards along their centre
lines 10 cm from each end of the
stake, as shown in the figure.
8. Draw a horizontal line across the
middle of one of these boards. This is
called the median line.

9. From this line, measure exactly 2 m

along the stake. You should reach a
point near the middle of the second
board. At this point draw a horizontal
line across the board.

10. Using a pencil and ruler, divide the

length of the stake between the two
boards, which should be 1.70 m, into
10 cm sections.

11. Paint the two sections of the boards

lying outside the 2 m length in bright
red. Then paint, in red, the first 10 cm
section next to each board and each
alternate section in between.

12. Paint all the other sections of the

boards and stake in white, including
the 10 cm end sections of the stake.
Your stadia staff is now ready to use
for measuring distances.

Note: for short distances, you can use

a simpler staff; get a pole or staff
exactly 2 m long and paint it alternately
in red and white, as described above.

Measuring distances with a stadia staff

13. Send your assistant, carrying the
stadia staff, out to the first point along
the line you want to measure. There he
places the staff as nearly vertical as
possible and the painted side of the
staff should face you.

14. Holding the clisimeter in one hand,

look through its sighting device at the
stadia staff. Align the zero line of the
central scale with the median line of the
bottom board.

15. Look at the top part of the central

scale (BASE 2.00 m) of your clisimeter,
and read the distance in metres at the
graduation which lines up with
the median line of the top board.

16. Carefully note this reading in a

field-book.

17. Signal to your assistant to remove

the stadia staff and replace it with a
marking pin. He should then move on
to the next point to be measured.

18. Move up to the marking pin left by

your assistant, and repeat the
procedure until you reach the end of
the line.
Sighting at the stadia staff using the upper scale
Note: remember that for fairly accurate
measurements, each distance you
measure along the straight line should
not exceed 30 m

Measuring distances without a stadia staff

19. If you do not have a stadia staff, you
can use the height of your assistant as a
reference instead. The height you need
for this method is 1.70 m. Measure your
assistant's height. If this differs much from
1.70 m, do one of the following:

 if your assistant is taller than 1.70 m,

measure the height of his eyes or
mouth from the ground and choose
the height nearest 1.70 m;
 if your assistant is shorter than 1.70
m, ask him to place an object on his
head (such as a can, a bottle or a
block of wood) which will increase his
height up-to 1.70 m.

Find a reference point 1.70 m high

20. Send your assistant out along the line

you want to measure and, at the selected
point, ask him to stand as straight as
possible, facing you.

21. Holding the clisimeter in one hand,

look through the sighting device at your
assistant. Align the zero line of the central
scale with the 1.70 m mark you have
chosen, such as the top of his head, his
eyes or the top of a bottle carried on his
head.

22. Look at the bottom part of the central

scale (BASE 1.70 m), and read the
distance in metres at the graduation which
lines up with the ground level under his
feet.

23. Carefully note this reading in your

field-book.
Sighting at your assistant using the lower scale
24. Signal to your assistant to drive a
marking pin into the ground at the point
where he was standing, and to move onto
the next point to be measured.

25. Move up to the marking pin and

repeat the procedure as many times as
necessary. For the greatest accuracy,
each distance you measure along the line
should not exceed 30 m.

Measuring distances on sloping ground

26. If you are taking a measurement on a slope greater than 5 percent, you must
correct the clisimeter reading to get the true horizontal distance. To do this, you
need to use a mathematical formula, as explained in Section 4.0.

2.8 How to measure distances by the stadia method

The stadia method is rapid and
accurate for measuring long distances,
but to apply this method, you need to
get expensive surveying equipment and
learn how to use it. Therefore, only a
brief description of the method is given
here so that you can understand its Sighting at a levelling staff with the telescope
basic principles.

1. The equipment used with this

method includes a highly technical
sighting device called a telescope. To
use it, you must sight through two
crossed hairs; there are also two extra
horizontal hairs called stadia hairs.
Most surveyor's levels (see Section
5.8) have these stadia hairs at an
equal distance above and below the
horizontal cross-hair.

2. To measure a distance, you will also The scale inside a surveyor's telescope
need a levelling staff which is clearly
graduated in centimetres (see Section Example
5.0).
 Upper stadia hair reading: 1.62 m;
3. Set up the surveyor's level at the  Lower stadia hair reading: 0.52 m;
point from which you will measure the  Stadia interval = 1.62 m - 0.52 m = 1.10 m;
distance. Signal to your assistant to  Stadia factor = 100;
place the levelling staff vertically at the  Distance AB = 1.10 m x 100 = 110 m.
next point of the line. The distance
between you and the staff may be
several hundred metres.

4. Look through the telescope and read

the graduations (in metres) on the
levelling staff that line up with
the upper stadia hair and the lower
stadia hair. Note these measurements
down in your field-book.

5. Subtract the smaller reading from

the larger reading. This represents the
interval between the two hairs, called
the stadia interval.

6. To find the distance (in metres),

multiply the stadia interval by a fixed
value called the stadia factor. It is given
for each telescope, but on most
instruments this factor equals 100.

Note: if you are working on sloping

ground, you must correct this figure to
find the true horizontal distance (see
Section 4.0).

2.9 How to measure distances that run through obstacles

1. To use the preceding methods, you
must be able to walkover the whole
length of each straight line and take
direct measurements. Sometimes,
however, there is an obstacle on the Line XY crosses a lake
line that makes measuring the distance
directly impossible. Such a line could
be across a body of water such as a
lake, a lagoon or a river, or across
agricultural fields with standing crops.
In these cases, you must take indirect
measurements of a segment of the line.
You will use some of the methods you
learned in Section 1.6 for setting out a Set out line AZ
line across an obstacle.

Measuring a distance across a

lake or an agricultural field

2. From point A on the line XY running

through the obstacle, set out another
straight line AZ, avoiding the obstacle. Lay out perpendicular CB

3. On this new line, layout

a perpendicular line CB joining the
original line at point B behind the
obstacle (see Section 3.6).

4. Measure the two new line sections

AC and CB and calculate the unknown
distance AB from a mathematical
formula as follows:

AB = (AC2 + BC2)

Measuring a distance across a river

5. Here, the obstacle (a river) cannot be
avoided, but you can see the points you
need to measure from both sides of the
river. There are several methods, based on
geometry, which can be used. Two simple
ones are described here.

6. Method 1. You need to measure distance GH crosses a river

GH across a river. Using ranging poles,
prolong line GH back to point C. At G and
C, lay out perpendiculars GZ and CX. On
each of these lines, set out a point, E and
F, so that they lie on a straight line FY
passing through H, on the opposite bank.
Measure accessible distances GE, GC and
CF. Calculate the inaccessible distance GH
as:
You can see point H from point G
GH = (GE x GC) ÷(CF -
GE)

Lay out perpendiculars GZ and CX

Prolong the line back to point C

Find points E and F on line FEHY Calculate distance GH

Example

You wish to measure GH, across a river:

 prolong line GH back to C;

 lay out perpendiculars GZ and CX;
 select points F and E on line FEH;
 measure distances GE = 34 m; GC = 36
m; CF = 54 m;
 calculate GH = (34 m x 36 m) ÷ (54 m -
 34 m);
GH = 1 224 m ÷ 20 m = 61.2 m.

7. Method 2. You need to measure distance

AB across a river. Layout line BX
perpendicular to AB on one river bank.
Determine the point C of this perpendicular
from which you will be able to sight point A
across the river, using a 45-degree angle (see,
for example, Section 3.6, step 63). Measure
distance CB, which is equal to inaccessible Line AB crosses a river
distance AB.

Lay out perpendicular BX

Example

You need to measure distance AB:

 from B, lay out perpendicular BX;

 determine C, so that angle BCA = 45
degrees;
 measure BC = 67 m;
 distance AB = BC = 67 m.
Layout 45° angle BCA

Calculate distance AB

5. MEASURING HEIGHT DIFFERENCES - PART 1

5.0 Introduction
Height differences in fish culture
1 . In fish culture, you must often
measure the difference in height
between two points. To construct a
pond, you need to determine the
heights of the dikes you will build, and
the depths of the pond bottoms you will
dig. To choose the routes of water-
supply canals from the source to the
ponds, you will also need height and
depth measurements. And when you
plan a reservoir, you will also need to
make height measurements to
determine where its shoreline will be
(see Volume 4, Water, Section 4.2).

Types of problems you will be facing

1. There are three types of problems in Calculating height differences
the measurement of height differences.

2. You may have to measure any

differences in height among a series of
points on the ground, and compare
them. From the results of this
comparison, you can calculate the
heights of given points so that you can
make a map (see Chapter 9). This is
called surveying the levels of the points,
or levelling (see Sections 5.1- 5.9).

3. You may have to locate points which A contour line

are at the same height. This is called
laying out contour lines,
or contouring (see Sections 6.2-6.8).

4. You may have to locate points which Setting out a slope

have a given difference in height. In this
case, you will be setting out lines of
slope with a definite gradient (see
Section 6.9).
Measuring the height of ground points
5. Differences in height between two A straight-edge level
points are usually measured with a
device called a level. It is called a level
because it gives a true horizontal line.
The height of each point is then
measured by its vertical distance
above or below this horizontal line.

6. This horizontal line can be formed in A sighting level

two ways, depending on the type of
measuring device you are using to find
the heights of points. If you use a non-
sighting level (see Sections 5.1-5.3), the
horizontal line will be formed by a
straight-edge, a line level, or water
levels. If you use a sighting level (see
Sections 5.4-5.9), the horizontal line
will be formed by prolonging a line of
sight*.

7. You will always use sighting levels Levelling staffs

together with a vertical graduated
scale, which measures the height of the
line of sight at each station.

8. A ruler with a vertical graduated

scale is called a levelling staff . There
are several models which you can buy,
or you can make your own (see the
following steps). Levelling staffs are
usually 2 to 5 m long, foldable or
telescopic, and made of plastic-coated
wood or aluminium. Self-reading levelling
staffs are usually graduated in metres,
decimetres, and centimetres. These
graduations are upside-down so that
you can read them with a telescope.
On a target levelling staff, there is a
moveable "target" with a reference line*,
which can be positioned at a fixed
height.
Making your own levelling staff
9. To make your own levelling staff, get a Mark the ... or use
straight length of wood, 2 to 3 m long and 5 graduations... measuring tapes
to 10 cm wide. Clearly
mark graduations along it every 10 cm. It is
best if you paint the levelling staff white
and mark the graduations on it in red.
Make these graduations fairly large (about
1 cm thick) so you will be able to read them
easily and accurately from a long distance.

10. You can also make a levelling staff by

gluing one or more graduated measuring
tapes onto a straight piece of wood 2 to 3 m
long. Glue the tapes on lengthwise, end to
end. To read the small graduations
accurately, you may have to decrease the
distances over which you take the
measurements, or rely on an assistant to
make the reading.

11. Another model of levelling staff is

described in Section 6.5. It is used for
contouring and for setting graded lines of
slope.

Choosing the best method for measuring height differences

12. There are a number of good ways Line level
to measure height differences. The
method of measurement you use will
depend on several factors. Each
method is discussed in the following
sections. Table 7 will also help you to
compare the methods and select the
one best suited to your needs.
Additional information on how to plan
your levelling survey, how to record the
measurements and how to calculate
the resultswill be given in Chapters 7
and 8.
Theodolite Improved T-bone level

TABLE 7
Height difference measurement methods1
NON-SIGHTING LEVELS

Section2 Method3 Distance, m Accuracy Remarks People, equipment

1 person,
Straight- Medium Easy to transport mason's level
5.1 * 2.5 to 3
edge level to high Quick to operate 1 measuring
scale

Very easy to 3 people, mason's

transport level
5.2 * Line level 20 Medium
Quick to operate 2 measuring
For rough ground scales

Awkward to
transport
Flexible Very quick to 2 people,
5.3* tube water 10 to 15 High operate 2 measuring
level For clear rough scales
ground
Avoid water loss

SIGHTING LEVELS

Low to Rough 2 people, 1

5.4* T-bone level 10 measurement
medium levelling staff
Useful for canals,
 pipelines

Especially good for 2 people,

Improved T- 15 to
5.5 * Medium dikes and future mason's level, 1
bone level 20
water level levelling staff

15 to Low to Greatly affected by 2 people, 1

5.6** Bamboo level
20 medium wind levelling staff

Rough, quick 2 people, 1 hand

10 to
5.7* Hand level Low method, best when level, 1 levelling
15
rested on a pole staff

2 people,
Surveyor's Expensive, delicate
over expensive level,
5.8*** level and Very high Automatic levelling
100 tripod, 1 special
theodolite with stadia hairs
levelling staff

1
See also Table 8 for contouring and slope setting
2
*Simple ** more difficult ***most difficult
3
In italics, equipment you can make yourself

Calculating height differences from slopes

13. If you know the average slope between two points (see Chapter 4), you can easily
calculate the height difference between them. First measure the horizontal distance
D in metres between points A and B (see Chapter 2). To calculate the height
difference H (in metres), multiply D by the slope S expressed in hundredths:

H = D x 0.0S

Example

 You measure D = 20 m and S = 5% = 0.05.

 H = 20 m x 0.05 = 1 m.

Measure the horizontal distance... ... and the slope...

 to calculate the height

Calculating height differences from vertical angles

14. If you have measured vertical
angle ABC in degrees, you can
calculate the height difference AC
from:

 either the ground distance

BC along the slope

AC = BC x
sin ABC

obtaining sine ABC from Table 14

 or the horizontal distance BA

With the ground distance, calculate AC = BA x sine
ABC
AC = BA x
tan ABC

obtaining tangent ABC from Table 3.

Example

 Vertical angle ABC = 7

degrees. You need to
calculate AC.
 If you have measured BC= 47
m: from Table 14, sin 7° =
0.12187; AC = 47 m x 0. 12187
= 5.72789 m = 5.73 m;
 If you have measured BA=
46.7 m: from Table 3, tan 7° =
0.1228; AC = 46.7 m x 0.1228
= 5.73476 = 5.73 m. With the horizontal distance,
calculate AC = BA x tangent ABC
Using height differences to calculate horizontal distances
15. You learned earlier that, on sloping Ground distance
ground, you need to correct distance
measurements taken along the ground
in order to find the horizontal distances
(see Section 2.6).

16. You also learned one way Height difference

of correcting distance measurements,
using slope (see Section 4.0, steps 10-
13).

17. Another way of correcting distance

measurements is to use
measurements of height differences in
the following formula:

Horizontal distance =  (G2 - H2)

where G = AB is the distance CB = (G2 - H2)

measurement (in metres) along the
sloping ground and H = AC is the
height difference (in metres) between
the two points.

Example Ground distance = 45 m

 You have measured AB = 45 m

along the sloping ground;
 The height difference AC from point
A to point B equals 9 m;
 The horizontal distance

CB =  ((45 m)2 - (9 m)2) =

=  (2025 m - 81 m) = 1944 m = 44.1 m

Height difference = 9 m (452 - 92) = 44.1

5.1 How to use the straight-edge level

1. You can make a simple device for
measuring height differences over a
small distance out of a mason's level
(see Section 6.1) and a wooden
straight-edge.

Making a straight edge

2. Get a piece of wood that is heavy Make all the edges square and straight
enough to resist warping, and 2.5 to 3
m long. This piece of wood must be cut
very carefully so that the edges are
straight and squared-off.

3. When you have cut the straight-

edge, hold one end to your eye and
sight along the top and bottom edges
to find which is the straightest.
Making a straight-edge level
4. Using light string, lash a mason's Lash the level to the straightest edge of the board
level securely to the mid-point of the
straightest edge of your straight-edge.
Make sure that the mason's level is
parallel to this edge.

Measuring height differences using the straight-edge level

5. Set one end of the straight-edge level on
the ground at the highest point A, and move
the other end up or down until the edge is
horizontal, using the spirit level the spirit level as
a guide.
6. Measure the vertical distance from point B
on the ground to the bottom of the straight-
edge level, using a graduated ruler, for
example

When the level is horizontal... ... measure the height difference

Note: if the distance AB between the two Measure big differences in stages
points is greater than the length AC of the
straight-edge level, you will have to measure
intermediate points C, D, E ... B and add up
all the heights to get the total height.

5.2 How to use the line level

A mason's level and a cord form the basis of the line level. It is a simple device which
you can use over a relatively long distance (up to about 20 m). You will need to work
in a team of three people. You will also need two levelling staffs and some marking
pins.

Making your own line level

1. Get a cheap mason's level with a wooden 2. Get two 10-m-long cords and tie one of
case. Screw a strong screw-eye into each them to each of the screw-eyes.
end-face, on the centre- line and close to the
top.
3. Wrap the loose ends of the cords with Wrap the ends of the cords for strength
string to reinforce them.

Using the line level for levelling

4. The rear person places a levelling staff Put a levelling staff at starting point A
on the starting point A of the line you are
level-surveying. The end of one cord is put
against the 1 m graduation of the staff.

5. The front person then takes a levelling When the cord is stretched tight, mark point 8
staff, a marking pin and the end of the
other cord, and walks away from the rear
person, following the direction of the line
being surveyed, and stopping when the
cord is well stretched.

6. The front person places the second 7. The centre person stands between the rear and
levelling staff vertically on the ground front people and looks at the mason's level; then
making sure that it is on the line being signals the front person to move the end of the
levelled. The end of the cord is pulled until
the entire line level is as
nearly horizontal as possible. This point is
then marked with the marking pin.
cord up or down the levelling staff, until the spirit
level indicates that the line is horizontal. If
necessary, the rear person also moves that end
of the cord up or down, to prevent the mason's
level from touching the ground.

The centre person looks at the level... ...and guides the front person until it is horizontal

8. The rear person reads the height of Read the heights on the levelling staffs...
that end of the cord on the levelling
staff. The front person does the same.
Be sure to double-check all
measurements. Write down the
measurements carefully, putting the
rear measurements in one column and
the front measurements in another
column so you won't get them
confused. (See the chart in step 10)

9. Then the front person removes the ... and write them in your notebook
levelling staff from the ground and
replaces it with a marking pin. The
team progresses forward along the
line, repeating the same procedure.
The rear person should stop each time
at the marking pin that the front person
has placed for the previous
measurement.

Begin the next measurements from point B

 10. To calculate the height differences for the Add the measurements to find the total
entire line, first find the height difference for difference
each station by substraction. Add up all the
differences to find the total height difference
(see below).

Finding height differences with the line level 4 cm + 11 cm + 8 cm = 23 cm

Station Rear Front Difference

1 100 cm 96 cm 4 cm

2 100 cm 89 cm 11 cm

3 100 cm 92 cm 8 cm

1 to 3 Total 23 cm

5.3 How to use the flexible-tube water level

You can make a simple device for measuring level distances using a piece of
transparent water hose 10 to 15 m long and two levelling staffs.

Making your own water level

1 . If you do not have two levelling staffs,
get two straight pieces of wood, 4 x 2 cm
wide and 2 m long. Mark off a measuring
scale in centimetres on each of them, or get
two measuring tapes and glue them
lengthwise to the pieces of wood.

2. When you mark the centimetre scales on

the pieces of wood, place them side by side
and align their tops and bottoms so that you
can be sure both scales will be at exactly
the same level. If you begin marking the
scales 10 cm from the bottom of the wood,
you can easily see where they begin, even if
you are measuring in tall vegetation. Make
sure that the bottom of each staff is flat or
has a reference line*.

3. Lay the two levelling staffs side by side in Lash the hose to the Fill the hose with water
front of you, with their scales facing you. staffs up to 1 m high
With strong string, lash the plastic hose
along the length of the inside edges of the
measuring scales. Make sure that the very
ends of the hose are even with the tops of
the staffs. The middle part of the hose will
be loose between the two poles. When you
fasten the hose to the poles, tie the string
around the hose tightly enough to be
secure, but take care not to pinch the hose.
Make sure that the very ends of the hose
are lashed to the scales.

4. On one point on the ground, place the

two measuring scales side by side, with
their scales aligned, in a vertical position.
Slowly fill the hose with water, taking care to
get rid of any air bubbles, until the level is
about 1 m high in each of the upright
sections of hose (the stand pipes) when
they are held together.

5. Plug each end of the hose with a cork or

another kind of stopper to avoid losing water
when you carry the level. If you do lose any
water, align the scales as you did before
and refill with water to about 1 m.

Plug the hose

Using the water level for levelling

6. To use the water level, you will need
to work in a team of two people. The
rear person stands at the starting point
A of the line, and places one of the
measuring scales in a vertical position
on the ground.

7. The front person, carrying the other

measuring scale and a marking pin,
walks ahead along the line in the
direction of the point where you want to
find the difference in levels. When the
end of the hose is reached the
measuring scale is placed in a vertical
position on the ground. Make sure that
the levelling staff is directly on the line.

8. When the measuring scales are in

position, both people remove the plugs
in their ends of the hose. This is to
ensure that the water in the hose will
fall at the correct level.

9. Read the measuring scales with Read the measurements

your eyes level with the surface of the and
water in the hose. write them in your
notebook
10. Replace the plugs in the ends of
the hose.
11. Note down the measurements in a Begin the next measurements from point B
special table which will help you to
calculate the height differences
accurately (see Section 5.2, step 10).
The front person marks the point
where he or she is standing with a
marking pin.

12. Progress forward, repeating the

same procedure along the line. Each
time you finish a section, the rear
person should take a position at the
marking pin left by the front person.

5.4 How to use the T-bone level

The T-bone level is a very simple level which is particularly useful for setting out
canals or pipeline centre-lines. You use it together with a levelling staff, held by an
assistant.

Making a T-bone level

1. Get two 5 x 2.5 cm pieces of wood, each 2. Along the 2.5 cm face of one of these
exactly 1 m long. pieces, draw the centre-line. Make a shallow
groove along this line with a saw.
3. Lay the other piece of wood lengthwise
on the ground, and centre the grooved
piece, grooved side up, perpendicularly
across it in a "T" shape. Make sure that
their top sides are even and that they form
an exact 90º angle. Nail the grooved piece
in position to the other piece and add two
support struts to hold it in place. The total
height of the device should be 1 m.

Note: to improve the accuracy of the level,

you can make the horizontal top piece 1.5
m long rather than 1 m.

Using a T-bone level for levelling

4. At the starting point A of the line you Hold the level firmly in place
are level-surveying, stand with the T-
bone level. Hold the base of the
level firmly on the ground,avoiding
stones or other objects which might
cause it to wobble. Be sure the support
is held vertically.

5. Have your assistant hold the Sight along the groove at the levelling staff
levelling staff in a vertical position at
the next point B of the line, about 10 m
away.

6. Sight along the edge of the groove, as

though you were sighting a gun,
toward the graduation of the levelling
staff.

7. On the levelling staff, read the height Read the graduation at the line of sight...
corresponding to the T-bone level
sighting line and note it down. Your
assistant can help you by slowly
moving a brightly coloured marker,
such as a pencil or a pen, up and down
along the levelling staff until you signal
that it is level with the T-bone top edge.
He or she then reads the height to you.

8. Note these readings down in a table ... and write it in your notebook
and calculate the height differences
(see Section 5.2, step 10).

Note: since your T-bone level is exactly

1 m high, all you have to do to obtain
the height difference between two
points is to subtract 1 m from the
reading on the levelling staff.

5.5 How to use the improved T-bone level

To make an improved T-bone level you can add a mason's level to the original
device to help to make its sighting line horizontal. It can be used over longer
distances, particularly to set out the top levels of pond dikes and to determine the
water line of future reservoirs (see Vol.4, Water, Section 4.2).

Making your improved T-bone level

1. Get a mason's level with a wooden case and attach two metal sight pieces to its
ends. To make them, cut two strips from a flattened tin. They should be the same
width as the narrowest part of the mason's level, and about 2 cm longer than its
height. Cut a V-notch 1 cm deep in one end of each strip. Nail the strips to the ends
of the mason's level with the notches sticking up to create a line of sight along the top
of the mason's level.
2. Get two pieces of wood, each 5 x 2.5 cm 3. Centre your modified mason's level on the
thick and about 1 m long. Assemble them top piece and attach it. Then measure exactly
with wooden support struts so that: 1 m from the sighting line at the top of the
mason's level down the support piece. Clearly
 the top piece forms a 90° angle with the mark this reference line* with paint or with a
support piece and is centred over it in a T- narrow piece of wood nailed across the
shape; and
 the widest face of the top piece is
support. Below this mark, shape the support
horizontal to provide a flat surface. into a point.
Using the improved T-bone level for levelling
4. You use the improved T-bone Drive the stake down to the reference line
level the same way as the simple T-
bone level (see Section 5.4), except
that:

 first you drive it into the ground,

down to the reference line;
 then you adjust the top board with
the mason's level to make it
horizontal;
 finally, you set the sighting line Make it horizontal with the mason's level
with the metal sights attached to
the mason's level.

Sight at the levelling staff

Note: the sighting line will be exactly 1 m
above exactly 1 m above point A where
the improved T-bone level is
positioned. Knowing this, you can
easily determine the other points B, C,
... G of the site that are 1 m higher than
your levelling station A by standing on
the same point and levelling around in
a circle. Rotate the level to find all the points 1 m higher than
point A

5.6 How to use the bamboo sighting level

You can make a simple device for level surveying from a small bamboo tube and
several pieces of wood. It should be used with a levelling staff. It is very sensitive to wind
and breezes. When you use it, make sure that the sighting tube remains horizontal
while you are reading heights.

Making your own bamboo sighting level

1. Get a piece of bamboo about 45 cm long and a few centimetres in diameter.

Remove the inside membrane between its sections by drilling, or by driving a long
object such as a metal rod through the tube.

Remove -membranes from the tube with a rod

2. Across one end of the bamboo tube, glue two pieces of wire or thread at right
angles to form a central sighting point.

3. Cover the other end of the tube with

tape. Waterproof plastic or electrical
tape is best. Pierce the tape at
its centre with a small nail, to make a
sighting hole. When you use the level,
you will look through this hole and read
the measurement at the point where
the two threads cross.

4. Place a small weight on the bamboo

tube which can be moved along the
tube to balance it. A hose clip makes a
good balance, and it can be tightened
to keep it in place once the tube has
been horizontally adjusted.
5. Lash two 45 cm wood strips to
opposite sides of the tube, near the
ends, so that they form a triangle with
the bamboo tube.

6. Drill a hole through each wooden

strip at a point about 7 cm from the top.

7. Get a 2 m vertical staff, and drill a

hole through it near the top; the
triangle sighting device will hang from
this.
8. To allow the triangle to move freely,
place small blocks of wood or short
segments of bamboo between the
wooden strips of the triangle where
they cross at the top and between the
back of the triangle at this point and
the vertical staff.

9. Loosely bolt the triangle, through the

wooden blocks or bamboo segments,
to the hole in the vertical staff. The
sighting line should be exactly 1.50 m from
the ground. This height is convenient for
both calculations and sighting. With the
bamboo sighting tube perpendicular to
the support staff, measure the vertical
distance from the centre of the tube to
the bottom of the staff. Mark a
reference line 1.50 m below the line of
sight.

Adjusting the bamboo sighting level

10. Place the bamboo sighting level close to a 2 m measuring scale or levelling staff.
Read the height on the scale by sighting at it through the small hole and reading the
number that lines up with the crossed threads.

Check from 1 m away...

11. Move the measuring scale to a ... and from 15 m away
point which is 15 m away and at the
same level. Check that this point is at
the same level (with a straight-edge
level, for example, see Section
5.1). Sight again through the bamboo
tube and read the height on the scale
to see if it is the same as before.

12. Check to see that the triangle is Swing the triangle, then test again
hanging freely by moving it with your
finger. Let the triangle come to a stop
and check the reading through the
bamboo tube again to see if the result
is the same.

13. If the reading at the 15 m point is If the reading is low, move the weight back
not the same as the reading from the
point where the bamboo level and
measuring scale were side by side,
adjust the balance weight on the
bamboo tube slightly. Move the weight
towards the rear of the tube if the 15 m
reading is lower; move it forward if the
reading is higher.

14. Again place the bamboo sighting If the reading is high, move the weight forward
level and the measuring scale or staff
side by side, and take a new reading.

15. Move the scale or staff 15 m away, Keep testing until the sighting-tube is balanced
and check this reading.

16. Repeat this process (see above,

steps 10-15) until the two readings are
the same.

Note 1: If there is a small difference If the reading is still different...

between the two readings after several
repetitions, it may be caused by a
slight difference in level between the
two points. Interchange the positions of
the bamboo level and the scale, putting
the level at the 15 m point and the
measuring scale at the 0 m point. Take
another reading. Divide the difference
in the readings by 2. Then, using this
figure, make the bamboo tube
horizontal by moving the balance
weight along it.
 ... exchange the positions of the level and the staff

Note 2: when the reading taken from 15 A variation up to 2 cm is acceptable

m away is within 2 cm of the reading
you took with the bamboo level and the
scale side by side, your bamboo level
is accurate enough.

Using the bamboo sighting level for levelling

17. To use the bamboo sighting level
you will need to work in a team of two
people. The distance you can survey
each time depends on how far away
you can read the levelling staff
graduation (usually 20 m, at the most).

18. You can level in either one or two

directions, as described below.

Note:the bamboo level should be

placed at each station so that the
sighting line is 1.50 m above ground
level.

Levelling in one direction only

19. Place the bamboo sighting level in
a vertical position at point A, the
beginning of the line you are
surveying.

20. Your assistant should walk ahead

15 to 20 m along the line and place
the levelling staff in a vertical position
at point B, and mark point B with a
stake.
21. Take a reading on the levelling
staff, from point A to point B and note
it down. Then move forward to point B,
and set up the bamboo sighting level
where the stake was.

22. Your assistant should walk ahead

another 15 to 20 m along the line.
There the levelling staff is placed in a
vertical position at point C which is
marked with another stake.

23. Now take a reading on the Read the levelling staff at the sighting
levelling staff from point B to point C. line and write the reading In your notebook

24. Repeat this procedure (see steps Move to the next station
22-23) until you have surveyed the
entire line.

25. Carefully note down all the

readings in a table and calculate the
heights of the various points, if you
need them (see Section 5.2).

26. When you have reached the end Add up all the readings
of the line you are surveying, you can
also calculate the total height
difference between the starting and
the finishing points (see Section 5.2).

Levelling in two directions

27. You can measure two lengths of a line from a central point by sighting with the
bamboo level in two directions. This system gives you two readings for each point
except the first and the last. By comparing the forward reading (FR) and the back reading
(BR) you can check the accuracy of your work.

28. Your assistant should place the levelling staff in a vertical position at the starting
point A on the line you need to survey.
29. Walk ahead 15 to 20 m along the line and place the bamboo level at point B.
From there, take a back reading (BR) from point B to point A.

Take a back reading and write it down

30. Your assistant should then pace this distance to you, and then pace the same
distance past you to the next point (C) ahead, where the levelling staff is placed.

31. Turn the bamboo level around at point B and take a forward reading (FR) from point
B to point C.

Turn the level around and take a forward

reading, then write It down

32. Repeat this process until you have surveyed the entire line.

At the next station, note the back reading...

33. Note down all your readings in a table and calculate the height differences
between the surveyed points (see Section 8.1)

... and the forward reading

5.7 How to use the hand level
1. The hand level is a ready-made tool
for quickly finding differences in level.
Its range in the field should not exceed
15m. You may be able to borrow a
hand level from a local survey station
or buy one from a hardware store. The
hand level is made up of a sighting
channel, a spirit level and a mirror. The
mirror allows you to take a reading
and, at the same time, check to see
that the sighting line* is horizontal.

Using the hand level for levelling

2. The directions for using the hand
level are the same as those given for
the bamboo sighting level (see Section
5.6), except that:

 you can use it held in your hand;

 the height of the sighting line is the
vertical distance from the ground
to your eye level; and
 the bubble of the spirit level must
be centred while you take the
reading.

Note:you can have greater accuracy if

you rest the hand level on the top of a
wooden pole of convenient height. In
this case, the height of the pole
becomes the height of the sighting line.

5.8 How to use the surveyor's level and theodolite

1 . For very accurate levelling over long
distance surveyors use modern
instruments called surveyor's levels and
theodolites. These instruments are
expensive and can be damaged easily.
Only skilled personnel should operate,
adjust and repair them.

2. To level survey a small farm you will not

usually need the high accuracy of these
instruments, and you may use cheaper
devices. You have learned about these in
earlier sections. However, either
a surveyor's level or a theodolite may be
available for your survey. Both should be
used with a modern levelling staff (see
Section 5.0, step 8) to give the greatest
accuracy. The levelling staff is set vertically
on the ground so that its graduation marks
are upside down, since the sighting devices
on the surveyor's instruments invert the
images, making them appear upside down.

3. A surveyor's level is basically a telescope,

fitted with cross-wires for sighting, and
attached to a levelling device which is
mounted on a tripod (a support with three
legs). In older instruments, the horizontality
of the sighting line was adjusted with a
sensitive spirit level and fine-threaded
adjusting screws. In more recently made
instruments (known as self-levelling
or automatic levels), the line of sight is
automatically brought to the horizontal,
which makes surveying operations much
easier. The telescope magnifies far-away
objects, which means you can observe the
graduation on a levelling staff at a much
greater distance than you could with your
ordinary eyesight.

4. Theodolites are commonly used to measure horizontal angles (see Section 3.5)
and vertical angles (see Section 4.7). They can also be used to measure height
differences.

5. Most surveyor's levels and theodolites are equipped with stadia hairs. These allow
you to determine distances during level surveys (see Section 2.8).

6. Height differences are measured by using the horizontal sighting line as a

reference, as described for the bamboo sighting level (see Section 5.7). These
differences are recorded and calculated as explained in Section 8.1. Very long lines
can be surveyed much faster, without measuring as many intermediate stations.
Measuring horizontal angles

6. MEASURING HEIGHT DIFFERENCES - PART 2

6.0 Introduction:contour levelling methods

1. In the previous chapter, you learned Contour lines
how to make several types of simple
levels. You also learned how to use
them in the field for levelling.

2. These levels can also be used for

finding and marking on the ground all
points at the same height, such as the
points along the centre-line of a future
water supply canal. In this case, the
height differences between the various
points of the line would be made equal
to zero. These points make up a contour
line. This particular type of level survey
is called contouring. There are some
simple levels which can be used for
contouring. These will be described in
the following Sections 6.1-6.5. How to
use other levels and slope measuring
devices for contouring will be explained
in Sections 6.6-6.8.
3. In this chapter you will also learn how
to use the levelling devices already
described to set lines of slope with a
gradient (see Section 6.9).

4. There are several good ways of laying out contour lines. Each of these methods is
fully explained in the next sections. Table 8 will also help you choose the method
best suited to your needs. Later, in Section 8.3, you will learn how to lay out contours
in the field, and in Section 9.4, you will learn how to map the results of your field
survey.

TABLE 8
Contour levelling methods
CONTOURING LEVELS

Distance,
Section1 Method 2 Accuracy Remarks People, equipment
m

Awkward to 1 or 2 people,
6.2* A-frame 4 Medium
transport mason's level

A-frame, Medium 1 or 2 people,

6.3* 4 Fast to use
plumb line to high plumb line

Awkward but
H-frame water Medium quick
6.4* 2.5 2 people
level to high Avoid water
loss
 Faster for
Semi-circular longer distance 2 people, target
6.5* 100 Medium
water level Avoid water levelling staff
loss

NON-SIGHTING LEVELS (see also Table 7)

Straight-edge 2.5 to Medium Easy transport 1 person, mason's

6.6*
level 3 to high Fast level

Very easy to
transport Quick 3 people, mason's
6.6** Line level 20 Medium to operate level 2 measuring
Useful on rough scales
ground

Awkward to
Flexible tube 10 to High to transport Very 2 people, 2
6.6*
water level 15 very high quick measuring scales
Avoid water loss

SIGHTING LEVELS (see also Table 7)

15 to Low to Greatly affected 2 people, 1

6.7** Bamboo level
20 medium by wind levelling staff

10 to 2 people, 1
6.7* Hand level Low Rough, fast
15 levelling staff

more
Expensive, 2 people, 1
6.7*** Surveyor's level than Very high
delicate levelling staff
100

SLOPE MEASURING DEVICES (see also Table 6)

10 to Low to 2 people,
6.8** Clinometer, clisimeter See Table 6
15 high levelling staff

1
*simple **more difficult *** most difficult
2
In italics, equipment you can make yourself
5. In nearly all levelling instruments,
horizontality is shown by a spirit level.
This is a small level, usually made of
an elongated or circular glass tube; the
tube is nearly filled with a liquid
(usually spirit), leaving enough space
to form an air bubble. In the elongated
spirit level, a point near the middle of
the tube is selected as the zero-point,
and clearly marked. Graduations may
be added on either side of this point. In
the circular spirit level, the zero- point
lines up with the centre of the level,
and is clearly marked by a small circle.
When the air bubble is at the zero-
point, the level is horizontal.

6.1 How to use the mason's level

The mason's level is a simple tool often used during building operations. You have
learned how to use the mason's level to set out horizontal lines when you measure
short distances on sloping ground (see Section 2.1) and when you determine height
differences (see Sections 5.1-5.2).

What is a mason's level?

1. Usually a mason's level consists of a Mason's level
rectangular wooden casing with a
small spirit level mounted in one of its
narrow faces. The mason's level can
also be made of metal. Glass spirit
levels are highly breakable, and should
be handled very carefully.

2. The casing varies in length. As the

length increases, the accuracy
improves. The cheapest mason's levels
are relatively short, about 25 cm long.
They are generally available from
hardware stores.

Using a mason's level to check horizontality

3. When a mason's level is horizontal,
the bubble of the spirit level lies exactly
at its zero-point.

4. When the air bubble moves away

from the zero-point, it shows that the
level is no longer horizontal. There is
either an uphill or a downhill slope.

Note: the direction in which the bubble

moves always indicates the direction of
the highest point on the slope.

6.2 How to use the A-frame level

A simple device for contouring can be
made from three pieces of wood and a
mason's level. This device works on
the same principle as the straight-edge
level (see Section 5.1), but it is easier
and faster to use.

Making your own A-frame level

1 . Get three pieces of soft wood, all at
least 2 x 6 cm thick; two of the three
pieces should be about 2.80 m long,
and the other about 2 m long. The A-
frame made of these will be about 1.70
m high by 4 m long -- small enough to
handle easily.

2. Attach the two 2.80 long leg-pieces

about 30 cm down from their tops by
drilling a hole through the centre of
each piece and bolting them loosely
together. Adjust the legs until they are
4 m apart at the bottom.
3. Measure up 1.60 m from the bottom
of each leg and loosely attach the 2 m
cross-piece by drilling and bolting it to
the legs. The cross-piece should be
about 1 m above the ground.

4. Cut the bottom of the legs level, so

that they rest evenly on the ground
when the A-frame is upright. To do
this, stand the A-frame upright on its
legs and place a long straight piece of
wood so that it touches both legs at the
base. Make a mark along the legs,
level with the top of this piece of wood,
and cut the legs at the mark.

Adjusting the A-frame level

5. Place the A-frame upright, Check the level
resting the legs on two points
which are at exactly the same
level. Put the mason's level (see
Section 6.1) on the middle part of
the cross-piece and check to see
if it is on the middle part of the
cross-piece and check to see if it
is horizontal. If it is not, adjust it
by moving the cross-piece
slightly, or by cutting a little more
off one of the legs. When the
cross-piece is horizontal, tighten
all the bolts on the A-frame.

6. To check the horizontality, turn Then reverse and check

the A-frame around and, with the
mason's level, check to see that
the cross-piece is still horizontal.

again

7. Using light string, lash the

mason's level securely to the
cross-piece at its mid-point.

Using the A-frame for contouring

8. With a marking pin, mark point A Adjust the forward leg until the level is horizontal
where you will begin contouring. Place
one leg of the A-frame at this point.
Move the other leg uphill or downhill
until the mason's level shows a
horizontal position. At this point place
another marking pin B.

9. Move the A-frame up to the second Repeat at each station

point B. Find the next horizontal point
C and mark it.

10. Repeat this process until you have Contour line AE

plotted the length of the contour line
AE
6.3 How to use the A-frame and plumb-line level

The A-frame and plumb-line level is a simple device very similar to the A-frame,
except that the mason's level is replaced by a plumb-line. The device is used in the
same way as the standard A-frame for contouring (see Section 6.2).

Making your A-frame and plumb-line level

1. Construct an A-frame as described A-frame
above (see Section 6.2, steps 1-4)

2. Screw a small hook, or drive a nail,

into the frame near its summit.

3. Attach a plumb-line (see Section

4.8) to the hook or nail. The plumb-line
should be long enough for the plumb to
reach below the cross-piece of the
frame.

Note: the taller the frame is, the more

sensitive the level will be to differences
in height. The dimensions given in
Section 6.2 provide a good average
accuracy, usually better than 32 cm
over 100 m.
Adjusting your A-frame and plumb-line level
4. Place the A-frame upright with its
legs resting on two points which are at
exactly the same level.

5. When the plumb-line comes to rest,

lightly mark the position of its string on
the top side of the cross-piece of the A-
frame.

6. Place the A-frame the other way

around, so that its legs are reversed on
the same horizontal points. When the
plumb-line comes to a stop, lightly
mark the position of the string on the
cross-piece.

7. Make a permanent mark on the front Cross-piece

side of the cross-piece at the precise
mid-point between the two marks. This
shows where the legs of the A-frame
are exactly level.

Note: to improve measurements in

windy weather, slow the movement of
the plumb-line letting it rub slightly
against the cross-piece of the A-frame.

6.4 How to use the H-frame water level

The H-frame water level is a simple device made of a light wooden frame and some
clear plastic piping, which is partly filled with water. Like the flexible-tube water level
(see Section 5.3), it is based on the principle that, under atmospheric pressure, the
free surfaces of interconnected water columns will reach equal heights, which follow
a horizontal line.
Making your H-frame water level
1. Get two 5 x 5 cm thick pieces of soft
wood 1 m long, and one 5 x 5 cm piece
2.5 m long. Join the three pieces of
wood together to form an "H" shape,
using strong nails or bolts. The
horizontal piece of the frame should be
about 20 cm above ground level. The
two upright legs should make 90º
angles with the horizontal piece. Check
this.

2. Get 3.90 m of clear, non-reinforced

plastic tubing with an inside diameter
of about 1.2 cm. Using soft wire or
string, secure it to the upper face of the
horizontal piece and to the inside faces
of the two vertical pieces. Tie or bind
the plastic tube tightly to the wooden
pieces, but be careful not to pinch the
tube
Note: if you do not have enough clear
plastic tubing, use about 1.90 m of
dark rubber or plastic piping or metal
water piping, and two 1 m lengths of
clear plastic tubing. Connect one
length of clear tubing to each end of
the dark piping with a hose clip. Then
tie the dark piping to the horizontal
piece of the H-frame, and the clear
lengths of tube to the two vertical
pieces.

3. Pour water into the tubing until the level reaches about halfway up each vertical
section, making sure to get rid of any air bubbles. Put a cork stopper in each tube-
end to prevent water losses during transportation.

Adjusting your H-frame water level

4. With the help of an assistant, place the Mark at the water level
H-frame upright, with its legs resting on
two points which are at exactly the same
level.

5. Remove the two stoppers from the

tube ends and look at the water level in
each tube from the side. You and your
assistant should then make a light mark
on each vertical leg, level with the water
level in the tubes.
6. Turn the H-frame around and place its Then turn the frame and mark again
legs, reversed, on the same points.

7. Again, lightly mark the water level on

each vertical leg.

8. Make a permanent mark on each leg

at the precise mid-point between the two
previous marks. When the water is at this
level in the tubes, it indicates
horizontality.

9. Replace the stoppersfor transportation.

Note: it is best to check this adjustment

before each contouring survey. If any
water has been spilled from the tubing,
you should adjust the device by adding
water as necessary.

Using your H-frame water level for contouring

10. Place the rear leg of the H-frame at the Remove the stoppers
starting point A.

11. Remove the stoppers frorn the tube

ends.
12. Move the forward leg uphill or downhill Adjust the forward leg
until the top water level reaches the
permanent mark you have made on the leg.

Read the water level

13. Mark the position of the forward leg

at B with a peg and replace the
stoppers in the tube ends.

14. Move the frame forward, place the Contour line AE

rear leg at the marked point B, and
repeat the previous procedure.
Continue in this way until you reach the
end of the contour line AE.

Note: it is easier to work with an

assistant, who can move the forward
leg until he or she finds the horizontal
level. Then you can check that the
water level on the rear leg also lies
opposite the permanent mark.

6.5 How to use the semi-circular water level

The semi-circular water level is a simple device based on the same principle as the
H-frame water level. Its main advantage is that you can use it on longer distances
without moving it. You need only several small pieces of wood and a short piece of
clear plastic tubing to make it, but it is a little more difficult to build than the H-frame.

Making your semi-circular water level

1. Get a 1 x 10 cm piece of wood 60
cm long and drill a hole through each
end of it from the 10 x 60 cm face.
These holes should be just wide
enough to hold the plastic tube (see
step 5).

2. Drill a small hole in the centre of the

piece of wood.

3. Prepare two wooden discs with a

diameter of 10 cm, and drill small holes
in their centres.
4. Nail or screw one of these discs
under the centre of the piece of wood,
aligning the hole in the centre of this
piece with the hole in the disc. Do not
block the hole.

5. Get a piece of clear plastic tube

about 80 cm long and 1 to 1.5 cm in
diameter. Pass the ends of the tube
from below through the holes in the
ends of the piece of wood so that the
tube forms a semi-circle on the side
where the disc is. The two ends of the
tube should extend above the piece of
wood by about 10 cm. Keep the tubing
in place by putting a hose clip just at
the point where the tubing passes
through the hole in the board. Tighten
the clip so that the tube does not slip,
but be careful not to pinch the tube.
The hose clip will keep the tube in
place, since it is bigger than the hole.
6. Now make the supporting
leg. Get a pole 5 cm in
diameter and 1.40 m long. Find
the centre point of one end.
Then take the second disc you
prepared, and loosely nail it to
the pole so that its centre hole
is over the centre of the pole.

7. Attach the semi-circular

level you made in step 5 to the
supporting leg. Use a strong
screw, and align the central
holes of the wooden discs
carefully. Do not tighten the
screw too much. You must be
able to turn the semi-circular
level around. The flexible tube
will be off to one side of the
pole.

8. Place the device upright on

its support and fill the plastic
tube with water. The level of
the water should reach about 4
to 5 cm from each end of the
tube. Place a stopper in each
end of the tube to prevent
water loss during
transportation.

Using your semi-circular water level for contouring

9. At the starting point A of the contour you need to level, ask your assistant to place
a levelling staff in a vertical position. Since you are contouring with a sighting level
which does not include a telescope, you should use a target levelling staff.

You can easily make one. Get a straight wooden stick, a piece of bamboo, or a
maize stalk 2 m long. Get another pole or stick 50 cm long, and attach it to the first
one with string, to form a cross. The location of the point where you attach the 50 cm
pole, called the target, depends on the contour you are levelling.
10. To station the semi-circular water
level, drive its support vertically into the
ground at a central point from which
you will be able to survey about 100 m
of the contour line. Remove the
stoppers from the ends of the plastic
tube.
11. Standing about 1 m behind the Adjust height of target
semi-circular water level, rotate its
upper part and sight along a line which
joins the two water-surface levels in
the plastic tube to the levelling staff.
Signal to your assistant to adjust the
target of the levelling staff up or down
until it is exactly on the sighting line.
Then, ask your assistant to tie the
target firmly at that height.

12. Your assistant will then mark the

starting point A with a stake, and walk
about 10 m away, where he will place
the levelling staff in a vertical position.

13. Rotate the upper part of the water

level until you can sight again at the
cross on the staff. Signal to your
assistant to move the levelling staff
uphill or downhill until the fixed target
lines up with the sighting line. He or
she will then mark this point B with a
stake.

Swivel the level to sight at point B Move the staff until the target is in the line of sight
14. You may keep on levelling points on the same contour AG from one central
station X for about 100 m. To continue the same contour line, leave the target
levelling staff at point G, and move the level to a new central station Y. Adjust the
height of the target and go on levelling contour GZ from station Y.

Adjust target without moving staff Continue levelling

Note: you may also want to find contours with a fixed height difference, for example,
every 0.20 m. To do this, you will keep working from the same station, but change
the height of the target on the levelling staff. When you reach point G, have your
assistant lower the target by 20 cm. He then walks up the hill along line XGH until
the target is level with your line of sight, marking point H on the next contour.
Continue the second contour line HN by finding point I on line XFI, point J on line
EXJ, and so on. If the distance is short enough for you to see clearly, you may lower
the target again to set a third contour line from the same station.

Lower the target

Find point H Continue the contour

6.6 How to contour with non-sighting levels

1 . In Sections 5.1 to 5.3, you learned how to use non-sighting levels to measure
differences in height. These devices can also be used for contouring.

Using the straight-edge level for contouring

In Section 5.1, you learned about the Make the level horizontal
straight-edge level. For contouring, use
it in the following way (steps 2 to 7).
2. Mark the point A where you will Mark point B
begin contouring with a stake. Place
one end of the straight-edge at this
point, and move the other end uphill or
downhill until the mason's level shows
horizontality. Mark this point B with
another stake.

3. Move the straight-edge up to point Continue the contour line

B. Find the next horizontal point C as
shown above and mark it with a stake.

4. Continue this process until you have

marked the length of the contour line.

5. Mark the route of the contour line Mark the contour with stakes
you have found by leaving a stake
about every 10 m. If the contour
curves, you may need to use more
stakes.

6. If the surface of the ground is

somewhat rough (i.e. covered with
lumps of earth, stones or grass), it
may help to use two bricks or wooden
blocks of the same height to support
the ends of the straight-edge while
you are levelling.

7. If the surface of the ground is very Use bricks...

rough or covered with dense grass,
you can use two stakes under the
ends of the straight-edge to lift it
above ground level. Be sure that both
stakes are the same length, and that
you drive them into the ground to the
same level. This way you can transfer
the horizontal you find, which lines up
with the top level of the stakes, to
ground level without error.

...or stakes to lift the level above obstacles

Using the line level for contouring

In Section 5.2, you learned how to
make a line level. The line level is very
efficient for contouring because it
allows you to progress quickly, even on
rough grass, and it is reasonably
accurate (the maximum error is less
than 6 cm per 20 m distance).
Remember that you need three people
to use the line level.

8. The rear person places one end-

staff on the marked starting point A
and keeps the cord on the 1 m
graduation, for example. The front
person, also keeping the cord on the
same graduation, moves the second
end- staff up or down the slope until
the centre person signals that the
mason's level is horizontal. The front
person then marks the point B where
the staff touches the ground.

9. The rear person walks to this

marked point B while the other two
people walk ahead until the cords are
well stretched. The entire procedure is
repeated and another point C of the
contour line is marked.

10. This process is continued until you

have marked the length of the contour
line.
Using the flexible-tube water level for contouring
In Section 5.3, you learned how to
make the flexible-tube water level. You
can contour quite quickly with this
device even on rough ground, and it
will give very good accuracy (the
maximum error is about 1 cm per 10 m
distance). You should be very careful
not to lose water during the procedure.
You will need an assistant for this
method.

11. Bring the two stand pipes together Put both stand pipes at point A and remove the
at the starting point A of the contour stoppers
line, remove the stoppers, and mark
the height of the water levels on each
measuring scale. These heights should
be the same.

12. Replace the stoppers in the tube Mark the water level on both scales
ends.

13. Place your measuring scale at the When the water level is at the mark on the standpipe,
starting point A of the contour line. you have found point B
Have your assistant walk ahead until
the end of the hose is reached. Both of
you remove the stoppers, and your
assistant moves the scale up or down
the slope until the water level is at the
marked height. Check that the water
level is at the marked height at your
end, too. When it is, signal to your
assistant to mark the location B of that
scale with a stake. Replace both the
stoppers.

14. Both of you then move forward until

you are standing at the point B where
your assistant was standing, as
marked with the stake. Have your
assistant walk ahead until the end of
the hose is reached. Repeat the
procedure in step 13, and continue in Begin the next measurement at point B
the same way to the end of the contour
line.

6.7 How to contour with sighting levels

1. In Sections 5.6 to 5.9, you learned how to use sighting levels to measure
differences in heights. These devices can also be used for contouring.

Using the bamboo sighting level for contouring

2. You learned how to make and adjust a bamboo sighting level in Section 5.6. You
and an assistant can use this level for contouring, as follows.

3. Place the bamboo sighting level next to a levelling staff and read the height on the
scale by sighting through the tube.

4. Mark this height on the scale. You can use paint, or tie a piece of cord or a
coloured rag at that height. You can also use the target levelling staff described in
Section 6.5, and attach the target at that height.
Mark your sighting level on a pole

5. Place the bamboo level in a vertical Send your assistant ahead

position at A, the beginning of the
contour line you want to plot.

6. Have your assistant, holding the Have him move until you sight the mark
levelling staff, walk 15 to 20 m ahead
along an approximate horizontal line
and place the staff vertically. Have him
move it up or down the slope until you
signal that the mark is lined up with the
sighting line seen through the bamboo
tube.

7. You will have to turn the bamboo You may have to turn the level to see him
level from left to right to see the mark
on the measuring scale. Check
frequently to make sure that the
bamboo tube remains horizontal.

8. When you signal that you have

sighted the mark, your assistant should
mark the position B of the levelling staff
with a stake.

9. Now move up to this stake B and Proceed from point B

place the bamboo level on that point in
a vertical position.

10. Have your assistant walk another

15 to 20 m ahead with the levelling
staff, and repeat steps 7-9.

11. Repeat this process until you have

marked the entire length of the contour
line.

Using the hand level for contouring

12. You can survey a contour line quickly Use the hand level alone...
by using a hand level (see Section 5.7),
although this will not give the most accurate
results. The method you use with the hand
level is the same as that just described for the
bamboo level, except that you should make
the mark on the levelling staff at the height of
the sighting line. The sighting line's height will
either be at your eye-level, or at the height of
the pole supporting the hand level (which is
used to improve accuracy). The distance from
one point to the next should not exceed 15 m.

...or with a support staff

Using the surveyor's level or the theodolite for contouring

13. You can very quickly and accurately Use the theodolite with a graduated levelling staff
determine contour lines with a surveyor's
level or a theodolite and a precisely
graduated levelling staff (see Section
5.8).
14. Since the range of the telescope on You can survey several points from a single station
either of these devices is several
hundred metres, you can reduce the
number of stations. As you did with the
semi-circular water level (see Section
6.5), you can survey several points from
a single station. In open country, it is
possible to use this method over long
distances. In areas with forests, you
might need to measure over shorter
distances and to clear sighting lines.

6.8 How to contour with slope-measuring devices

1 . In Sections 4.1 to 4.6, you learned how to use various types of clinometers to
measure slopes. These devices can also be used for contouring because a contour
line is defined as a line along which the slope gradient equals zero, see Section 8.3.

2. When you contour with slope measuring devices, it is best to use a target levelling
staff, such as the cross- shaped one described in Section 6.5. If you use such a staff,
the target should be tightly fixed at eye level.

Sight at a target levelling staff... ... or at your assistant

Note: if you do not have a levelling staff, you can use the height of your assistant as a
reference level* instead.
3. Your assistant, holding the levelling Have him move until you sight the mark
staff vertically, should stand about 10
to 15 m away from the starting point A
of the contour line you want to plot.
From this starting point, use the
clinometer to sight at the levelling staff.
Signal to your assistant to move the
staff up or down the slope, until its
target lines up with the zero-graduation
of your clinometer. Have your assistant
mark this ground point B and repeat
the same procedure from it

Note: if you are using a clisimeter, Proceed from point B

remember that you should use the left
scale and make the sight of the
levelling staff line up with its zero line
(see Section 4.5).

6.9 How to set graded lines of slope

1. Graded lines of slope are often used
in fish-farms to assist gravity* in
moving water. Water-supply canals
and pipelines, as well as drainage
canals, are built with a graded slope.
Fish ponds should be built with an
adequate bottom slope so that you will
be able to drain them completely.
Knowing how to set graded lines of
slope is therefore very important when
you are building a fish-farm.

2. You can set graded lines of slope in

several ways, using three series of
methods with the devices described in
Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

Using slope-measuring devices for setting lines of slope

3. You can use any one of the slope Use the target levelling staff
measuring devices described in
Sections 4.1 to 4.6 to set graded lines
of slope. The clisimeter, in particular
(see Section 4.5) , is commonly used
for this purpose, but any other
clinometer can be used instead.

4. It is best to use a target levelling

staff such as the one described in
Section 6.5; its target should be tightly
attached at your eye level. Remember
that you can use the height of your
assistant as a reference level instead.

5. From the starting point A of the line Sight with the clinometer at the desired graduation
of slope, sight the target levelling staff;
the graduation of the clinometer should
correspond to the slope you have
chosen. Signal to your assistant to
move the levelling staff up or down the
slope, until the sighting line of the
clinometer lines up with the reference
mark on the levelling staff. Mark the
ground point B with a stake and repeat
the procedure from that point.

Using sighting levels for setting lines of slope

6. You learned about various sighting Measure the horizontal distance...
levels in Sections 5.4 to 5.9 and in
Section 6.5. These devices may be
used to set lines of slope but, with the
exception of the surveyor's level and the
theodolite, their limited accuracy makes
it difficult to lay slopes with gradients
less than 1 percent. For smaller
gradients, it is best to use non- sighting
levels (see from step 12, below).

7. Before using the sighting level, ... and the slope...

calculate the difference in height (H
metres) between two consecutive points
according to their horizontal distance (D
metres) in order to set the desired slope
gradient (S percent) as:
 H = (S ÷ 100)
xD

Example ... to calculate the height difference

 You decide to read levels at 10 m

intervals, horizontal distance;
 The slope you need to set equals
1 % or 1 m per 100 m;
 The necessary height difference
H over a 10 m horizontal distance
equals: (1÷ 100) x 10 m = 0.10 m.

8. On the highest point A of the slope to Set your target levelling staff to show
beset, station your levelling device and the proper height difference
measure the height of its sighting line
(H') above the ground. Add this value to
H (calculated in step 7) to obtain the
height to be read (R) at the next point on
the levelling staff as:

R = H + H'

9. Measure a horizontal distance of 10 m Place the levelling staff 10 m from the level
from the starting point, following the
contour line as closely as possible.
Place a levelling staff vertically at that
point.

Note: for this part of the procedure, you

can use:

 a graduated levelling staff on which

you clearly mark the calculated
height R (see step 8); or
 a target levelling staff, with the target
tightly attached at the calculated
height R.

10. Sight with the levelling device at the Move the levelling staff until the target
levelling staff. Signal to your assistant to comes into the line of sight
move the staff up or down the slope until
the sighting line lines up with the mark R
on the staff. At this point B, have your
assistant drive a marking stake into the
ground. Point B will be 10 cm lower than
point A.

11. Station the levelling device on this Proceed from point B

marked point B while your assistant
walks ahead another 10 m with the
levelling staff. Repeat the procedure.

Using non-sighting levels for setting lines of slope

12. Non-sighting levels are much more accurate than simple sighting levels for
setting lines of slope with gradients smaller than 1 percent. Generally, non-sighting
levels can be used to set lines of slope with gradients as small as 0.3 percent. The
flexible-tube water level is even reliable for slopes as small as 0.1 percent.

13. In Sections 6.2 to 6.4 and Section 6.6, you learned how to use various non-
sighting levels for contouring, that is, setting lines of slope with a zero gradient.

14. To set lines of slope with a different gradient (S%), you can use the same
procedure described for contouring; the only difference is that you have to keep the
forward end of the levelling device above the ground at the height H (calculated as
shown above in step 7) for a fixed horizontal distance D metres, as in:

H = (S ÷ 100) x D

Distance D varies according to the kind of levelling device you use.

Note: it is best to level going downhill,
as suggested above. If you must level
going uphill, you should make the rear
end of the levelling device higher by H
metres.

15. The best way to do this is to

prepare a piece of wood with a
thickness equal to H. While levelling,
place (or, better, nail) this piece of
wood under the forward end of the
level if you are levelling downhill.

Example

If S = 0.5 percent and you are levelling

downhill:

 using an A-frame level for

setting the line of slope: D = 4m;
H = 2 cm
 using an H-frame level: D = 2.5
m; H = 1.25 cm
 using a straight-edge level: D =
3 m; H = 1.5 cm
 using a flexible-tube water level:
D = 10 m; H = 5 cm
 The size of the wooden block depends
on the slope and type of level

16. When using the line level, you can

add the height H to the cord height
which will be maintained by the front
person, instead of placing a piece of
wood under the forward measuring staff.

Example

If S = 0.5 percent and you are levelling

downhill with a line level:
D = 20 m and H= 10 cm.
Keep the forward end of the cord at a
height 10 cm higher than the rear end of
the cord.

4. MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES AND SLOPES

4.0 Introduction
1. A vertical angle is an angle formed by
two connected lines in the vertical
plane*, that is, between a low point and
two higher points. Since these angles
are in the vertical plane, the lines that
form them will usually be lines of
sight. A vertical angle BAC can be
formed, for example, by the line of
sight AB from station A on a river bank
to a higher water-pump installation,
and the line of sight AC from station A
to a much higher water-storage tank.

2. Whenever a line is not horizontal, it

has a slope. The slope can be uphill or
downhill. Its steepness depends on the
difference in height between its points.

3. As you have learned (see Chapter

2), the slope of the ground affects the
measurement of distances. Ground
slope is also very important in the
design of fish-farms, since you can use
it to reduce your construction costs. You
need to build bottom slopes in canals,
to allow the water to move by gravity*;
and in ponds, to allow good drainage.
And you must build slopes in the dikes
for ponds and dams (see the next
manual in this series, Constructions for
Freshwater Fish Culture).
4. The slope of a line is called the gradient.
It may be defined as:

 The change in vertical distance or

elevation* over a given horizontal
distance, or the change in horizontal
distance over a given vertical distance;
 The vertical angle made by the sloping
line and a horizontal line.
5. The slope of a line is therefore expressed
in various ways:

 as a percentage, or the number of

metres of change in elevation over a
horizontal distance of 100 m. This may
be written in two ways, either as a
percent (%) or as a decimal value, in
hundredths;

 in degrees, as the measurement of the

vertical angle made by the slope and
the horizontal plane*.

Remember that:

 degrees are subdivided into

60 minutes (60'), each minute equalling
60 seconds (60");
 a right angle equals 90º, and therefore a
slope is always measured between 0º
(horizontal) and 90º (vertical);
  As a ratio, showing the change in
horizontal distance (x) per unit of vertical
distance, or the change in vertical
distance (y) per unit of horizontal
distance, in one of the following ways:

o the change in horizontal distance

(x metres) per one metre of
vertical distance; this can
express, for example, the slope
of the sides of dikes and canals
(such as 2:1);
o the change in vertical distance (x
millimetres or x centimetres) per
one metre of horizontal distance;
this can express, for example,
the lengthwise slope of a pond
bottom or water pipe (such as 3
cm/m);
o the change in horizontal distance
(x units) per one unit of vertical
distance. This can express, for
example, the lengthwise slope of 1 m change in elevation every 300 m
a pipeline (such as 1 in 300).

Converting percentage of a slope into degrees, or degrees into percentage

6. Depending on the instrument you are
using to measure a slope directly, you may
sometimes have to convert the percentage of
the slope into degrees, or the degrees into
percentage. For help with such a conversion,
you should use either Table 4 or the graph
given in Figure 3.

Note: from the table and the graph you can

see that:

 1 degree is about 1.75 percent;

 1 percent is about 0°35';
 A 45° slope = a 100 percent slope.

TABLE 4
Conversion of slope units in
degrees or percentages From degrees into percent
From percent into degrees Degrees Percent Degrees Percent

Percent Degrees/min/s
0.25(15') 0.44 11 19.44

0.5 0°17'10''
0.50(30') 0.87 12 21.26

1 0°35' 0.75(45') 1.31 13 23.09

2 1°08'40'' 1 1.75 14 24.93

5 2°51'40''
2 3.49 15 26.79

10 5°42'40''
3 5.24 16 28.68

20 11°18'36'' 4 6.99 17 30.57

30 16°42'
5 8.75 18 32.49

40 21°48'05''
6 10.51 19 34.43

50 26°33'55''
7 12.28 20 36.40

100 45°
8 14.05 30 57.74

9 15.84 40 83.91

10 17.63 45 100

Remember: 60 min = 1 degree and 60 s = 1 min

Examples:

 a slope of 17 percent is equal to (10 + 5 + 2) percent, which is equivalent to 5°42'40'' +

2°51'40" + 1°08'40" = 8°101'120'' = 8°103' = 9°43';
 a slope of 9º43' is about equal to (9º + 30' + 15'), which is equivalent to 15.84 percent +
0.87 percent + 0.44 percent = 17.15 percent or 17 percent.

FIGURE 3
Graph for the rapid conversion of slope units
Measuring and calculating slopes
7. There are two groups of methods for
determining slopes.

 You can measure the slope

directly, using one of the devices
described later in this chapter (see
step 14). In this case you read the
gradient (in degrees or in percent)
from the instrument, without
making any further calculations; or

Measuring slope directly

 You can calculate the slope:

measure the ground-level
difference (in metres) between two
points along the steepest part of
the slope (called the axis), using
one of the devices described in
Chapter 5. Calculate the slope,
which you will usually express as a
percentage (see next step).

Measuring ground-level differences to calculate slope

8. To calculate the slope, proceed as
follows:

 along the axis of the slope,

measure the difference in level
AC between two marked points A
and B (see Chapter 5);
 measure the horizontal distance
CB between points A and B (see
Chapter 2);
 calculate the slope S in percent as First measure the difference in level
equal to:

S% = 100AC ÷ CB

Note: to make your calculations easier:

 you can fix the horizontal distance

CB at 100 m, which will give you
S% = AC directly in metres;
 you can fix the horizontal distance
CB at 10 m instead, which will give
you S% = 10 AC in metres.

Remember: you must measure Then measure the horizontal distance

the horizontal distance!

Using slope to calculate horizontal distances

9. In Chapter 2, Sections 2.6 and 2.7, you
learned that when measuring a distance
AB on sloping ground, you need to
correct this measurement in order to find
the true horizontal distance AC, but only
when the slope exceeds 5 percent (or about
3 degrees). To make these corrections,
you may use either the method described
below, or the method which will be
described in Section 5.0, step 17. To
calculate horizontal distances from
distances measured over sloping ground,
proceed as follows:

10. Measure the distance AB (in metres) on Measure the ground-level

the ground between points A and B (see distance
Chapter 2).
11. Measure the average ground slope S
in degrees between points A and B (see
this chapter, Sections 4.1 to 4.7).

Note: if the slope is measured in percent,

you will have to convert it into degrees
(see Table 4 or Figure 3).

12. Enter this average slope S (in Measure the slope

degrees) in Table 5 to obtain the value
of cosine S (cos S). If the slope does not
correspond exactly to any of the angle
values given in the table, you will have to
calculate cos S by using proportional
parts (see example in Table 5).

13. Calculate the horizontal distance AC (in

metres) using the formula:

AC = AB cos S

Calculate the horizontal distance AC = AB cos S

TABLE 5
Cosine values of angles (d = degrees, m = minutes, cos = cosine, x = difference)

MAIN TABLE TABLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS, P

Example

To calculate intermediate cosine values using the

proportional parts, for cos 7°38' for example,
 proceed as follows:

 from the Main Table, calculate cos 7°30' =

0.9914;
 obtain the difference between this value
and the next, x = 3;
 find column 3 in Table of Proportional
Parts, P;
 move down this column to line m = 8, to
find P = 2.4;
 subtract P from the last number (4) of the
value read from the Main Table, 0.9914 -
0.00024 = 0.99116. This is cos 7°38'.

Choosing a method to use for measuring slopes

14. There are several good ways to measure
slopes. The method you use will depend on
several factors:

 how accurate a result you need;

 the equipment you have available;
 the type of terrain on which you are
measuring.

Each of the various methods is fully

explained and illustrated in the following
sections, except for the method to use with
levelling devices (see Chapter 5). Table
6 will also help you to compare the various
methods and to select the one best suited to
your needs.

Plumb-line Clisimeter

TABLE 6
Vertical angle and slope measurement methods

Section1 Method 2 Accuracy Remarks Equipment

Quick and rough

Clinometer, models 1 estimate Home-made
4.1*,4.2* Low
&2 for rather steep slopes clinometer
Hand-held instrument

Low to To be fixed in ground Home-made

4.3* Clinometer, model 3
medium Direct reading in percent clinometer

To be fixed in ground
Low to Home-made
4.4* Clinometer, model 4 Small, easy to make
medium clinometer
Direct reading in percent

Quick and rough

Low (about
4.5** Clisimeter estimate Lyra clisimeter
10 percent)
Direct reading in percent

Quick, rather good

Medium to estimate Optical
4.6** Optical clinometer
high Direct reading in clinometer
degrees and percent

Requires distance
Miscellaneous Medium to measurement Various, see
4.7***
levelling devices high Best estimates for small Table 7
gradients, especially
 with best levels

1
*Simple **more difficult ***most difficult.
2
In italics, equipment you can build yourself from instructions in this manual.

4.1 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 1

1. A clinometer is an instrument for measuring slopes or vertical angles. There are

various types of clinometers, but they all include a graduated arc similar to a protractor
(see Section 3.3, step 11). To use the clinometer, you hold it in your hand and read
the slope against this arc. You also usually refer to a free-hanging plumb-line called
the pendulum. There is a line of sight* on the top of the clinometer. You can easily make
your own simple clinometer; four models are described in Sections 4.1 to 4.4.

Making the pendulum clinometer, model 1

2. Get a protractor with a 0º to 90º scale, Glue the protractor to a wooden backing and cut it
or make one yourself as described in out
Section 3.3. The protractor should be fairly
large (for example, about 20 to 25 cm
diameter) to provide reasonable accuracy.

Note: if you use Figure 2 to make your

protractor, you can easily draw a larger 0º to
90º protractor. To do this, get a piece of
string and tie a pencil to one end. Measure
20 to 25 cm from the pencil along the
string. Hold the string at this point on the
centre-point A of the protractor in Figure 2.
With the string stretched tightly, draw an
arc with the pencil above the rounded
edge of Figure 2. Then add graduations on
your new protractor by projecting lines
from the graduations in Figure 2. Glue the
protractor to a piece of thin wooden board
or plywood and cut carefully along its
outline.

Prolong the graduations from the Draw a larger arc with pencil and string
protractor

3. Attach a plumb-line (see Section 4.8,
step 2) to a small nail driven into the
centre-point A of the protractor. Make the
plumb-line with a thin piece of string about
35 to 40 cm long and a small weight, such
as a heavy nut or a small stone.
4. Glue a 30-cm sighting device along the 90º side
of the protractor. To make the sighting device,
get a soda straw or a narrow tube; or get a thin
length of wood and attach two pins along it in a
straight line.
 Adjusting your home-made clinometer

5. Measure the vertical distance from the level of your eyes to the ground, then
measure the same vertical distance on a wall and mark it clearly. You will also need
to mark this vertical distance clearly on a pole or staff, which you will use for sighting.

 Get a straight pole whose length is equal to your eye level plus 25 cm. (For example, if your
eye level is 145 cm, the pole should be 145 cm + 25 cm = 170 cm.) Make a sharp point at one
end and drive it into the ground until the top of the pole is at your eye level. Carefully mark the
point where the pole enters the ground, called the reference* level; when you use the pole,
always drive it in up to this line. To make the top of the pole more visible, mark it with bright-
coloured paint or cloth. You will sight at the top of the pole.

Make a mark at your eye level Mark the reference level on the pole

6. Stand on horizontal ground about 15 paces 7. Check that the plumb-line string indicates 0º. If
in front of the mark, and aim at it through the it does not, adjust the small nail holding the
sighting device on your clinometer. plumb-line. When the string indicates 0°, your
clinometer is ready to use.
Check for accuracy by sighting at the mark you
have made

Using your clinometer to measure a slope

8. Sighting either uphill or downhill with the clinometer, you can measure a slope by
moving the protractor around.

9. Take a position with the clinometer. Make sure to stand up straight so you do not
change your eye level. Sight at a point. This point should be:

 at eye level; use the pole or staff you prepared in step 5, making sure that it is vertical;
 no farther away than 30 m - a shorter distance (15-20 m) will improve the accuracy of the
measurement.

Make sure point A is at the top,

whether you are sighting uphill or downhill
10. With the clinometer in sighting position, press the plumb-.line with your finger
against the bottom scale. Be careful not to move the plumb-line from its vertical
position. Read the scale at the point where the plumb-line intersects the degree
graduation. This reading is the slope, in degrees.

Note: you can convert your degree measurement into a percentage (see Section 4.0).

Hold the plumb-line in place with your

finger

4.2 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 2

1. You can make another type of clinometer from wood or metal. This model also
has a plumb-line, but its reference scale gives you the slope in percent.
Making the pendulum clinometer, model 2

2. Cut a 51 x 51 cm square board from a piece of wood, or build one from strips of
wood or metal.

 If you cut the board from wood, use a piece which is heavy enough to prevent warping.
Plywood or particle board 1.5 to 2 cm thick will usually be good to use.
 If you build the board from wooden or metal strips, be sure the finished board is square.
Carefully join wooden strips at the corners. You may need to brace them at the back with
diagonal wooden strips. Securely weld metal strips together.

Reinforce the board if necessary

3. Provide a sighting line* along the upper edge of the square.

 If the board is made of wood, you can make a sighting line by driving a finishing nail (small-
headed) into the top edge of the board at a point 2 cm in from each vertical edge. To make
sure the nails are at the same height, place a block of wood 1.5 to 2 cm thick next to the first
nail, and drive the nail in so that it is even with the top of this block. Then move the measuring
block to the other end and use the same method for the second nail.
 If the board is made of metal, you can make a sighting line by glueing or welding two nails or
metal points on the top edge of the board. Be certain that the nails are at the same height.
 A block of wood helps you place the nails correctly

4. Provide a centre-point from which to

hang a plumb-line. Put a mark on the
board 1 cm down from the top edge
and 1 cm in from the sighting point
which is furthest from your eye. If the
board is wooden, drive a nail into this
mark; if it is metal, weld a small nail to
the mark, or drill a hole through it.
5. Make a plumb-line about 65 cm long,
using a piece of thin string and a
weight. A plumb-bob (a small lead
weight) will make the best weight for
the plumb-line but, if you do not have
one, you can use any object which has
its weight evenly distributed from a
single point. A heavy nut or washer, or
a wooden disk with a hole in the
centre, will work.

6. Attach the plumb-line to the hole or

nail at the centre-point of the board.

7. Loosely attach a ruler graduated in

centimetres along the bottom edge of
the board; use large clips, or tie the
ruler on with string. Position the ruler
so that its zero graduation is directly
under the centre-point. Make sure that
the distance between the centre-point
of the plumb-line and the zero mark on
the bottom edge of the ruler is 50 cm.
Adjusting your clinometer
8. Aim the board at a mark which you
have aligned at eye level. Standing
straight and looking along the board's
upper edge, align the two sighting
points with this mark. Your sighting
line* should now be horizontal and your
plumb-line should be vertical.

9. Put your thumb on the plumb-line to

hold it against the ruler at the bottom of
the board, and check to see if the line is
at zero. If it is not, adjust the position of
the ruler so that the zero graduation
and the plumb-line fall exactly in line.

10. Check to see that your clinometer

is correctly aligned by sighting again.
When it is, glue or nail the ruler firmly in
place. Your clinometer is now ready to
use.

Using the clinometer to measure a slope

11. You can measure both uphill and downhill slopes with your clinometer in the following
ways:

 To measure uphill slopes, the plumb-line  To measure downhill slopes, the plumb-
should be at the edge of the board line should be at the edge of the board
furthest from your eye when you are nearest to your eye when you are sighting.
sighting;
12. Place a pole or a staff clearly marked at
eye level (see Section 4.1, step 5) on a point
you can easily see, usually 15 to 20 m away.

13. Aim the clinometer at this mark and, when

the plumb-line has stopped swinging, press it
with your finger to the ruler at the bottom. Be
careful not to move the plumb-line from its
vertical position. Then, read the graduation
(in centimetres) at this point.

14. Since every centimetre on the ruler

equals 2 percent of slope, calculate the slope
as a percentage by multiplying the number of
centimetresyou read on the graduation by 2.

Example

If you read 2.5 cm on the ruler, the slope is

found as:

2.5 cm x 2 = 5%

4.3 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 3

1. The third model of clinometer is a little more complicated to make, but it is more
accurate. It is also easier to use if you are measuring on ground that is soft enough
for you to drive in the supporting staff.
Making the clinometer, model 3
2. To make the supporting staff, get a
straight stick or a piece of wood about
2 m long. Shape one of its ends into a
point, so that you can easily drive it
into the ground. About 25 cm from the
pointed end, mark a line to show how
deep you will drive the staff in.

3. Get three pieces of wood exactly the same, 40

cm long, 4 to 5 cm wide, and about 1 cm thick.
Secure them tightly together with nails or screws
to form a triangle with three equal sides.

4. Prepare a ruler graduated in

millimetres. Get a piece of wood about
25 cm long, 4 cm wide and 0.25 cm
thick. Mark the centre with 0, then
mark graduations from this centre-point
up to 100 mm on either side.

5. Loosely attach this ruler to one of Tie the ruler to the triangle with string
the triangle's sides with string or clips.
6. On the same side of the triangle,
make a sighting device. Drive two nails
vertically into the side near each of its
ends. Make sure the nails are at equal
heights and on the line.

7. Drill a small hole exactly at the Nail the triangle so it swings freely
centre of the triangle's summit,
opposite the zero point of the ruler.

8. Attach the triangle near the top of

the supporting staff with a nail; make
sure that the triangle remains free to
swing around this axis.

9. Prepare a plumb-line about 40 cm

long (see Section 4.2). Attach it to the
nail at the centre of the triangle's
summit.

Adjusting the clinometer

10. Drive the supporting
staff vertically into horizontal ground
until you reach the reference* level you
marked above its pointed end.

11. Measure the vertical distance

between the ground and the sighting
line* of the clinometer exactly. This
distance should be about 130
cm. Prepare a pole or staff that shows
this height (see Section 4.1, step 5).

Note: the height of the sighting line for

this clinometer may be different from
your eye level.

12. About 15 paces away, make a Sight at the mark

mark on a wall set at the same height
you just measured. Aim with the
sighting line at this mark.

13. Adjust the position of the ruler so
that its 0-graduation lines up exactly
with the plumb-line. Check again for
sighting-line accuracy and adjust the
0-graduation if you need to, then glue
or nail the ruler firmly in position on
the triangle. The clinometer is now
ready to use.
14. Exactly measure the distance (in centimetres)
between the point at which the plumb-line is
attached and the point where the sighting line
intersects the plumb-line. This distance should be
about 32 cm, and is the standard distance D of your
clinometer. Be sure to measure D precisely.

Adjust the ruler so the plumb-line is at Measure the distance D from the nail to the sighting line
zero
Using your clinometer to measure a slope
15. You can measure either uphill or downhill 17. At point A, drive your clinometer
slopes by reading the appropriate one of the support vertically into the ground, down to the
two scales. reference level. With the sighting line, aim at
the mark on the pole or staff; to do this, slowly
16. Place a pole or staff clearly marked at
swing the triangle around the nail at its top
the sighting-line level (see step 11) on a point B
of the slope you are measuring, about 15-20 until you sight the marked level.
m away.

Swing the triangle around until you sight the top

of the pole

18. When the sighting line is level with this 19. Read the graduation N (in millimetres) on
mark, press the plumb-line with your finger the ruler at the point where the plumb-line
against the ruler. Be careful not to move the intersects the sighting line.
plumb-line from its vertical position.

Hold the plumb-line in place

20. If the standard distance of the clinometer (see step 14) is D (in centimetres),
calculate the ground slope S% as:

S% = (10 x N) ÷ D

Example

If D = 32 cm and you read a graduation of 4.8 cm = 48 mm on your clinometer, the slope is

equal to:

(10 x 48) ÷ 32 = 15%

4.4 How to measure with the home-made clinometer, model 4

1. The fourth clinometer model is similar in principle to the preceding one, but it has
several improvements: it is much smaller in size; it is easier to make; and it provides
a direct reading of the slope, so that you do not need to make any calculations. The
model 4 clinometer may also be used to measure vertical angles (see this Section,
step 17).
Making the clinometer, model 4
2. Get a small piece of thin wooden board,
about 14 x 21 cm. The best material would be
plywood.
3. On this board, glue a sheet of
squareruled millimetric paper so that its
printed lines are parallel to the sides of the
board.

4. Draw a line AB, parallel to the larger edge

of the board and about 1.5 cm from it.

5. Find the centre of line AB and mark it C. From 6. Through point D, raise perpendicular* EF,
this point lay out perpendicular CD, which should which is parallel* to AB.
measure 10 cm. You may adapt one of the
methods from Section 3.6, or use the lines on
the paper to guide you.
7. Taking point D as zero, measure 10 cm to the left and 10 cm to the right of point D,
along EF. Divide these two distances into millimetres and mark the main graduations.
Once again, the lines on the paper will help you.

Note: instead of drawing the above lines yourself, you can use Figure 4. Make an
enlarged a copy of it and cut it out. Glue this figure to the wooden board, with line
AB parallel to the board's longer edge.

FIGURE 4
8. Make a plumb-line 17 cm long, using very thin thread (such as a nylon fishing line)
and a small weight. Drive in a small nail exactly at point C on the board, and hang
the plumb-line from it. Slightly below the nail, at K on line CD, drill a hole that a
wood-screw will pass through.

9. Make a sighting line* along line AB. To do this, you can drive thin nails in at points A
and B. Or, get two metal strips (you can cut them from a tin) and cut small, v-shaped
notches out of one end of each strip. Then, bend the other end so that the strips can
be attached perpendicular to the board. Screw them to points A and B, making sure
that the v-notches (your sighting guides) are directly over the two marked points A
and B. Align these v-notches with line AB.

Mark sighting line AB with nails... ... or with v-notch sighting guides

10. Get a wooden staff 2 m long to use as the support, and make a point on the
bottom end. Loosely attach the clinometer board near the top of this staff with a
screw through the hole K you made on line CD in step 8. Tighten the screw so that
the board can be turned around. Check that the head of the screw lies
slightly below the surface of the board so it will not disturb the plumb-line.

Attach the board so it can turn easily Make sure the plumb-line
swings freely
11. Clearly mark a reference line* about
25 cm above the pointed end of the
supporting staff, showing the depth to
which you need to drive it into the
ground at each station. Measure the
distance between this reference line
and the sighting line AB.

12. Then prepare a pole or staff with a

reference line and a sighting line at
exactly the same height as line AB.
This will be your sighting pole.

Using the clinometer for measuring a slope in percent

13. You can measure either uphill or
downhill slopes by reading the appropriate
one of the two scales.

14. Place the sighting pole you made in step

12 on point Y of the slope you are
measuring, about 15-20 m away. Drive it in
vertically up to the reference line.

15. At point X, drive your clinometer support vertically into the ground up to the
reference line. With the sighting line, aim at the mark on the sighting pole. Rotate the
board around its screw until you sight the marked level.

Turn the board until you sight the top of the pole
16. Where the plumb-line crosses line EF, read the graduation (in millimetres). This
gives you the slope in percent.

Note: check carefully to see that the plumb-line hangs freely from its support. The board
should rotate without disturbing the vertical position of the plumb-line.

Using the clinometer to measure a vertical angle in degrees

17. If you must measure a vertical angle in degrees instead of a slope, you may use the
model 4 clinometer (as described above). The only difference in this case is that
you use the curved scale GH (in Figure 4) rather than the bottom scale.

4.5 How to use the clisimeter

1. The clisimeter is a simple instrument
for measuring horizontal distances, as
explained in Section 2.7. It can also be
used to measure a slope or a vertical
angle, but it can only give a rough
estimate of these, accurate to within 10
percent.

The lyra clisimeter is a commonly used

model. It is made up of a sighting
device, an attached ring, and a weight,
shaped like a pear, which keeps the
clisimeter in a vertical position when
hung from its ring. The instrument folds
neatly into the weight for transport.

2. When you look through the sighting device, you see three scales. As described
before (see Section 2.7, step 3), the central scale is used to measure horizontal
distances. The other two scales are used to measure vertical angles and slopes. You
will use the left scale, which is graduated in per thousand (%o) or tenths of percent (%):

The scale inside the clisimeter-use the left scale 100 on the scale %o = 10%
to measure slopes or
5% = 50 on the scale %o

Examples

15 per thousand equals 15 ÷ 10 = 1.5

percent
35 per thousand equals 35 ÷ 10 = 3.5
percent
150 per thousand equals 150 ÷ 10 = 15
percent
7 per thousand equals 7 ÷ 10 = 0.7
percent

Note: the right scale is graduated

in grades (G), a unit of measurement which
you have not used yet. Full circle is divided
into 400 grades. Up to now we have been
using degrees. There are 360 degrees in a
full circle!
3. The left scale is graduated from zero in two opposing directions:

 above zero are the positive graduations for measuring uphill slopes;
 below zero are the negative graduations for measuring downhill slopes.

Using the clisimeter to measure a slope

You can use the clisimeter by yourself or with an assistant:

4. If you are working alone, you need a pointed stake clearly marked at two levels:
the reference level above the pointed bottom, showing the depth to which you will
drive the stake into the soil; and the eye level, which is the vertical measurement from
the reference levelto your eye level. It is best to have the eye level at the top of the
stake. (This stake is like the one you learned to make in Section 4.1, step 5.)

Make a sighting pole marked at eye level Sight at the marked pole

5. If you have an assistant, you can also use a simple rod marked at eye level, but it
will be faster to use your assistant instead of this rod. To do this, determine the point
on your assistant which is at the same level as your own eyes and sight at that point
instead.

Find your eye level on your assistant Sight at the eye level you have chosen

6. Place the marked stake at point B on Sight at the point

the slope you need to measure, or send
your assistant to point B, either with or
without marked rod.

7. Taking a position at point A about 10

to 15 m away, hang the clisimeter
vertically from your left forefinger and
bring the sighting device up to your left
eye. Make sure to stand up straight so
you do not change your eye level.

8. While looking at the marked level with Read the left scale
your right eye, read the graduation on
the left scale of the sighting device. This
is the slope you are measuring,
expressed in per thousand.

Note: to make reading the graduation

easier, move your head slightly from
right to left. The graduation will seem to
extend out of the instrument into the
landscape. Then, read the graduation
corresponding to the marked level.

Using the clisimeter to lay out a slope

9. You will need an assistant for this method. Sight with the graduation on the left
scale (which corresponds to the slope) at the marked level (on a rod such as the one
described in Section 4.1, step 5, for example) corresponding to the height of your
eyes.

10. Ask your assistant to move the marked rod
forward or backward until the eye level line is even
with the clisimeter graduation.
11. When the rod is properly aligned,
ask your assistant to mark the point
on the ground with a stake. Move up
to this stake and repeat the
procedure.

Move the sighting pole until you see it

at the correct
graduation
Note: if you need greater accuracy, you can hang the clisimeter at fixed height from a
stick. If you do this, remember to adjust the marked level on the rod to this height.

4.6 How to use the optical clinometer

1. An optical clinometer is a precise Clinometer
pocket instrument for measuring
vertical angles and estimating tree
heights. It is commonly used by
foresters. It can also be used to
measure slopes quickly, with a method
similar to that described for the
clisimeter (see Section 4.5).

2. When you look through the sighting Sight through hole

device of the clinometer, you can see a
cross-hair and two scales. The left
scale is graduated indegrees and the
right scale is graduated in percent. Both
scales have a positive (+ ) section for
measuring uphill slopes and a negative
section (-) for measuring downhill
slopes.

3. Keeping both eyes open, sight with Read the graduation at the cross-hair
one eye through the optical clinometer,
moving it until the cross-hair lines up
with the marked level you wish to
measure (such as a rod). With the
clinometer lined up in this position read
the graduation at the cross-hair.
4.7 How to use miscellaneous levelling devices
1. In Chapter 5, various levelling devices will Sight with the clinometer
be discussed. These devices can also be
used to measure a slope. To set a graded
line of slope, see Section 6.9.

2. In Section 3.5, you learned about Theodolite

theodolites and how you can use them to
measure horizontal angles. Most theodolites
are designed to measure vertical angles as
well. For this purpose, they are fitted with:

 a graduated vertical circle attached to

the horizontal axis of the telescope;
 an extra graduated plate inside this
circle for highly precise measurements.

3. Levelling devices help you measure the difference in levels between two points. After
you have measured the horizontal distance between these points, you can calculate the
slope as explained earlier (see Section 4.0, step 8).
Measuring difference in levels between two
points

4.8 How to set out and check verticals

1. A vertical is a line with a 90º slope. Most walls are vertical
You will often have to set out verticals,
especially when you are building walls
for a canal or building. You have already
used vertical lines, to measure distances
over sloping ground for example (see
Section 2.6, step 19).

Setting out and checking verticals with a plumb-line

2. A plumb-line is a simple device which
forms a vertical line*. The idea of the plumb-
line is based on the fact that any heavy
object will fall vertically, making a 90º angle
with the horizontal plane at ground level.
3. In a plumb-line, a fairly heavy object,
the plumb, is attached to the end of a thin
line. When the plumb hangs freely without
moving, the line is vertical.

Gravity makes objects fall vertically A plumb-line

Making your own plumb-line
4. You can make a simple plumb- 5. You can make an improved plumb-line for
line from: measuring buildings in progress and other
constructions. Start with a piece of wood or heavy
 a thin line about 50 cm long, such metal about 10 cm square.
as a piece of string, cotton thread,
or nylon fishing line; and
 a small but heavy object, such as
a stone, metal nut, or fishing lead.

A simple plumb-line An improved plumb-line

6. Find the exact centre of the square
piece by drawing two diagonal lines on
it. Drill a small hole through the point
where they cross.

7. To make the plumb, get a heavy,

solid block of wood (such as red
acajou) or metal - the largest side of
this block should be 10 cm across or
less - if you can, shape the block into a
cone.

8. If the block is wooden, drive a small

nail into the exact centre of its top
surface. If the block is metal, have a
small hook welded to this point.

9. Attach the end of a thin line (nylon

fishing line is strongest) about 1 m long
to this nail or hook on the block and
pass the other end through the central
hole of the wooden or metal square
piece. Fix the line on the other side of
this hole either by tying it into a heavy
knot or by tying a small piece of wood
or metal (such as a nut) on to its end.

Note: you can change the dimensions

of the plumb-line, depending on the
materials you have. The line can be
longer, if necessary.
 Don't let the end of the line pass through

Using a plumb-line to set out a vertical

10. Remember that a free plumb-line Checking a vertical with a plumb-line
will hang vertically.

11. You can use a simple plumb-line to

see if a wall is vertical. To do this, hold
the top end of your plumb-line close to
the wall and check to see if the
distance between the wall and the top
end of the line is equal to the distance
between the wall and the centre of the
weight at the bottom. This distance will
be easier to check if the weight is
pointed on the bottom.
12. When using the improved plumb-line along a wall:

 if the diameter of the weight is
equal to the diameter of the top
square, place one of the sides of
the square against the wall. Check
to see that the side of the weight
slightly touches the wall;
 if the diameter of the weight is smaller than the
diameter of the top square, place one of the
sides of the square against the wall. Check to
see that the distance from the centre of the
weight to the wall equals half the length of the
square's side.

Same-size weight touches the wall Measure a smaller weight

Note: if you need to make the plumb-line shorter to measure along walls of different
heights, you can pull the line up through the centre-hole in the square at the top. Let
it back down through the hole to measure higher walls.

Pull up the line to measure shorter verticals

Checking small verticals with a mason's level

13. Some mason's levels (see Section 6.1) have an additional bubble level for checking
verticality. You can use this level when you are building walls, for example. This
method is particularly useful when the vertical you are checking is fairly small. Hold
the mason's level vertically against the surface you need to check. If the surface is
vertical, the bubble will be at the exact centre of the bubble level.
 5. MEASURING HEIGHT DIFFERENCES - PART 1

5.0 Introduction
Height differences in fish
culture
1 . In fish culture, you must often
measure the difference in height
between two points. To construct a
pond, you need to determine the
heights of the dikes you will build, and
the depths of the pond bottoms you
will dig. To choose the routes of water-
supply canals from the source to the
ponds, you will also need height and
depth measurements. And when you
plan a reservoir, you will also need to
make height measurements to
determine where its shoreline will be
(see Volume 4, Water, Section 4.2).

Types of problems you will be facing

1. There are three types of problems in Calculating height differences
the measurement of height
differences.

2. You may have to measure any

differences in height among a series of
points on the ground, and compare
them. From the results of this
comparison, you can calculate the
heights of given points so that you can
make a map (see Chapter 9). This is
called surveying the levels of the points,
or levelling (see Sections 5.1- 5.9).

3. You may have to locate points A contour line

which are at the same height. This is
called laying out contour lines,
or contouring(see Sections 6.2-6.8).

4. You may have to locate points Setting out a slope

which have a given difference in height.
In this case, you will be setting
out lines of slope with a definite gradient
(see Section 6.9).

Measuring the height of ground points

5. Differences in height between two A straight-edge level
points are usually measured with a
device called a level. It is called a level
because it gives a true horizontal line.
The height of each point is then
measured by its vertical distance
above or below this horizontal line.
6. This horizontal line can be formed in A sighting level
two ways, depending on the type of
measuring device you are using to find
the heights of points. If you use a non-
sighting level (see Sections 5.1-5.3), the
horizontal line will be formed by a
straight-edge, a line level, or water
levels. If you use a sighting level (see
Sections 5.4-5.9), the horizontal line
will be formed by prolonging a line of
sight*.

7. You will always use sighting levels Levelling staffs

together with a vertical graduated
scale, which measures the height of the
line of sight at each station.

8. A ruler with a vertical graduated

scale is called a levelling staff. There
are several models which you can buy,
or you can make your own (see the
following steps). Levelling staffs are
usually 2 to 5 m long, foldable or
telescopic, and made of plastic-coated
wood or aluminium. Self-reading
levelling staffs are usually graduated in
metres, decimetres, and centimetres.
These graduations are upside-down
so that you can read them with a
telescope. On a target levelling staff,
there is a moveable "target" with
a reference line*, which can be
positioned at a fixed height.
Making your own levelling staff
9. To make your own levelling staff, get a Mark the ... or use
straight length of wood, 2 to 3 m long and 5 graduations... measuring tapes
to 10 cm wide. Clearly
mark graduations along it every 10 cm. It is
best if you paint the levelling staff white
and mark the graduations on it in red.
Make these graduations fairly large (about
1 cm thick) so you will be able to read them
easily and accurately from a long distance.

10. You can also make a levelling staff by

gluing one or more graduated measuring
tapes onto a straight piece of wood 2 to 3 m
long. Glue the tapes on lengthwise, end to
end. To read the small graduations
accurately, you may have to decrease the
distances over which you take the
measurements, or rely on an assistant to
make the reading.

11. Another model of levelling staff is

described in Section 6.5. It is used for
contouring and for setting graded lines of
slope.

Choosing the best method for measuring height differences

12. There are a number of good ways Line level
to measure height differences. The
method of measurement you use will
depend on several factors. Each
method is discussed in the following
sections. Table 7 will also help you to
compare the methods and select the
one best suited to your needs.
Additional information on how to plan
your levelling survey, how to record
the measurements and how to
calculate the results will be given in
Chapters 7 and 8.

Theodolite Improved T-bone level

TABLE 7
Height difference measurement methods1
NON-SIGHTING LEVELS

Section2 Method3 Distance, m Accuracy Remarks People, equipment

1 person,
Straight- Medium Easy to transport mason's level
5.1 * 2.5 to 3
edge level to high Quick to operate 1 measuring
scale

Very easy to 3 people, mason's

transport level
5.2 * Line level 20 Medium
Quick to operate 2 measuring
For rough ground scales

Awkward to
transport
Flexible Very quick to 2 people,
5.3* tube water 10 to 15 High operate 2 measuring
level For clear rough scales
ground
Avoid water loss

SIGHTING LEVELS

5.4* T-bone level 10 Rough

Low to 2 people, 1
measurement
 medium Useful for canals, levelling staff
pipelines

Especially good for 2 people,

Improved T- 15 to
5.5 * Medium dikes and future mason's level, 1
bone level 20
water level levelling staff

15 to Low to Greatly affected by 2 people, 1

5.6** Bamboo level
20 medium wind levelling staff

Rough, quick 2 people, 1 hand

10 to
5.7* Hand level Low method, best when level, 1 levelling
15
rested on a pole staff

2 people,
Surveyor's Expensive, delicate
over expensive level,
5.8*** level and Very high Automatic levelling
100 tripod, 1 special
theodolite with stadia hairs
levelling staff

1
See also Table 8 for contouring and slope setting
2
*Simple ** more difficult ***most difficult
3
In italics, equipment you can make yourself

Calculating height differences from slopes

13. If you know the average slope between two points (see Chapter 4), you can easily calculate the height
difference between them. First measure the horizontal distance D in metres between points A and B (see
Chapter 2). To calculate the height difference H (in metres), multiply D by the slope S expressed in hundredths:

H = D x 0.0S

Example

 You measure D = 20 m and S = 5% = 0.05.

 H = 20 m x 0.05 = 1 m.

Measure the horizontal distance... ... and the slope...

 to calculate the height

Calculating height differences from vertical angles

14. If you have measured vertical
angle ABC in degrees, you can
calculate the height difference AC
from:

 either the ground distance

BC along the slope

AC = BC x
sin ABC

obtaining sine ABC from Table 14

 or the horizontal distance BA

With the ground distance, calculate AC = BA x sine
ABC
AC = BA x
tan ABC

obtaining tangent ABC from Table 3.

Example

 Vertical angle ABC = 7

degrees. You need to
calculate AC.
 If you have measured BC= 47
m: from Table 14, sin 7° =
0.12187; AC = 47 m x 0.
12187 = 5.72789 m = 5.73 m;
 If you have measured BA=
46.7 m: from Table 3, tan 7° =
0.1228; AC = 46.7 m x 0.1228
= 5.73476 = 5.73 m. With the horizontal distance,
calculate AC = BA x tangent ABC
Using height differences to calculate horizontal distances
15. You learned earlier that, on sloping Ground distance
ground, you need to correct distance
measurements taken along the ground
in order to find the horizontal distances
(see Section 2.6).

16. You also learned one way Height difference

of correcting distance measurements,
using slope (see Section 4.0, steps 10-
13).

17. Another way of correcting distance

measurements is to use
measurements of height differences in
the following formula:

Horizontal distance =  (G2 - H2)

where G = AB is the distance CB = (G2 - H2)

measurement (in metres) along the
sloping ground and H = AC is the
height difference (in metres) between
the two points.

Example Ground distance = 45 m

 You have measured AB = 45 m

along the sloping ground;
 The height difference AC from point
A to point B equals 9 m;
 The horizontal distance

CB =  ((45 m)2 - (9 m)2) =

=  (2025 m - 81 m) = 1944 m = 44.1 m
 Height difference = 9 m (452 - 92) = 44.1

5.1 How to use the straight-edge level

1. You can make a simple device for
measuring height differences over a
small distance out of a mason's level
(see Section 6.1) and a wooden
straight-edge.

Making a straight edge

2. Get a piece of wood that is heavy Make all the edges square and straight
enough to resist warping, and 2.5 to 3
m long. This piece of wood must be
cut very carefully so that the edges are
straight and squared-off.

3. When you have cut the straight-

edge, hold one end to your eye and
sight along the top and bottom edges
to find which is the straightest.
Making a straight-edge level
4. Using light string, lash a mason's Lash the level to the straightest edge of the board
level securely to the mid-point of the
straightest edge of your straight-edge.
Make sure that the mason's level is
parallel to this edge.

Measuring height differences using the straight-edge level

5. Set one end of the straight-edge level on 6. Measure the vertical distance from point B
the ground at the highest point A, and move on the ground to the bottom of the straight-
the other end up or down until the edge is edge level, using a graduated ruler, for
horizontal, using the spirit level the spirit level as example
a guide.

When the level is horizontal... ... measure the height difference

Note: if the distance AB between the two Measure big differences in stages
points is greater than the length AC of the
straight-edge level, you will have to measure
intermediate points C, D, E ... B and add up
all the heights to get the total height.

5.2 How to use the line level

A mason's level and a cord form the basis of the line level. It is a simple device which you can use over a
relatively long distance (up to about 20 m). You will need to work in a team of three people. You will also need
two levelling staffs and some marking pins.

Making your own line level

1. Get a cheap mason's level with a wooden 2. Get two 10-m-long cords and tie one of
case. Screw a strong screw-eye into each them to each of the screw-eyes.
end-face, on the centre- line and close to the
top.
3. Wrap the loose ends of the cords with Wrap the ends of the cords for strength
string to reinforce them.

Using the line level for levelling

4. The rear person places a levelling staff Put a levelling staff at starting point A
on the starting point A of the line you are
level-surveying. The end of one cord is put
against the 1 m graduation of the staff.

5. The front person then takes a levelling When the cord is stretched tight, mark point 8
staff, a marking pin and the end of the
other cord, and walks away from the rear
person, following the direction of the line
being surveyed, and stopping when the
cord is well stretched.

6. The front person places the second 7. The centre person stands between the rear and
levelling staff vertically on the ground front people and looks at the mason's level; then
making sure that it is on the line being signals the front person to move the end of the
levelled. The end of the cord is pulled until cord up or down the levelling staff, until the spirit
the entire line level is as level indicates that the line is horizontal . If
nearly horizontal as possible. This point is necessary, the rear person also moves that end
then marked with the marking pin. of the cord up or down, to prevent the mason's
level from touching the ground.

The centre person looks at the level... ...and guides the front person until it is horizontal

8. The rear person reads the height of Read the heights on the levelling staffs...
that end of the cord on the levelling
staff. The front person does the same.
Be sure to double-check all
measurements. Write down the
measurements carefully, putting the
rear measurements in one column and
the front measurements in another
column so you won't get them
confused. (See the chart in step 10)

9. Then the front person removes the ... and write them in your notebook
levelling staff from the ground and
replaces it with a marking pin. The
team progresses forward along the
line, repeating the same procedure.
The rear person should stop each time
at the marking pin that the front person
has placed for the previous
measurement.

Begin the next measurements from point B

10. To calculate the height differences for the Add the measurements to find the total
entire line, first find the height difference for difference
each station by substraction. Add up all the
differences to find the total height difference
(see below).

Finding height differences with the line level 4 cm + 11 cm + 8 cm = 23 cm

Station Rear Front Difference

1 100 cm 96 cm 4 cm

2 100 cm 89 cm 11 cm

3 100 cm 92 cm 8 cm

1 to 3 Total 23 cm

5.3 How to use the flexible-tube water level

You can make a simple device for measuring level distances using a piece of transparent water hose 10 to 15 m
long and two levelling staffs.

Making your own water level

1 . If you do not have two levelling staffs,
get two straight pieces of wood, 4 x 2 cm
wide and 2 m long. Mark off a measuring
scale in centimetres on each of them, or get
two measuring tapes and glue them
lengthwise to the pieces of wood.

2. When you mark the centimetre scales on

the pieces of wood, place them side by side
and align their tops and bottoms so that you
can be sure both scales will be at exactly
the same level. If you begin marking the
scales 10 cm from the bottom of the wood,
you can easily see where they begin, even
if you are measuring in tall vegetation. Make
sure that the bottom of each staff is flat or
has a reference line*.

3. Lay the two levelling staffs side by side in Lash the hose to the Fill the hose with water
front of you, with their scales facing you. staffs up to 1 m high
With strong string, lash the plastic hose
along the length of the inside edges of the
measuring scales. Make sure that the very
ends of the hose are even with the tops of
the staffs. The middle part of the hose will
be loose between the two poles. When you
fasten the hose to the poles, tie the string
around the hose tightly enough to be
secure, but take care not to pinch the hose.
Make sure that the very ends of the hose
are lashed to the scales.

4. On one point on the ground, place the

two measuring scales side by side, with
their scales aligned, in a vertical position.
Slowly fill the hose with water, taking care to
get rid of any air bubbles, until the level is
about 1 m high in each of the upright
sections of hose (the stand pipes) when
they are held together.

5. Plug each end of the hose with a cork or

another kind of stopper to avoid losing
water when you carry the level. If you do
lose any water, align the scales as you did
before and refill with water to about 1 m.

Plug the hose

Using the water level for levelling

6. To use the water level, you will need
to work in a team of two people. The
rear person stands at the starting point
A of the line, and places one of the
measuring scales in a vertical position
on the ground.

7. The front person, carrying the other

measuring scale and a marking pin,
walks ahead along the line in the
direction of the point where you want
to find the difference in levels. When
the end of the hose is reached the
measuring scale is placed in a vertical
position on the ground. Make sure that
the levelling staff is directly on the line.

8. When the measuring scales are in

position, both people remove the plugs
in their ends of the hose. This is to
ensure that the water in the hose will
fall at the correct level.

9. Read the measuring scales with Read the measurements

your eyes level with the surface of the and
water in the hose. write them in your
notebook
10. Replace the plugs in the ends of
the hose.
11. Note down the measurements in a Begin the next measurements from point B
special table which will help you to
calculate the height differences
accurately (see Section 5.2, step 10).
The front person marks the point
where he or she is standing with a
marking pin.

12. Progress forward, repeating the

same procedure along the line. Each
time you finish a section, the rear
person should take a position at the
marking pin left by the front person.

5.4 How to use the T-bone level

The T-bone level is a very simple level which is particularly useful for setting out canals or pipeline centre-lines.
You use it together with a levelling staff, held by an assistant.

Making a T-bone level

1. Get two 5 x 2.5 cm pieces of wood, each 2. Along the 2.5 cm face of one of these
exactly 1 m long. pieces, draw the centre-line. Make a shallow
groove along this line with a saw.
3. Lay the other piece of wood lengthwise
on the ground, and centre the grooved
piece, grooved side up, perpendicularly
across it in a "T" shape. Make sure that
their top sides are even and that they form
an exact 90º angle. Nail the grooved piece
in position to the other piece and add two
support struts to hold it in place. The total
height of the device should be 1 m.

Note: to improve the accuracy of the level,

you can make the horizontal top piece 1.5
m long rather than 1 m.

Using a T-bone level for levelling

4. At the starting point A of the line you Hold the level firmly in place
are level-surveying, stand with the T-
bone level. Hold the base of the
level firmly on the ground, avoiding
stones or other objects which might
cause it to wobble. Be sure the
support is held vertically.

5. Have your assistant hold the Sight along the groove at the levelling staff
levelling staff in a vertical position at
the next point B of the line, about 10 m
away.

6. Sight along the edge of the groove, as

though you were sighting a gun,
toward the graduation of the levelling
staff.

7. On the levelling staff, read the Read the graduation at the line of sight...
height corresponding to the T-bone
level sighting line and note it down.
Your assistant can help you by slowly
moving a brightly coloured marker,
such as a pencil or a pen, up and
down along the levelling staff until you
signal that it is level with the T-bone
top edge. He or she then reads the
height to you.

8. Note these readings down in a table ... and write it in your notebook
and calculate the height differences
(see Section 5.2, step 10).

Note: since your T-bone level is exactly

1 m high, all you have to do to obtain
the height difference between two
points is to subtract 1 m from the
reading on the levelling staff.

5.5 How to use the improved T-bone level

To make an improved T-bone level you can add a mason's level to the original device to help to make its sighting
line horizontal. It can be used over longer distances, particularly to set out the top levels of pond dikes and to
determine the water line of future reservoirs (see Vol.4, Water, Section 4.2).

Making your improved T-bone level

1. Get a mason's level with a wooden case and attach two metal sight pieces to its ends. To make them, cut
two strips from a flattened tin. They should be the same width as the narrowest part of the mason's level, and
about 2 cm longer than its height. Cut a V-notch 1 cm deep in one end of each strip. Nail the strips to the ends of
the mason's level with the notches sticking up to create a line of sight along the top of the mason's level.
2. Get two pieces of wood, each 5 x 2.5 cm 3. Centre your modified mason's level on the
thick and about 1 m long. Assemble them top piece and attach it. Then measure exactly
with wooden support struts so that: 1 m from the sighting line at the top of the
mason's level down the support piece. Clearly
 the top piece forms a 90° angle with the mark this reference line* with paint or with a
support piece and is centred over it in a T- narrow piece of wood nailed across the
shape; and
 the widest face of the top piece is
support. Below this mark, shape the support
horizontal to provide a flat surface. into a point.

Using the improved T-bone level for levelling

4. You use the improved T-bone Drive the stake down to the reference line
level the same way as the simple T-
bone level (see Section 5.4), except
that:

 first you drive it into the ground,

down to the reference line;
 then you adjust the top board with
 the mason's level to make it
horizontal;
 finally, you set the sighting line
with the metal sights attached to
the mason's level.

Make it horizontal with the mason's level

Sight at the levelling staff

Note: the sighting line will be exactly 1

m above exactly 1 m above point A
where the improved T-bone level is
positioned. Knowing this, you can
easily determine the other points B, C,
... G of the site that are 1 m higher
than your levelling station A by
standing on the same point and
levelling around in a circle. Rotate the level to find all the points 1 m higher than
point A

5.6 How to use the bamboo sighting level

You can make a simple device for level surveying from a small bamboo tube and several pieces of wood. It
should be used with a levelling staff. It is very sensitive to wind and breezes. When you use it, make sure that
the sighting tube remains horizontal while you are reading heights.
Making your own bamboo sighting level

1. Get a piece of bamboo about 45 cm long and a few centimetres in diameter. Remove the inside m embrane
between its sections by drilling, or by driving a long object such as a metal rod through the tube.

Remove -membranes from the tube with a rod

2. Across one end of the bamboo tube, glue two pieces of wire or thread at right angles to form a central sighting
point.

3. Cover the other end of the tube with

tape. Waterproof plastic or electrical
tape is best. Pierce the tape at
its centrewith a small nail, to make a
sighting hole. When you use the level,
you will look through this hole and
read the measurement at the point
where the two threads cross.
4. Place a small weight on the bamboo
tube which can be moved along the
tube to balance it. A hose clip makes a
good balance, and it can be tightened
to keep it in place once the tube has
been horizontally adjusted.

5. Lash two 45 cm wood strips to

opposite sides of the tube, near the
ends, so that they form a triangle with
the bamboo tube.

6. Drill a hole through each wooden

strip at a point about 7 cm from the
top.

7. Get a 2 m vertical staff, and drill a

hole through it near the top; the
triangle sighting device will hang from
this.
8. To allow the triangle to move freely,
place small blocks of wood or short
segments of bamboo between the
wooden strips of the triangle where
they cross at the top and between the
back of the triangle at this point and
the vertical staff.

9. Loosely bolt the triangle, through

the wooden blocks or bamboo
segments, to the hole in the vertical
staff. The sighting line should be exactly
1.50 m from the ground. This height is
convenient for both calculations and
sighting. With the bamboo sighting
tube perpendicular to the support staff,
measure the vertical distance from the
centre of the tube to the bottom of the
staff. Mark a reference line 1.50 m
below the line of sight.

Adjusting the bamboo sighting level

10. Place the bamboo sighting level close to a 2 m measuring scale or levelling staff. Read the height on the
scale by sighting at it through the small hole and reading the number that lines up with the crossed threads.

Check from 1 m away...

11. Move the measuring scale to a ... and from 15 m away
point which is 15 m away and at the
same level. Check that this point is at
the same level (with a straight-edge
level, for example, see Section
5.1). Sight again through the bamboo
tube and read the height on the scale
to see if it is the same as before.

12. Check to see that the triangle is Swing the triangle, then test again
hanging freely by moving it with your
finger. Let the triangle come to a stop
and check the reading through the
bamboo tube again to see if the result
is the same.

13. If the reading at the 15 m point is If the reading is low, move the weight back
not the same as the reading from the
point where the bamboo level and
measuring scale were side by side,
adjust the balance weight on the
bamboo tube slightly. Move the weight
towards the rear of the tube if the 15 m
reading is lower; move it forward if the
reading is higher.

14. Again place the bamboo sighting If the reading is high, move the weight forward
level and the measuring scale or staff
side by side, and take a new reading.
15. Move the scale or staff 15 m away, Keep testing until the sighting-tube is balanced
and check this reading.

16. Repeat this process (see above,

steps 10-15) until the two readings are
the same.

Note 1: If there is a small difference If the reading is still different...

between the two readings after several
repetitions, it may be caused by a
slight difference in level between the
two points. Interchange the positions
of the bamboo level and the scale,
putting the level at the 15 m point and
the measuring scale at the 0 m point.
Take another reading. Divide the
difference in the readings by 2. Then,
using this figure, make the bamboo
tube horizontal by moving the balance
weight along it.

... exchange the positions of the level and the staff

Note 2: when the reading taken from A variation up to 2 cm is acceptable

15 m away is within 2 cm of the reading
you took with the bamboo level and
the scale side by side, your bamboo
level is accurate enough.

Using the bamboo sighting level for levelling

17. To use the bamboo sighting level
you will need to work in a team of two
people. The distance you can survey
each time depends on how far away
you can read the levelling staff
graduation (usually 20 m, at the
most).

18. You can level in either one or two

directions, as described below.

Note:the bamboo level should be

placed at each station so that the
sighting line is 1.50 m above ground
level.

Levelling in one direction only

19. Place the bamboo sighting level in
a vertical position at point A, the
beginning of the line you are
surveying.

20. Your assistant should walk ahead

15 to 20 m along the line and place
the levelling staff in a vertical position
at point B, and mark point B with a
stake.

21. Take a reading on the levelling

staff, from point A to point B and note
it down. Then move forward to point
B, and set up the bamboo sighting
level where the stake was.

22. Your assistant should walk ahead

another 15 to 20 m along the line.
There the levelling staff is placed in a
vertical position at point C which is
marked with another stake.

23. Now take a reading on the Read the levelling staff at the sighting
levelling staff from point B to point C. line and write the reading In your notebook

24. Repeat this procedure (see steps Move to the next station
22-23) until you have surveyed the
entire line.

25. Carefully note down all the

readings in a table and calculate the
heights of the various points, if you
need them (see Section 5.2).

26. When you have reached the end Add up all the readings
of the line you are surveying, you can
also calculate the total height
difference between the starting and
the finishing points (see Section 5.2).

Levelling in two directions

27. You can measure two lengths of a line from a central point by sighting with the bamboo level in two
directions. This system gives you two readings for each point except the first and the last. By comparing
the forward reading (FR) and the back reading (BR) you can check the accuracy of your work.

28. Your assistant should place the levelling staff in a vertical position at the starting point A on the line you need
to survey.

29. Walk ahead 15 to 20 m along the line and place the bamboo level at point B. From there, take a back
reading (BR) from point B to point A.

Take a back reading and write it down

30. Your assistant should then pace this distance to you, and then pace the same distance past you to the next
point (C) ahead, where the levelling staff is placed.

31. Turn the bamboo level around at point B and take a forward reading (FR) from point B to point C.

Turn the level around and take a forward

reading, then write It down

32. Repeat this process until you have surveyed the entire line.

At the next station, note the back reading...

33. Note down all your readings in a table and calculate the height differences between the surveyed points (see
Section 8.1)

... and the forward reading

5.7 How to use the hand level

1. The hand level is a ready-made tool
for quickly finding differences in level.
Its range in the field should not exceed
15m. You may be able to borrow a
hand level from a local survey station
or buy one from a hardware store. The
hand level is made up of a sighting
channel, a spirit level and a mirror. The
mirror allows you to take a reading
and, at the same time, check to see
that the sighting line* is horizontal.
Using the hand level for levelling
2. The directions for using the hand
level are the same as those given for
the bamboo sighting level (see Section
5.6), except that:

 you can use it held in your hand;

 the height of the sighting line is
the vertical distance from the
ground to your eye level; and
 the bubble of the spirit level must
be centred while you take the
reading.

Note:you can have greater accuracy if

you rest the hand level on the top of a
wooden pole of convenient height. In
this case, the height of the pole
becomes the height of the sighting
line.

5.8 How to use the surveyor's level and theodolite

1 . For very accurate levelling over long
distance surveyors use modern
instruments called surveyor's levels and
theodolites. These instruments are
expensive and can be damaged easily.
Only skilled personnel should operate,
adjust and repair them.

2. To level survey a small farm you will not

usually need the high accuracy of these
instruments, and you may use cheaper
devices. You have learned about these in
earlier sections. However, either
a surveyor's level or a theodolitemay be
available for your survey. Both should be
used with a modern levelling staff (see
Section 5.0, step 8) to give the greatest
accuracy. The levelling staff is set vertically
on the ground so that its graduation marks
are upside down,since the sighting devices
on the surveyor's instruments invert the
images, making them appear upside down.

3. A surveyor's level is basically a telescope,

fitted with cross-wires for sighting, and
attached to a levelling device which is
mounted on a tripod (a support with three
legs). In older instruments, the horizontality
of the sighting line was adjusted with a
sensitive spirit level and fine-threaded
adjusting screws. In more recently made
instruments (known as self-levelling
or automatic levels), the line of sight is
automatically brought to the horizontal,
which makes surveying operations much
easier. The telescope magnifies far-away
objects, which means you can observe the
graduation on a levelling staff at a much
greater distance than you could with your
ordinary eyesight.

4. Theodolites are commonly used to measure horizontal angles (see Section 3.5) and vertical angles (see
Section 4.7). They can also be used to measure height differences.

5. Most surveyor's levels and theodolites are equipped with stadia hairs. These allow you to determine
distances during level surveys (see Section 2.8).

6. Height differences are measured by using the horizontal sighting line as a reference, as described for the
bamboo sighting level (see Section 5.7). These differences are recorded and calculated as explained in Section
8.1. Very long lines can be surveyed much faster, without measuring as many intermediate stations.

Measuring horizontal angles

 6. MEASURING HEIGHT DIFFERENCES - PART 2

6.0 Introduction:contour levelling methods

1. In the previous chapter, you learned Contour lines
how to make several types of simple
levels. You also learned how to use
them in the field for levelling.

2. These levels can also be used for

finding and marking on the ground all
points at the same height, such as the
points along the centre-line of a future
water supply canal. In this case, the
height differences between the various
points of the line would be made equal
to zero. These points make up a contour
line. This particular type of level survey
is called contouring. There are some
simple levels which can be used for
contouring. These will be described in
the following Sections 6.1-6.5. How to
use other levels and slope measuring
devices for contouring will be explained
in Sections 6.6-6.8.
3. In this chapter you will also learn how
to use the levelling devices already
described to set lines of slope with a
gradient (see Section 6.9).

4. There are several good ways of laying out contour lines. Each of these methods is fully explained in the next
sections. Table 8 will also help you choose the method best suited to your needs. Later, in Section 8.3, you will
learn how to lay out contours in the field, and in Section 9.4, you will learn how to map the results of your field
survey.

TABLE 8
Contour levelling methods
CONTOURING LEVELS

Distance,
Section1 Method 2 Accuracy Remarks People, equipment
m

Awkward to 1 or 2 people,
6.2* A-frame 4 Medium
transport mason's level

A-frame, Medium 1 or 2 people,

6.3* 4 Fast to use
plumb line to high plumb line

Awkward but
H-frame water Medium quick
6.4* 2.5 2 people
level to high Avoid water
loss

6.5* Semi-circular 100 Medium Faster for 2 people, target

 water level longer distance levelling staff
Avoid water
loss

NON-SIGHTING LEVELS (see also Table 7)

Straight-edge 2.5 to Medium Easy transport 1 person, mason's

6.6*
level 3 to high Fast level

Very easy to
transport Quick 3 people, mason's
6.6** Line level 20 Medium to operate level 2 measuring
Useful on rough scales
ground

Awkward to
Flexible tube 10 to High to transport Very 2 people, 2
6.6*
water level 15 very high quick measuring scales
Avoid water loss

SIGHTING LEVELS (see also Table 7)

15 to Low to Greatly affected 2 people, 1

6.7** Bamboo level
20 medium by wind levelling staff

10 to 2 people, 1
6.7* Hand level Low Rough, fast
15 levelling staff

more
Expensive, 2 people, 1
6.7*** Surveyor's level than Very high
delicate levelling staff
100

SLOPE MEASURING DEVICES (see also Table 6)

10 to Low to 2 people,
6.8** Clinometer, clisimeter See Table 6
15 high levelling staff

1
*simple **more difficult *** most difficult
2
In italics, equipment you can make yourself
5. In nearly all levelling instruments,
horizontality is shown by a spirit level.
This is a small level, usually made of
an elongated or circular glass tube; the
tube is nearly filled with a liquid
(usually spirit), leaving enough space
to form an air bubble. In the elongated
spirit level, a point near the middle of
the tube is selected as the zero-point,
and clearly marked. Graduations may
be added on either side of this point. In
the circular spirit level, the zero- point
lines up with the centre of the level,
and is clearly marked by a small circle.
When the air bubble is at the zero-
point, the level is horizontal.

6.1 How to use the mason's level

The mason's level is a simple tool often used during building operations. You have learned how to use the
mason's level to set out horizontal lines when you measure short distances on sloping ground (see Section 2.1)
and when you determine height differences (see Sections 5.1-5.2).

What is a mason's level?

1. Usually a mason's level consists of a Mason's level
rectangular wooden casing with a
small spirit level mounted in one of its
narrow faces. The mason's level can
also be made of metal. Glass spirit
levels are highly breakable, and should
be handled very carefully.

2. The casing varies in length. As the

length increases, the accuracy
improves. The cheapest mason's
levels are relatively short, about 25 cm
long. They are generally available from
hardware stores.

Using a mason's level to check horizontality

3. When a mason's level is horizontal,
the bubble of the spirit level lies
exactly at its zero-point.

4. When the air bubble moves away

from the zero-point, it shows that the
level is no longer horizontal. There is
either an uphill or a downhill slope.

Note: the direction in which the bubble

moves always indicates the direction
of the highest point on the slope.

6.2 How to use the A-frame level

A simple device for contouring can be
made from three pieces of wood and a
mason's level. This device works on
the same principle as the straight-edge
level (see Section 5.1), but it is easier
and faster to use.

Making your own A-frame level

1 . Get three pieces of soft wood, all at
least 2 x 6 cm thick; two of the three
pieces should be about 2.80 m long,
and the other about 2 m long. The A-
frame made of these will be about 1.70
m high by 4 m long -- small enough to
handle easily.

2. Attach the two 2.80 long leg-pieces

about 30 cm down from their tops by
drilling a hole through the centre of
each piece and bolting them loosely
together. Adjust the legs until they are
4 m apart at the bottom.
3. Measure up 1.60 m from the bottom
of each leg and loosely attach the 2 m
cross-piece by drilling and bolting it to
the legs. The cross-piece should be
about 1 m above the ground.

4. Cut the bottom of the legs level, so

that they rest evenly on the ground
when the A-frame is upright. To do
this, stand the A-frame upright on its
legs and place a long straight piece of
wood so that it touches both legs at
the base. Make a mark along the legs,
level with the top of this piece of wood,
and cut the legs at the mark.

Adjusting the A-frame level

5. Place the A-frame upright, Check the level
resting the legs on two points
which are at exactly the same
level. Put the mason's level (see
Section 6.1) on the middle part of
the cross-piece and check to see
if it is on the middle part of the
cross-piece and check to see if it
is horizontal. If it is not, adjust it
by moving the cross-piece
slightly, or by cutting a little more
off one of the legs. When the
cross-piece is horizontal, tighten
all the bolts on the A-frame.

6. To check the horizontality, turn Then reverse and check

the A-frame around and, with the
mason's level, check to see that
the cross-piece is still horizontal.

again

7. Using light string, lash the

mason's level securely to the
cross-piece at its mid-point.

Using the A-frame for contouring

8. With a marking pin, mark point A Adjust the forward leg until the level is horizontal
where you will begin contouring. Place
one leg of the A-frame at this point.
Move the other leg uphill or downhill
until the mason's level shows a
horizontal position. At this point place
another marking pin B.

9. Move the A-frame up to the second Repeat at each station

point B. Find the next horizontal point
C and mark it.

10. Repeat this process until you have Contour line AE

plotted the length of the contour line
AE
6.3 How to use the A-frame and plumb-line level

The A-frame and plumb-line level is a simple device very similar to the A-frame, except that the mason's level is
replaced by a plumb-line. The device is used in the same way as the standard A-frame for contouring (see
Section 6.2).

Making your A-frame and plumb-line level

1. Construct an A-frame as described A-frame
above (see Section 6.2, steps 1-4)

2. Screw a small hook, or drive a nail,

into the frame near its summit.

3. Attach a plumb-line (see Section

4.8) to the hook or nail. The plumb-line
should be long enough for the plumb to
reach below the cross-piece of the
frame.

Note: the taller the frame is, the more

sensitive the level will be to differences
in height. The dimensions given in
Section 6.2 provide a good average
accuracy, usually better than 32 cm
over 100 m.
Adjusting your A-frame and plumb-line level
4. Place the A-frame upright with its
legs resting on two points which are at
exactly the same level.

5. When the plumb-line comes to rest,

lightly mark the position of its string on
the top side of the cross-piece of the
A-frame.

6. Place the A-frame the other way

around, so that its legs are reversed
on the same horizontal points. When
the plumb-line comes to a stop, lightly
mark the position of the string on the
cross-piece.

7. Make a permanent mark on the Cross-piece

front side of the cross-piece at the
precise mid-point between the two
marks. This shows where the legs of
the A-frame are exactly level.

Note: to improve measurements in

windy weather, slow the movement of
the plumb-line letting it rub slightly
against the cross-piece of the A-frame.

6.4 How to use the H-frame water level

The H-frame water level is a simple device made of a light wooden frame and some clear plastic piping, which is
partly filled with water. Like the flexible-tube water level (see Section 5.3), it is based on the principle that, under
atmospheric pressure, the free surfaces of interconnected water columns will reach equal heights, which follow a
horizontal line.
Making your H-frame water level
1. Get two 5 x 5 cm thick pieces of soft
wood 1 m long, and one 5 x 5 cm
piece 2.5 m long. Join the three pieces
of wood together to form an "H" shape,
using strong nails or bolts. The
horizontal piece of the frame should be
about 20 cm above ground level. The
two upright legs should make 90º
angles with the horizontal piece.
Check this.

2. Get 3.90 m of clear, non-reinforced

plastic tubing with an inside diameter
of about 1.2 cm. Using soft wire or
string, secure it to the upper face of
the horizontal piece and to the inside
faces of the two vertical pieces. Tie or
bind the plastic tube tightly to the
wooden pieces, but be careful not to
pinch the tube
Note: if you do not have enough clear
plastic tubing, use about 1.90 m of
dark rubber or plastic piping or metal
water piping, and two 1 m lengths of
clear plastic tubing. Connect one
length of clear tubing to each end of
the dark piping with a hose clip. Then
tie the dark piping to the horizontal
piece of the H-frame, and the clear
lengths of tube to the two vertical
pieces.

3. Pour water into the tubing until the level reaches about halfway up each vertical section, making sure to get rid
of any air bubbles. Put a cork stopper in each tube-end to prevent water losses during transportation.

Adjusting your H-frame water level

4. With the help of an assistant, place the Mark at the water level
H-frame upright, with its legs resting on
two points which are at exactly the same
level.

5. Remove the two stoppers from the

tube ends and look at the water level in
each tube from the side. You and your
assistant should then make a light mark
on each vertical leg, level with the water
level in the tubes.
6. Turn the H-frame around and place its Then turn the frame and mark again
legs, reversed, on the same points.

7. Again, lightly mark the water level on

each vertical leg.

8. Make a permanent mark on each leg

at the precise mid-point between the two
previous marks. When the water is at this
level in the tubes, it indicates
horizontality.

9. Replace the stoppersfor

transportation.

Note: it is best to check this adjustment

before each contouring survey. If any
water has been spilled from the tubing,
you should adjust the device by adding
water as necessary.

Using your H-frame water level for contouring

10. Place the rear leg of the H-frame at the Remove the stoppers
starting point A.

11. Remove the stoppers frorn the tube

ends.
12. Move the forward leg uphill or downhill Adjust the forward leg
until the top water level reaches the
permanent mark you have made on the leg.

Read the water level

13. Mark the position of the forward leg

at B with a peg and replace the
stoppers in the tube ends.

14. Move the frame forward, place the Contour line AE

rear leg at the marked point B, and
repeat the previous procedure.
Continue in this way until you reach
the end of the contour line AE.

Note: it is easier to work with an

assistant, who can move the forward
leg until he or she finds the horizontal
level. Then you can check that the
water level on the rear leg also lies
opposite the permanent mark.

6.5 How to use the semi-circular water level

The semi-circular water level is a simple device based on the same principle as the H-frame water level. Its main
advantage is that you can use it on longer distances without moving it. You need only several small pieces of
wood and a short piece of clear plastic tubing to make it, but it is a little more difficult to build than the H-frame.

Making your semi-circular water level

1. Get a 1 x 10 cm piece of wood 60
cm long and drill a hole through each
end of it from the 10 x 60 cm face.
These holes should be just wide
enough to hold the plastic tube (see
step 5).

2. Drill a small hole in the centre of the

piece of wood.

3. Prepare two wooden discs with a

diameter of 10 cm, and drill small
holes in their centres.

4. Nail or screw one of these discs

under the centre of the piece of wood,
aligning the hole in the centre of this
piece with the hole in the disc. Do not
block the hole.
5. Get a piece of clear plastic tube
about 80 cm long and 1 to 1.5 cm in
diameter. Pass the ends of the tube
from below through the holes in the
ends of the piece of wood so that the
tube forms a semi-circle on the side
where the disc is. The two ends of the
tube should extend above the piece of
wood by about 10 cm. Keep the tubing
in place by putting a hose clip just at
the point where the tubing passes
through the hole in the board. Tighten
the clip so that the tube does not slip,
but be careful not to pinch the tube.
The hose clip will keep the tube in
place, since it is bigger than the hole.
6. Now make the supporting
leg. Get a pole 5 cm in
diameter and 1.40 m long.
Find the centre point of one
end. Then take the second
disc you prepared, and loosely
nail it to the pole so that its
centre hole is over the centre
of the pole.

7. Attach the semi-circular

level you made in step 5 to the
supporting leg. Use a strong
screw, and align the central
holes of the wooden discs
carefully. Do not tighten the
screw too much. You must be
able to turn the semi-circular
level around. The flexible tube
will be off to one side of the
pole.

8. Place the device upright on

its support and fill the plastic
tube with water. The level of
the water should reach about
4 to 5 cm from each end of the
tube. Place a stopper in each
end of the tube to prevent
water loss during
transportation.

Using your semi-circular water level for contouring

9. At the starting point A of the contour you need to level, ask your assistant to place a levelling staff in a vertical
position. Since you are contouring with a sighting level which does not include a telescope, you should use a
target levelling staff.

You can easily make one. Get a straight wooden stick, a piece of bamboo, or a maize stalk 2 m long. Get another
pole or stick 50 cm long, and attach it to the first one with string, to form a cross. The location of the point where
you attach the 50 cm pole, called the target, depends on the contour you are levelling.
10. To station the semi-circular water
level, drive its support vertically into
the ground at a central point from
which you will be able to survey about
100 m of the contour line. Remove the
stoppers from the ends of the plastic
tube.
11. Standing about 1 m behind the Adjust height of target
semi-circular water level, rotate its
upper part and sight along a line which
joins the two water-surface levels in
the plastic tube to the levelling staff.
Signal to your assistant to adjust the
target of the levelling staff up or down
until it is exactly on the sighting line.
Then, ask your assistant to tie the
target firmly at that height.

12. Your assistant will then mark the

starting point A with a stake, and walk
about 10 m away, where he will place
the levelling staff in a vertical position.

13. Rotate the upper part of the water

level until you can sight again at the
cross on the staff. Signal to your
assistant to move the levelling staff
uphill or downhill until the fixed target
lines up with the sighting line. He or
she will then mark this point B with a
stake.

Swivel the level to sight at point B Move the staff until the target is in the line of sight
14. You may keep on levelling points on the same contour AG from one central station X for about 100 m. To
continue the same contour line, leave the target levelling staff at point G, and move the level to a new central
station Y. Adjust the height of the target and go on levelling contour GZ from station Y.

Adjust target without moving staff Continue levelling

Note: you may also want to find contours with a fixed height difference, for example, every 0.20 m. To do this,
you will keep working from the same station, but change the height of the target on the levelling staff. When you
reach point G, have your assistant lower the target by 20 cm. He then walks up the hill along line XGH until the
target is level with your line of sight, marking point H on the next contour. Continue the second contour line HN by
finding point I on line XFI, point J on line EXJ, and so on. If the distance is short enough for you to see clearly,
you may lower the target again to set a third contour line from the same station.

Lower the target

 Find point H Continue the contour

6.6 How to contour with non-sighting levels

1 . In Sections 5.1 to 5.3, you learned how to use non-sighting levels to measure differences in height. These
devices can also be used for contouring.

Using the straight-edge level for contouring

In Section 5.1, you learned about the Make the level horizontal
straight-edge level. For contouring,
use it in the following way (steps 2 to
7).
2. Mark the point A where you will Mark point B
begin contouring with a stake. Place
one end of the straight-edge at this
point, and move the other end uphill or
downhill until the mason's level shows
horizontality. Mark this point B with
another stake.

3. Move the straight-edge up to point Continue the contour line

B. Find the next horizontal point C as
shown above and mark it with a stake.

4. Continue this process until you have

marked the length of the contour line.

5. Mark the route of the contour line Mark the contour with stakes
you have found by leaving a stake
about every 10 m. If the contour
curves, you may need to use more
stakes.

6. If the surface of the ground is

somewhat rough (i.e. covered with
lumps of earth, stones or grass), it
may help to use two bricks or wooden
blocks of the same height to support
the ends of the straight-edge while
you are levelling.

7. If the surface of the ground is very Use bricks...

rough or covered with dense grass,
you can use two stakes under the
ends of the straight-edge to lift it
above ground level. Be sure that both
stakes are the same length, and that
you drive them into the ground to the
same level. This way you can transfer
the horizontal you find, which lines up
with the top level of the stakes, to
ground level without error.

...or stakes to lift the level above obstacles

Using the line level for contouring

In Section 5.2, you learned how to
make a line level. The line level is very
efficient for contouring because it
allows you to progress quickly, even
on rough grass, and it is reasonably
accurate (the maximum error is less
than 6 cm per 20 m distance).
Remember that you need three people
to use the line level.

8. The rear person places one end-

staff on the marked starting point A
and keeps the cord on the 1 m
graduation, for example. The front
person, also keeping the cord on the
same graduation, moves the second
end- staff up or down the slope until
the centre person signals that the
mason's level is horizontal. The front
person then marks the point B where
the staff touches the ground.

9. The rear person walks to this

marked point B while the other two
people walk ahead until the cords are
well stretched. The entire procedure is
repeated and another point C of the
contour line is marked.

10. This process is continued until you

have marked the length of the contour
line.
Using the flexible-tube water level for contouring
In Section 5.3, you learned how to
make the flexible-tube water level. You
can contour quite quickly with this
device even on rough ground, and it
will give very good accuracy (the
maximum error is about 1 cm per 10 m
distance). You should be very careful
not to lose water during the procedure.
You will need an assistant for this
method.

11. Bring the two stand pipes together Put both stand pipes at point A and remove the
at the starting point A of the contour stoppers
line, remove the stoppers, and mark
the height of the water levels on each
measuring scale. These heights
should be the same.

12. Replace the stoppers in the tube Mark the water level on both scales
ends.

13. Place your measuring scale at the When the water level is at the mark on the standpipe,
starting point A of the contour line. you have found point B
Have your assistant walk ahead until
the end of the hose is reached. Both of
you remove the stoppers, and your
assistant moves the scale up or down
the slope until the water level is at the
marked height. Check that the water
level is at the marked height at your
end, too. When it is, signal to your
assistant to mark the location B of that
scale with a stake. Replace both the
stoppers.

14. Both of you then move forward

until you are standing at the point B
where your assistant was standing, as
marked with the stake. Have your
assistant walk ahead until the end of
the hose is reached. Repeat the
procedure in step 13, and continue in Begin the next measurement at point B
the same way to the end of the
contour line.

6.7 How to contour with sighting levels

1. In Sections 5.6 to 5.9, you learned how to use sighting levels to measure differences in heights. These devices
can also be used for contouring.

Using the bamboo sighting level for contouring

2. You learned how to make and adjust a bamboo sighting level in Section 5.6. You and an assistant can use this
level for contouring, as follows.

3. Place the bamboo sighting level next to a levelling staff and read the height on the scale by sighting through
the tube.

4. Mark this height on the scale. You can use paint, or tie a piece of cord or a coloured rag at that height. You can
also use the target levelling staff described in Section 6.5, and attach the target at that height.

Mark your sighting level on a pole

5. Place the bamboo level in a vertical Send your assistant ahead
position at A, the beginning of the
contour line you want to plot.

6. Have your assistant, holding the Have him move until you sight the mark
levelling staff, walk 15 to 20 m ahead
along an approximate horizontal line
and place the staff vertically. Have him
move it up or down the slope until you
signal that the mark is lined up with the
sighting line seen through the bamboo
tube.

7. You will have to turn the bamboo You may have to turn the level to see him
level from left to right to see the mark
on the measuring scale. Check
frequently to make sure that the
bamboo tube remains horizontal.

8. When you signal that you have

sighted the mark, your assistant
should mark the position B of the
levelling staff with a stake.

9. Now move up to this stake B and Proceed from point B

place the bamboo level on that point in
a vertical position.

10. Have your assistant walk another

15 to 20 m ahead with the levelling
staff, and repeat steps 7-9.

11. Repeat this process until you have

marked the entire length of the contour
line.

Using the hand level for contouring

12. You can survey a contour line quickly Use the hand level alone...
by using a hand level (see Section 5.7),
although this will not give the most accurate
results. The method you use with the hand
level is the same as that just described for the
bamboo level, except that you should make
the mark on the levelling staff at the height of
the sighting line. The sighting line's height will
either be at your eye-level, or at the height of
the pole supporting the hand level (which is
used to improve accuracy). The distance from
one point to the next should not exceed 15 m.

...or with a support staff

Using the surveyor's level or the theodolite for contouring

13. You can very quickly and accurately Use the theodolite with a graduated levelling staff
determine contour lines with a surveyor's
level or a theodolite and a precisely
graduated levelling staff (see Section
5.8).
14. Since the range of the telescope on You can survey several points from a single station
either of these devices is several
hundred metres, you can reduce the
number of stations. As you did with the
semi-circular water level (see Section
6.5), you can survey several points from
a single station. In open country, it is
possible to use this method over long
distances. In areas with forests, you
might need to measure over shorter
distances and to clear sighting lines.

6.8 How to contour with slope-measuring devices

1 . In Sections 4.1 to 4.6, you learned how to use various types of clinometers to measure slopes. These devices
can also be used for contouring because a contour line is defined as a line along which the slope gradient equals
zero, see Section 8.3.

2. When you contour with slope measuring devices, it is best to use a target levelling staff, such as the cross-
shaped one described in Section 6.5. If you use such a staff, the target should be tightly fixed at eye level.

Sight at a target levelling staff... ... or at your assistant

Note: if you do not have a levelling staff, you can use the height of your assistant as a reference level* instead.

3. Your assistant, holding the levelling Have him move until you sight the mark
staff vertically, should stand about 10
to 15 m away from the starting point A
of the contour line you want to plot.
From this starting point, use the
clinometer to sight at the levelling staff.
Signal to your assistant to move the
staff up or down the slope, until its
target lines up with the zero-
graduation of your clinometer. Have
your assistant mark this ground point
B and repeat the same procedure from
it

Note: if you are using a clisimeter, Proceed from point B

remember that you should use the left
scale and make the sight of the
levelling staff line up with its zero line
(see Section 4.5).

6.9 How to set graded lines of slope

1. Graded lines of slope are often used
in fish-farms to assist gravity* in
moving water. Water-supply canals
and pipelines, as well as drainage
canals, are built with a graded slope.
Fish ponds should be built with an
adequate bottom slope so that you will
be able to drain them completely.
Knowing how to set graded lines of
slope is therefore very important when
you are building a fish-farm.

2. You can set graded lines of slope in

several ways, using three series of
methods with the devices described in
Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

Using slope-measuring devices for setting lines of slope

3. You can use any one of the slope Use the target levelling staff
measuring devices described in
Sections 4.1 to 4.6 to set graded lines
of slope. The clisimeter, in particular
(see Section 4.5) , is commonly used
for this purpose, but any other
clinometer can be used instead.

4. It is best to use a target levelling

staff such as the one described in
Section 6.5; its target should be tightly
attached at your eye level. Remember
that you can use the height of your
assistant as a reference level instead.

5. From the starting point A of the line Sight with the clinometer at the desired graduation
of slope, sight the target levelling staff;
the graduation of the clinometer
should correspond to the slope you
have chosen. Signal to your assistant
to move the levelling staff up or down
the slope, until the sighting line of the
clinometer lines up with the reference
mark on the levelling staff. Mark the
ground point B with a stake and repeat
the procedure from that point.

Using sighting levels for setting lines of slope

6. You learned about various sighting Measure the horizontal distance...
levels in Sections 5.4 to 5.9 and in
Section 6.5. These devices may be
used to set lines of slope but, with the
exception of the surveyor's level and
the theodolite, their limited accuracy
makes it difficult to lay slopes with
gradients less than 1 percent. For
smaller gradients, it is best to use non-
sighting levels(see from step 12,
below).

7. Before using the sighting level, ... and the slope...

calculate the difference in height (H
metres) between two consecutive
points according to their horizontal
distance (D metres) in order to set the
desired slope gradient (S percent) as:

H = (S ÷ 100)
xD

Example ... to calculate the height difference

 You decide to read levels at 10 m

intervals, horizontal distance;
 The slope you need to set equals
1 % or 1 m per 100 m;
 The necessary height difference
H over a 10 m horizontal
distance equals: (1÷ 100) x 10 m
 = 0.10 m.

8. On the highest point A of the slope to Set your target levelling staff to show
beset, station your levelling device and the proper height difference
measure the height of its sighting line
(H') above the ground. Add this value to
H (calculated in step 7) to obtain the
height to be read (R) at the next point
on the levelling staff as:

R = H + H'

9. Measure a horizontal distance of 10 Place the levelling staff 10 m from the level
m from the starting point, following the
contour line as closely as possible.
Place a levelling staff vertically at that
point.

Note: for this part of the procedure, you

can use:

 a graduated levelling staff on which

you clearly mark the calculated
height R (see step 8); or
 a target levelling staff, with the
target tightly attached at the
calculated height R.

10. Sight with the levelling device at the Move the levelling staff until the target
levelling staff. Signal to your assistant to comes into the line of sight
move the staff up or down the slope
until the sighting line lines up with the
mark R on the staff. At this point B, have
your assistant drive a marking stake into
the ground. Point B will be 10 cm lower
than point A.
11. Station the levelling device on this Proceed from point B
marked point B while your assistant
walks ahead another 10 m with the
levelling staff. Repeat the procedure.

Using non-sighting levels for setting lines of slope

12. Non-sighting levels are much more accurate than simple sighting levels for setting lines of slope with
gradients smaller than 1 percent. Generally, non-sighting levels can be used to set lines of slope with gradients
as small as 0.3 percent. The flexible-tube water level is even reliable for slopes as small as 0.1 percent.

13. In Sections 6.2 to 6.4 and Section 6.6, you learned how to use various non-sighting levels for contouring, that
is, setting lines of slope with a zero gradient.

14. To set lines of slope with a different gradient (S%), you can use the same procedure described for contouring;
the only difference is that you have to keep the forward end of the levelling device above the ground at the height
H (calculated as shown above in step 7) for a fixed horizontal distance D metres, as in:

H = (S ÷ 100) x D

Distance D varies according to the kind of levelling device you use.

Note: it is best to level going downhill,

as suggested above. If you must level
going uphill, you should make the rear
end of the levelling device higher by H
metres.
15. The best way to do this is to
prepare a piece of wood with a
thickness equal to H. While levelling,
place (or, better, nail) this piece of
wood under the forward end of the
level if you are levelling downhill.

Example

If S = 0.5 percent and you are levelling

downhill:

 using an A-frame level for

setting the line of slope: D =
4m; H = 2 cm
 using an H-frame level: D = 2.5
m; H = 1.25 cm
 using a straight-edge level: D =
3 m; H = 1.5 cm
 using a flexible-tube water level:
D = 10 m; H = 5 cm

The size of the wooden block depends

on the slope and type of level

16. When using the line level, you can

add the height H to the cord height
which will be maintained by the front
person, instead of placing a piece of
wood under the forward measuring staff.
Example

If S = 0.5 percent and you are levelling

downhill with a line level:
D= 20 m and H= 10 cm.
Keep the forward end of the cord at a
height 10 cm higher than the rear end of
the cord.

7. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS - PLAN SURVEYING

7.0 Introduction
What is a topographical survey?
1. A survey of your fish culture site can Site
help you do one of two things: make a
map to help you plan your work; or lay
out marks on the ground that will guide
you as you work.

2. Topographical surveys will help you to Map

make plans or maps of an area that
show:

 the main physical features on the

ground, such as rivers, lakes,
reservoirs, roads, forests or large
rocks; or the various features of the
fish-farm, such as ponds, dams,
dikes, drainage ditches or sources of
 water;
 the difference in height between land
forms, such as valleys, plains, hills or
slopes; or the difference in height
between the features of the fish-farm.
These differences are called the
vertical relief.

Vertical profile

What do topographical surveys involve?

3. The purpose of the first type of Site
topographical survey is to establish, on
a horizontal plane, the position of one
or more points in relation to the position
of one or more other points. To do this,
you will measure horizontal distances
and horizontal angles or directions.
You will use a method called plan
surveying, which will be explained in
this chapter.

4. The purpose of the second type of Map

topographical survey is to find the
elevation (or vertical height) of one or
more points above a definite horizontal
plane. To do this, you will measure
horizontal distances and height
differences; you may also need to lay
out contour lines. You will use a
method called direct levelling, which
will be explained in Chapter 8.

5. You will learn how to make plans Contour map

and maps based on the results of plan
surveying and direct levelling in
Chapter 9.

Planning your topographical surveys

6. When you plan a topographical Primary points
study, the most important rule to
remember is that you must work from the
whole to the part, keeping in mind all of
the work you will need to do as you
begin the first steps. Different types of
survey require different levels of
accuracy, but you should lay down the
first points of each survey as accurately
as possible. You will adjust all the work
you do later to agree with these first
points.

Example Secondary points

You need to plan survey a fish-farm site.

(a) First, you must make a perimeter

survey ABCDEA. Besides these summits
and boundaries, add several major
points and lines, such as AJ and EO.
They run across the interior to create
right angles, which will help you in your
calculations. This survey gives the
primary survey points, which you should
determine and plot very accurately.

(b) Then, lay out minor lines such as FP

and TN. They go between the major lines
to divide the area intoblocks. This gives
you the secondary survey points, which
you may determine less accurately.

(c) Finally, survey details in each block

using tertiary points, for which less
accuracy is also acceptable.
7. The way you plan a topographical
survey will also depend on its purpose.
You will use a planning method similar
to the one described for soil surveys
(see Volume 6, Soil, Section 2.4).

 First make a preliminary or

reconnaissance survey. You can
use quick methods without
worrying too much about high
accuracy.
 Based on the results of this survey
you can plan and carry out more
detailed and accurate surveys,
such as location surveys and, last
of all, construction surveys.

8. The way you plan a topographical Centre-line of a dike

survey will depend on the subject you
need to survey, such as:

 a straight line defined by at least

two points, such as the centre-lines
of supply canals, pond dikes, and
reservoir dams;
 a series of lines related to each
other by horizontal angles and
horizontal distances, such as the
centre-lines of pond dikes in a fish-
farm;
  an area of land such as a site
chosen for the construction of a
fish-farm (also see step 6 above)

Adjacent pond dikes

Pond area

9. In open country, you will have no Clearing land for a survey

problems in plan surveying with the
methods explained in the next sections.
Any of the following methods should
work well. In country with thick forests,
however, you will not be able to use
methods for which you need to see
several points at the same time. In such
areas, you will also need to rely on
existing paths and roads much more
than usual, and you might even need to
clear lines of sight through the
vegetation.
What are the main methods used in plan surveying?
10. There are four main methods used Open traverse
in plan surveying. You can fix the
position of a point on the horizontal
plane:

 from a single known point, by

traversing, a method in which you
measure horizontal distances and
azimuths along a zigzag line (see
Section 7.1);
 from a single known point, by
radiation, a method in which you
measure horizontal distances and
azimuths, or horizontal angles (see
Section 7.2);
 from a known line, by offset, a
method in which you measure
horizontal distances and set out
perpendiculars (see Section 7.3);
 from two known points, by
triangulation and/or intersection,
methods in which you measure
horizontal distances and azimuths,
or horizontal angles (see Section
7.4).

Each of these methods will be Radiation survey

explained in the next sections. When
you are choosing a method, you will
also need to consider which methods
are suited to the measuring devices
you have available. Table 9 will help
you select the most suitable plan
surveying method, considering your
equipment and abilities, the kind of
information you need from your survey
and the type of terrain you are
surveying.

TABLE 9
Plan surveying methods

Basic
Section Method Suitability Remarks
elements

7.1 Traversing, Traverse Flat or wooded Traverse sections

sections and terrain may be of equal
 open, closed stations Longitudinal or lengths, longer than
cross-section 25 m and are best at
profiles 40 to 100 m
Compass Careful checks for
traverse, rapid errors needed
reconnaissance
and details

7.2 Radiating, Observation Small land areas All points should be

central and station For location of visible and at angles
lateral stations points only greater than 15°

7.3 Offset Chaining line Details surveys Chaining line should

next to a chaining not be more than 35
line m away

7.4 Triangulation Base line Very large land Often combined with
areas traversing and
Hilly or open needing elaborate
terrains preliminary
Inaccessible reconnaissance
locations Best with angles of
about 60°

7.5 Plane-tabling, Reconnaissance Mapping is done in

traversing, and details the field
radiating, surveys
triangulation Open terrain and Rapid method after
good weather practice
Irregular lines and
areas

7.1 How to survey by traversing

What is a traverse?
1. A traverse line or traverse is a series Closed traverse
of straight lines connecting traverse
stations, which are established points
along the route of a survey. A traverse
follows a zigzag course, which means
it changes direction at each traverse
station.

2. Traversing is a very common

surveying method in which traverses
are run for plan surveying. It is
particularly suitable to use in flat or
wooded terrain.
3. There are two kinds of traverses: Open traverse

 if the traverse forms a closed

figure, such as the boundary of a
fish-farm site, it is called a closed
traverse;
 if the traverse forms a line with a
beginning and an end, such as the
centre-line of a water-supply canal,
it is called an open traverse.

Which method should be used for traversing?

4. When you survey by traversing, you
need to make measurements to find
information on:

 the distance between traverse

stations;
 the direction of each traverse
section.
5. If you have a theodolite (also called a
transit), you can make a transit traverse.
You will measure horizontal distances
using the stadia method (see Section
2.8), and you will measure horizontal
angles using the method described in
Section 3.5 for use with the theodolite.
Similarly, but with much less accuracy,
you could use a clisimeter (see Section
2.7) and a graphometer (see Section
3.1).

6. If you have a magnetic compass, you Compass traverse

can make a compass traverse. You
will measure the horizontal distances
by pacing (see Section 2.2) or by
chaining (see Section 2.6), and you
will measure azimuths with the
magnetic compass (see Section 3.2).
Compass traverses are very useful for
getting a general picture of the terrain.
They also help to fill in details on
surveys that have already been done.

7. If you have a plane-table (see

Section 7.5), you can make a plane-
table traverse. You will measure
distances either by pacing or by
chaining, and you will measure
horizontal angles using a graphic
method (see Section 3.3).

8. When you need to make a quick Plane-table traverse

reconnaissance survey, you
can traverse with a simple
compass (see Section 3.3, steps 1-9)
and by pacing (see Section 2.2).
9. In this section you will learn about
compass traversing. You may use
similar procedures for transit traverses.
Further details on plane-table traverses
will be given in Section 9.2.

Choosing the route of a traverse

10. When selecting the route a
traverse will follow, you should try to:

 make each straight section of the

traverse as long as possible (40-
100 m);
 make the traverse sections as
equal in length as possible;
 avoid very short traverse sections -
under 25 m long;
 choose lines which can be
measured easily;
 choose lines along routes which
avoid obstacles such as heavy
vegetation, rocks, standing crops
and property.

Surveying an open traverse with a magnetic compass

11. You need to survey traverse AF for a Mark the main points
future water supply canal. First, walk along
the traverse. Mark its course by placing
high stakes about every 50 m. If
necessary, place additional stakes at
important traverse stations, such as where
the traverse changes direction, where hills
or other changes in elevation reduce
visibility between traverse stations, or
where there are particular landscape
features such as a road, a river, or rocks.

12. If necessary, clear any tall vegetation Clear the path and mark details
from the path of the traverse, so that you
will be able to see each marked point from
the one before it.

13. Start traversing at the first point A. FS=AB

Remove the ranging pole and stand at
point A. With the magnetic compass,
measure the azimuth* of the line joining
point A to point B, the next visible point.
Point A becomes station 1. The
direction you measure from there to
point B, or station 2, is called a
foresight* (FS) because you are
measuring forward. Note down this
value in a table (see step 17).

14. Replace the ranging pole at station Distance AB

1 (point A) and move to station 2,
while measuring the horizontal distance
AB by pacing or chaining. Note this
distance down in the table (see step
17).
15. At station 2 (point B), remove the BS = BA
ranging pole and stand over the point
holding the compass. Look back at
station 1 and measure the azimuth of
line BA, which is called a backsight
(BS). Then look forward at the next
point C, or station 3, and measure the
azimuth of line BC, a foresight (FS).
Measure distance BC while moving
forward along the traverse. Note these
values down in the table (see step 17).

Note: the difference between the FS = BC

foresight and backsight should be 180°.
A difference of only 1 or 2 degrees
between the FS and BS is acceptable
and may be corrected later (see step
19). If the error is greater, you should
make the measurement again before
moving on to the next station.

16. Repeat this procedure, measuring Distance BC

horizontal distances from station to
station and measuring two azimuths (a
BS and a FS) for each point. However,
from the last station at the end of an
open traverse, you will only have a BS
measurement, just as you had only an
FS from station 1.

Note: if the land slopes and you need to

use a more accurate method, you can
use a special method to
measure or calculate horizontal
distances (see Sections 2.6 and 4.0).

17. You should carefully note down all the measurements you have made in a field book. You can use a table like
the one shown in the example or you can make a rough sketch of the open traverse on square-ruled millimetric
paper, noting down your measurements next to the correct stations in it.

Example

Measurements observed for the beginning of compass traverse AX made of 12 stations:

Azimuths
Stations Distance (m)
(degrees) Calculated difference
FS/BS (degrees)
From To Individual Cumulative FS BS

1 2 53.6 53.6 82 261 179

2 3 47.3 100.9 120 301 181

3 4 65.2 166.1 66 248 182

4 5 56.8 222.9 51 229 178

5 6 61.1 284.0 91 270 179

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

18. You must always check on such a Observed traverse AX
compass traverse, particularly if you
do not know the exact position of its
starting and ending stations
beforehand from studying previous
surveys or existing maps. To check on
your compass traverse, do the
following:

 if the starting and ending traverse Observed traverse XA

stations A and X are unknown,
check on your first traverse by
making a second compass
traverse in the opposite direction,
from X to A;

 if these two stations A and X are Observed traverse AX

known, draw the traverse on
paper as you have measured it.
To do this, use a protractor for the
angles (see Section 3.3) and an
adequate scale for distances (see
Section 9.1). Using the known
 station A, compare the position of
the last station X with its known
position X'. If this comparison
shows a large error ( the closing
error XX'), you will need to adjust
the observed traverse AX. To do
this, see the next step.

Adjusting an open traverse

19. To adjust the observed
traverse AX for the closing error
XX', it is easiest to use the graphic
method, as follows:

 on paper, draw a straight

horizontal line AX equalling
the total measured length of
the observed traverse, drawn
at an adequate scale;

 at X, draw XX' perpendicular

to AX and in proportion, in
length to the closing error,
using the same scale as
above;

 join A to X' with a straight line;

 on AX, find lengths AB, BC, Find the intermediate points BCD and E
CD, DE, and EX in proportion
to the field measurements,
using the same scale as
above;

 at points B, C, D, and E, draw Draw perpendiculars BB', CC', DD' and

lines BB', CC', DD' and EE'
perpendicular to AX;
 EE'

 measure the lengths of lines Measure the perpendiculars

BB', CC', DD' and EE', which
show by how much you need
to adjust each traverse
station;

 adjust your drawing of the traverse Draw XX'

by:
o joining the observed
position X of the last
traverse station to its
known position X';

o drawing short lines parallel Draw the other segments parallel to XX'
to XX' through stations B,
C, D and E;

o marking on these lines the Measure the distance BB', CC', DD' and EE'
calculated adjustments BB',
CC', DD' and EE', using the
same scale as above;

o joining points A, B', C', D', Join the points of the adjusted traverse
E' and X' to find the
adjusted traverse.
Surveying a closed traverse with a magnetic compass
20. You can lay out a closed
traverse ABCDEA in exactly the same
way as an open traverse, except that
you will connect the last point to the
initial point A.

21. To survey an irregular enclosed

area of land ABCDEA (such as a site
for a fish-farm) by compass traversing,
proceed as follows:

 walk over the area and

locate traverse stations A, B, C, D
and E;

 mark them with ranging poles or

stakes;
 if necessary, clear away any
vegetation so that you can see
stations A and B, B and C, C and
D, etc. from each other;
 remove the ranging pole from
point A (station 1) and stand at
this station. Find azimuth AB- a
foresight- from the centre of this
station with the compass. Replace
the ranging pole exactly at station
1;

 measure distance AB with a

measuring line;

 at point B (station 2), measure

azimuth BA - a backsight and
azimuth BC - a foresight;

 measure distance BC as you

move to point C (station 3);
  proceed in the same way at
stations 3, 4 and 5;
 when you reach point A again
(station 1), measure azimuth AE -
a backsight.

Note: during the traverse, you may be

able to see one or more additional
stations from the station where you are
standing. If you do, measure the
azimuths of the lines running toward
them. An example is line BD from
station B. These additional
observations are useful checks on
your work.

22. In a field book, carefully note down all your measurements. You can use a table similar to the one suggested
for the open traverse (see step 17). You should also make a sketch of the traverse, on a separate square-ruled
page, and write in the measurements. At the same time, check to see that the foresights and backsights differ by
180º.

Example

You have surveyed site ABCDEA with a closed traverse and your field notes are as follows:
 Azimuths
Stations
Distance (degrees) Calculated difference
(m) FS/BS (degrees)
From To FS BS

1 2 90.8 136 315 179

2 3 53.5 78 259 179

3 4 68.7 347 168 179

4 5 44.6 292 110 182

5 1 63.7 241 63 178

23. You have learned that in any closed polygon* of N sides, the sum of all the interior angles should be equal to
(N - 2) x 180º (see Section 3.0). This rule will help you to check your azimuth measurements after you calculate
the interior angle for each station (see Section 3.2, steps 10 and 11).

Example

Using the observations given in the previous example, calculate the sum of the interior angles
of polygon ABCDEA as follows:

Station Azimuth differences (degrees) Interior angle (degrees)

1 AB -AE = 136- 63 73

1
2 (BA - BC = 315 - 78 = 237) 123

3 CD - CB = 347 - 259 88

4 DE - DC = 292 - 168 124

5 EA - ED = 241 - 110 131

Sum of interior angles 539

1
Since the magnetic north falls inside the angle, you must calculate it as 360º - (the azimuth difference) or 360º -
237º = 123º,

According to the general rule, the sum Check: Sum of angles = (5 - 2) x 180º = 540º
of the five interior angles should be
equal to (5-2) x 180º = 3 x 180º =
540º, which closely agrees with the
above result.

Adjusting a closed traverse

24. Starting from station 1 (A), draw
the observations of your compass
traverse on square-ruled paper. Use a
protractor to measure the
azimuths (see Section 3.3), and an
adequate scale for the measured
distances (see Section 9.1). If there is
a closing error, adjust your drawing by
using the graphic method described
for an open traverse (see step 19,
above).

Example

For the above example, the closing

error is FA. Adjust it as foIlows:

 using the correct scale, draw a Draw AF to scale

horizontal line AF whose length
equals the total measured
length of the observed traverse;

 at F, draw FA' perpendicular to Draw FA' perpendicular to AF

AF, using the same scale as
above. The length of FA' should
be in proportion to the closing
error;

 join A to A' with a straight line; Draw AA'

 on AF, draw lengths AB, BC, Find points BCD and E

CD, DE and EF in proportion to
the field measurements, using
the same scale as above;
 at points B, C, D, and E draw Draw and measure the perpendiculars
lines BB', CC', DD' and EE',
which show how much you
must adjust each traverse
station;

 adjust your drawing of the traverse

by:

 joining the observed position F of the Draw FA

last station to its known position A;

 drawing short lines parallel to Draw the other segments parallel to FA

FA through the other stations B, C, D,
and E;

 marking on these lines the calculated Measure the appropriate lengths

adjustments BB', CC', DD' and EE',
using the same scale as above;
  joining points A, B', C', D', E' and A to Join the points of the adjusted traverse
determine the adjusted traverse.

7.2 How to survey by radiating

What is a radiating survey?
1. When you plan a survey by radiation, you2. When you make a radiating survey of a
will choose one convenient observation polygonal* site, you connect the observation
station, from which you will be able to see all station to all the summits of this area by a
the points you need to locate. This method is radiating series of sighting lines. In this way, a
excellent for surveying small areas, where you number of triangles are formed. You will
need to locate only points for mapping. measure one horizontal angle and the length
of two sides for each triangle.

Choosing the observation station

3. You should be able to reach the observation station easily. This station should also be a located so that:

 you can see all the summits of the area you need to survey;
 you can measure the lines joining it to these summits;
 you can measure the angles formed by these lines.

4. When choosing the observation station, you should be particularly careful to avoid any points from which very
small radiating angles (less than 15 degrees) might result.
5. The observation station 0 can be in a Number of triangles = number of polygon sides
central position, inside the polygon to be N=5
surveyed. In this case, you will measure as
many triangles as there are sides of the
polygon.

6. The observation station 0 can also be in a Number of triangles = number of sides minus 2
lateral position (off to the side). In this case, 0 N=5-2=3
will be one of the summits of the polygon*.
The number of triangles you need to
measure will be the number of sides to the
polygon, minus 2.

Choosing a method for radiating surveys

7. If you have a transit (a theodolite),
you can measure horizontal
angles more precisely than with the
other instruments (see Section 3.5). A
transit equipped with stadia hairs can
also be used to measure
distances rapidly (see Section 2.8).
8. If you have a magnetic compass,
you can use it to measure the
azimuths of the horizontal angles at
the observation station (see Section
3.2). You will usually measure
horizontal distances by chaining (see
Section 2.6). To learn further details of
this simple method, see steps 10-14,
below.

9. If you have a plane-table, you can

use it for mapping the area directly
from the observation point (see
Section 9.2). You will then usually
measure the horizontal distances by
chaining.

Carrying out a radiating plan survey with a magnetic compass

10. Walk over the area you need to
survey and choose a convenient central
observation station 0. Clearly mark all
summits of the polygon. Clear any high
vegetation along the future radiating
lines of sight.
11. With your magnetic compass, take
a position over the central station 0.
Measure the azimuths of the six
radiating lines OA, OB, OC, OD, OE
and OF.

12. Measure the horizontal distance

over each of these lines.

13. Carefully note down all these

measurements in your field-book. You
can use the first three columns of the
table given in the example. Then make
a sketch of the area, with the lines and
angles and their measurements, on
square-ruled paper.

14. Calculate the value of the angles

between successive points (see 4th
column of the table and Section 3.2).
Check this by adding all the values: if
you find 360° or a figure close to that,
the calculation is correct.

Example

Table for field observations from a radiating

survey.

Line
Distances Azimuths Angles
(m) (degrees) (degrees)
From To

O A 65.4 265 1371

O B 58.7 42 88

O C 51.5 130 70

O D 89.8 200 23

O E 41.3 223 11
 O F 43.8 234 31

A - 265 -

Sum of the interior angles: 360

1
Since magnetic north falls inside angle
AOB, it is calculated as 360º minus the
difference of the azimuths.

7.3 How to survey by offset

What is an offset?
1. In plan surveying, an offset is a straight line 2. Offsets are mainly used to survey details
which is laid out perpendicularly to a line you of the terrain (such as wells, rocks or trees)
are chaining. which are located close to a chaining line.
Generally, offsets are less than 35 m long.
Surveying by offset
3. While chaining line AB, you see two
points of interest on either side of it, X
and Y, whose exact positions you want
to record.

4. From these points, drop XC and YD Drop perpendiculars from the points of interest
perpendicular to line AB (see Section
3.6). Lines XC and YD are offsets.

5. Measure horizontal distances AC and Measure the distance to plot the points
CD on line AB. Measure horizontal
distances CX and DY along the offsets.

6. From these measurements you can

plot the exact positions of points X and
Y on paper, if line AB is known.
 7.4 How to survey by triangulation
What is triangulation?
1. If you use the triangulation method,
you will form consecutive triangles,
starting from two known points which
you can see from each other. The
straight line joining these two points is
called the base line.

Example

A and B are two points whose positions

you know. Therefore, you can easily
survey the baseline AB to find the
measurements of the horizontal
distance and magnetic azimuth. AB is
123 m long and azimuth AB = 150º.

2. To determine the position of a new Measure distances AC and BC or...

point C by triangulation, this new point
is joined to the known base line by two
new lines, forming a triangle. You can
then find the position of the new point:

 either by measuring the distances

of the lines running from the base
line to the point;
 or by measuring the azimuths of
the two new straight lines running
from the points A and B to point C.

Example ... measure the azimuths of lines AC and BC

It you need to determine the position of

C, lay out lines AC and BC from base
line AB. Then you can:

 either measure horizontal

distances AC = 166 m and BC =
156 m to find intersection point
C;

 or measure Az AC = 87° and Az

BC = 43° to find C at the
intersection point of two lines
drawn with these azimuths.
3. To find the positions of other new Use BC as the base line for new triangle BCD
points, use the same procedure. As
you find the positions of new points,
use the most convenient existing line
as the new base line and form new
triangles as you work.

Example Continue making triangles until you have surveyed the

whole site
If you need to determine the position of
D, layout triangle BCD and use BC as
the base line. Similarly, to determine
points E, F and G, use base lines CD,
DE and EF successively.

Using the triangulation method

4. On terrain with many obstacles such A good site for a triangulation survey
as hills, marshes or high vegetation,
where traversing would be difficult (see
Section 7.1), you can use the
triangulation method successfully.

5. When you are traversing, and cannot

measure a line directly, you can use the
triangulation method instead.

6. Triangulation makes locating points

on opposite sides of a stream or a lake
very easy.

Using the triangulation method in the field

7. The simplest way to use the A plane-table is useful in triangulation
triangulation method in the field is
with a plane-table(see Section 7.5).
You will learn how to survey by
triangulation, using a plane-table, in
Section 9.2.

8. When using the triangulation

method, avoid very large angles (over
165°) and very small angles (under
15°). The method works best with
angles of about 60°.
7.5 How to use the plane-table
What is a plane-table?
1. A plane-table is a horizontal Simple plane-table
drawing-board mounted on top of a
vertical support. You use it with a
sighting device, a spirit level and a
magnetic compass.

Making a very simple plane-table

2. You can make a very simple plane-
table for reconnaissance surveys from
a wooden board and a strong pole.

3. Get a 50 x 60 cm board of soft

wood, about 2 cm thick. With
sandpaper, polish one of its surfaces
well until it is very smooth. Draw two
diagonal lines lightly across this
surface to find the centre of the board.
4. Get a straight wooden pole about 5
cm in diameter and 1 m long. Shape
one end into a point. This will be firmly
driven into the ground at the
observation point when you use the
plane-table.

5. Preferably using a brass screw, fix

the board, smooth side up, by its
centre-point to the top of the pole.

6. You can make a simple sighting Make a sighting device

device from an ordinary ruler about 50
cm long by driving two thin nails
vertically into it along the centre-line for
sighting.

7. You will also need a Make sure the board is horizontal

simple magnetic compass to use with
the plane-table. If you have a spirit
level, use it to set up the top board
horizontally. Or simply lay a rounded
object such as a small ball, a glass
marble or a pencil on the board's top
surface. When the object remains still,
the board is horizontal.

Making an improved plane-table

8. To survey more precisely, you will An improved plane-table
need a more complicated plane-table
than the one just described. This
plane-table will be mounted on a tripod
(a three-legged support) so that:
  you can alter the spread of the
tripod's legs to adjust to rough
terrain,
 you can accurately place the
drawing board in a horizontal
position;
 you can easily orient and rotate
the drawing board.

9. You can build a tripod with legs

made out of single pieces of wood, or
with adjustable legs. A tripod with
adjustable legs is more difficult to
make, but it is better since you can set
up the plane-table more easily on
sloping ground by changing the length
of the legs.

10. A plane-table with a normal tripod

is adequate for surveying horizontal
areas and areas with small slope
gradients, which you must often
survey in aquaculture. To make this
type of plane-table, you will need the
following materials1:

 one board of soft wood, about 40

x 55 cm and 2 cm thick
 three pieces of wood, about 2.5 x
4.5 cm, and
1.4 m long;
 three blocks of wood, about 2.5 x
4.5 cm, and 7 cm long;
 two circular pieces of wood, 15 cm
in diameter and 2.5 cm thick;
 several nails or wood screws, both
3.5 to 4 cm long and 6 to 6.5 cm
long;
 four bolts, 6 mm in diameter and
about 6 cm long;
 four washers and four wing nuts
for the bolts.

1
Adapted from Using Water
Resources, Maryland, USA, VITA
Publications, 1977, pp. 137-140.
11. Get a piece of 40 x 55 cm plywood If the board is thin, strengthen it with battens
2 cm thick to use for the drawing
board. If the plywood you have is
thinner than 2 cm, make two battens
(wooden supports) from two pieces of
wood 30 x 8 cm and 2 cm thick. Attach
these battens parallel to the 40 cm
sides of your board, a few centimetres
in from each side. The wood you use
for the board should be soft enough to
allow drawing pins and ordinary pins to
go in easily. You should smooth the
top of the board with sandpaper if the
surface is irregular.

Sand the surface smooth

12. Make the three legs from the 1.4 m pieces of wood. Shape each into a point at one end. On the other end-
face of each leg, mark a centre-line parallel to the 2.5 cm sides. Continue this line 5 cm down either side of the
leg. At these two points, mark a centred perpendicular line 2.5 cm long; connect the end-points of this 2.5 cm line
up the sides of the leg and over the top. Cut out this block you have marked, which will measure 2.5 x 2.5 x 5 cm,
and discard it. Round off the edges of the two remaining "prongs" of wood which face toward the 2.5 cm side of
the leg, using a knife and sandpaper, for example.

13. On these prongs, drill a 6 mm hole at a point 1.3 cm from the top of the leg.

Cut out the blocks Shape the ends into points

 Round the tops and drill two
holes

14. Make the rotating connection between Put the bolt through the centre of the disc
the drawing board and the legs with the two
circular pieces and the three small blocks of
wood. Drill a 6 mm hole in the centre of one
of the 15 cm wooden circles. Put a 6 mm
bolt through the hole making sure the head
of the bolt is even with the top surface of the
circle.

15. Find the centre of the lower surface of Nail the disc to the board so that the bolt sticks
the drawing board by drawing two diagonals up
across it from opposite corners. Hold the
wooden circle on this side of the board, with
the head of the bolt touching the centre
mark. Nail or screw the wooden circle in
place.
16. Take the second 15 cm circle and mark
the points where you will attach the legs. To
do this, first draw two perpendicular lines
across the circle. They should intersect at
the exact centre of the circle. Call them
diameters a and b. With a protractor, using
line b as the 0 to 180° line, draw two more
lines from the centre of the circle to the
edge at 45° and 135°. Call them radiuses c
and d. They should divide one half of the
circle into four equal, wedge-shaped
sections. Then drill a 6 mm hole in the
centre of the circle.

17. Drill a 6 mm hole on the centre line of the 4.5 x 7 cm face of each 7 cm wooden block, 1.3 cm in from one
end. Nail or screw these three 7 cm wooden blocks to the surface of the second wooden circle, so that they join
around the centre-hole in a Y-shape. To do this, align the centre-lines of the blocks' 2.5 x 7 cm faces over the
lines a, c and d that you drew in step 16. The ends with the holes should be towards the edge of the circle.

Drill a hole in each block Attach the blocks to the disc, following
the lines you have drawn
18. Place this wooden circle, with the blocks Mount the disc on the board
facing you, against the circle already fixed to
the underside of the board. Pass the bolt in
the first circle through the centre-hole of the
second circle. Add a washer and a wing nut
to it and tighten them securely.
19. Align the holes in the three legs with the
holes in the three blocks of wood on the
underside of the board, and attach the legs
with bolts, washers and wing nuts to the
blocks. Your plane-table is now ready to
use.

20. You will also need a small spirit level, a

magnetic compass, a sighting device called
an alidade. You have already learned a one
kind of alidade (see Section 3.1), but this
one will be slightly different.

Making your own alidade

21. With the plane-table described above,
you should use an alidade about 40 cm
long. Get a straight strip of wood 40 cm
long, 5 cm wide and 0.5 to 1 cm thick. Find
the centre-line, then measure 5 cm from
each end and draw a line from the edge of
the alidade to the centre-line. Cut out the
section you have marked off.

22. Get a clean, empty metal tin and

remove its top and bottom. Cut this tube
vertically and flatten it out to make a sheet
of metal.

23. From this sheet, cut out two pieces 5

cm x 12 cm each. Mark the centre-line
lightly on each, using a nail to scratch the
line.
24. On one of these pieces, cut an 8 cm 25. On the second piece, cut out a 3 cm x 8 cm
slit along the center line, starting about 1 window, as shown in the drawing.
cm in from the 5 cm edge.

26 . On the piece with the window, make a

small hole at each end of the window
"frame", along the centre-line. Thread a
thin line (such as wire or nylon fishing line)
through these two holes and knot the ends
at the back. This line should now exactly
follow the centre-line of the window.
27. On each metal piece, use a nail to
draw a fairly deep line perpendicular to
the centre-line, at a point 2 cm from the
end without a slit or window. Then
make three small holes parallel to this
line and between the line and the end
of the piece, using a hammer and nail.
Sharply bend this end of the metal
along the deep line, until it forms a
right angle with the rest of the piece.

28. Attach the metal pieces to the ends

of the wooden strip you prepared in
step 21. Hold them in place with a
small screw in each of the holes you
have made in the metal. Make sure
that:

 the vertical sides of the metal

pieces are at right angles to the
straight edge; and
 the centre-lines of each end piece
( marked by the slit and the wire)
line up with the centre-line of the
wooden strip.

You will use the alidade set flat on the

plane-table. You will sight through the
slit at the wire. You will draw the line
along the centre-line of the wooden
strip.

Using the plane-table

29. You can use the plane-table in two
different ways, depending on the type
of survey you are making:

 in reconnaissance surveys, to
make maps and plans quickly in
the field;
 in later surveys, to fill in details
after you have determined the
primary points.

The plane-table can also be used for

measuring horizontal angles.

30. Before you plan survey with the

plane-table, you will need to:

 fix a piece of drawing paper on the

top of the board;
 set the plane-table up over the
station point;
 level the drawing board, or make it
horizontal;
 orient the drawing board to face
the line you want to survey.

You will learn more about each of

these procedures later (see steps 34-
47).

31. When you are ready to start

surveying with your plane-table, you
will then:

 sight with the alidade at a point

you have chosen (a foresight);
  draw this line of sight on the
drawing board with a well-
sharpened pencil that has a hard
lead;
 measure the horizontal distance
from the station to the point;
 transfer this distance to the line
you have drawn, using an
appropriate scale;
 if necessary, move to another
station, and take a backsight along
the line you have drawn;
 repeat the above procedure for all
the lines you need to survey,.

You will learn more about each of

these procedures later (see Chapter
9).

What are the advantages of plane-tabling?

32. Compared with other methods of
plan surveying, plane-tabling is better
in some ways because:

 it is the only method with which

you can make a plan or map in the
field;
 you need to find fewer points, as
you draw the map while you
survey;
 you can plot irregular lines and
areas fairly easily and accurately;
 you can work quickly, once you
learn how to use the method;
 you do not have to measure
angles, so that you avoid several
possible sources of error;
 you plot everything in the field, and
so avoid missing any features you
need to measure;
 you can easily check on the
location of points you have plotted.

What are the disadvantages of plane-tabling?

33. Several disadvantages to plane-
tabling are that:

 the plane-table and its extra

equipment are heavy and fairly
awkward to carry;
 learning how to use the plane-
table correctly takes some time;
 you can only use the method in
fairly open country, where you can
see most of the points you are
surveying;
 you cannot use the method in bad
weather conditions, such as heavy
rains or high winds.

Covering the board with drawing paper

34. You should try to find the best
quality drawing paper possible to use
with the plane-table. Since the paper
will be exposed to outdoor conditions,
you should prepare it to make it more
resistant to changes in the humidity of
the air. With a wet cloth, lightly
dampen the paper and dry it several
times before you use it. This is called
seasoning the paper.

Note: be careful not to make the paper

too wet when you season it.

35. Cut the sheet of drawing paper to

a size 20 cm larger than the
dimensions of your drawing board.

36. Cut the four corners of the paper

off diagonally. To do this, measure 20
cm from each corner along its two
sides, and mark the points. Join these
points by diagonal lines, and cut along
these lines.
37. For the last time, slightly dampen
the back of the drawing sheet, then
place it over the board. Stretch it well
(taking care not to tear it) and secure
the edges under the board with
drawing pins. This will keep the paper
from moving and prevent the wind
from getting underneath it.

38. If you plan to work in the field for

several days with the same piece of
drawing paper, you should protect it by
covering it with a sheet of smooth,
heavy paper. As you work in the field,
you can tear off pieces of this cover
sheet to expose the drawing paper as
you need it.

39. You should keep the plane-table in

a waterproof canvas bag when you
carry it in the field.

Setting up the plane-table

40. If you decide to start the survey from
a selected station, first set up the plane-
table over this station.

Note: you may need to set up the plane-

table so that a point drawn on it is
exactly over a corresponding ground
point. You can use a V-shaped metal
arm and a plumb-line, which you can
easily make yourself.
Otherwise, you can use calipers and a
plumb-line. The metal arm or calipers
should be placed with one tip touching
the point on the plane-table and the
other tip on the underside of the table.
Hang the plumb-line from the point
indicated on the underside of the table,
and move the table until the plumb-line
is directly over the ground point.

41. Spread the tripod legs well apart,

and plant them firmly in the ground. The
drawing board should be waist-high, so
that you may bend over it without
resting against it.

42. Rotate the table top so that the

paper is in a position that allows you to
draw the whole area you need to survey
on it.

43. Choose the scale you will use (see

Section 9.1), making sure it will allow
you to plot even the most distant point
on the paper. You can first walk quickly
over the terrain you will survey to check
the distances by pacing so you can
decide on the right scale to use (see
Section 2.2).
Level the table-top in both directions
44. Level the board with the spirit level,
making it as horizontal as possible. To
do this, first place the spirit level along
one side of the board, parallel to two
legs of the tripod and adjust the table to
a horizontal position. Then place the
level along the side perpendicular to
that pointing toward the third leg of the
tripod and adjust again. Repeat this
process until the board is horizontal.

Orienting the plane-table

45. You can orient the plane-table either
by using a magnetic compass or by
backsighting. Usually, the board is first
oriented roughly by compass, and then
more precisely by backsighting.

46. If you use a magnetic compass (see

Section 3.2), rotate the compass until
the direction of the needle lines up with
the direction of south-north, or the 180°
to 360° direction. Draw a line on the
drawing paper showing this direction.
Draw another line in the same direction
on another part of the paper. Mark the
north direction on these lines with an
arrow and the letter N.

Note: remember to keep away from

any materials which could have an effect
on the magnetic needle of the
compass (see Section 3.2, step 17).

47. If at a surveying station you know

the direction of a line which you have
already plotted on the board, you can
use that line to orient the plane-table by
taking a backsight. It is the most precise
way of orienting the plane- table and you
should use it whenever possible.

Example Station B

From station A, you have already plotted

line ab. Set up the plane-table at station
B. Place the centre-line of the alidade
along line ba on the board. Rotate the
board until the line of sight on the alidade
lines up with line BA on the ground. The
table is now oriented. You can proceed to
survey and plot new points.

Plane-tabling methods for reconnaissance surveys

48. During reconnaissance surveys, you can use plane-tabling to quickly map out areas and open traverses. The
survey will proceed by one of the methods described earlier in this chapter or a combination of them. This
method may be:

 traversing (see Section 7.1);  radiating (see Section 7.2); or

 triangulation (see Section 7.4).

You will learn more about mapping with a

plane-table by these surveying methods in
Chapter 9.

Plane-tabling for plotting details

49. When you have finished the
reconnaissance survey and accurately
mapped the main stations, you can
further use plane-tabling to locate
details such as rocks, buildings, a well
or a group of trees.

50. To do this, set up the plane-table ABCD main stations

at each of the main stations in turn,
and draw sighting lines to each of
these features.

51. You can locate each detail on the

drawing board by finding the
intersection point of at least three
sighting lines. You will not have to take
any more measurements.

Example

During a reconnaissance survey you have accurately mapped the fish-farm site ABCDA using
your plane-table. You want to add the exact positions of a rock outcrop X and a group of
buildings Y. Proceed as follows:

 set up the plane-table over point A, orienting it by backsighting known lines AB and
AD;
 draw lines AX and AY;
 move the plane-table to point B, orienting by lines BA and BC and draw line BX;
 move to point C and draw lines CX and CY;
 move to point D and draw line DY;
 determine the position of X at the intersection of AX, BX and CX;
 determine the position of Y at the intersection of CY, DY and AY.

Site ABCDA Sight from point A

 Sight from point B Sight from point C

Sight from point D The intersections determine points X and Y

Measuring horizontal angles by plane-tabling

52. You can measure horizontal angles Draw ab
fairly accurately by drawing sighting lines
on a plane-table and measuring this angle
with a protractor (see Section 3.3).
 Example Draw ac

 You need to measure angle

BAC formed by straight lines AB
and AC, which have been well-
marked in the field. Begin by
setting up the plane-table at station
A.
 Place the alidade so that it passes
through point a, and sight at point
B, and draw line ab.

 With the alidade passing through Measure bac

point a, sight at point C and draw
line ac.
 Measure angle bac with a
protractor.

8. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS - DIRECT LEVELLING

8.0 Introduction
1. In Chapters 5 and 6, you learned
about various devices for measuring
height differences. You also learned
how to use these devices to
solve three types of problems in
measuring height differences, which
you may face when you plan and
develop a fish-farm (see Section 5.0).
Now, you will learn how to plan
surveys to solve these problems, how to
record the measurements you make in
your field-book, and how to find the
information you need from these
measurements.

What are elevation and altitude?

2. You have learned what the height of
a ground point is. Now, however, you
will need to know a more accurate
definition of this term.

 When the height of a point is

its vertical distance above or
below the surface of a reference
plane* you have selected, it is
called the elevation* of that point.
 When the height of a point is
its vertical distance above or
below mean sea level (as the
reference plane), it is called the
altitude* of the point.

Example
Elevation of a point above
a selected ground mark A
Altitude of the same point 1.83 m
above mean sea level 345 m
(amsl)

3. The vertical distance between two

points is called the difference in
elevation , which is similar to what you
have learned as the difference in
height (see Section 5.0). The process
of measuring differences in elevation
is called levelling , and is a basic
operation in topographical surveys.
What are the main levelling methods?
4. You can level by using different Direct levelling
methods, such as:

 direct levelling, where you

measure differences in elevation
directly. This is the most
commonly used method;
 indirect levelling, where you
calculate differences in elevation
from measured slopes and
horizontal distances.

You have already learned about Indirect levelling

indirect levelling in Section 5.0, when
you learned to calculate differences in
elevation from slopes or from vertical
angles. Now you will learn about direct
levelling.

What are the kinds of direct levelling?

5. By direct levelling, you can measure both the elevation of points and the differences in elevation between
points, using a level and a levelling staff (see Chapter 5). There are two kinds of direct levelling:

 differential levelling; and

 profile levelling.

6. In differential levelling , you find the difference in elevation of points which are some distance apart (see
Section 8.1). In the simplest kind of direct levelling, you would survey only two points A and B from one central
station LS. But you may need to find the difference in elevation between:

 either several points A, B, ... E, surveyed from a single levelling station LS; or
 several points A ... F, surveyed from a series of levelling stations LS1 ... LS6, for example:

7. In profile levelling , you find the elevations of points placed at short measured intervals along a known line,
such as the centre-line of a water supply canal or the lengthwise axis of a valley. You find elevations for cross-
sections with a similar kind of survey (see Section 8.2).

8. You can also use direct levelling to determine elevations for contour surveying (see Section 8.3), and for
setting graded lines of slope(see Section 6.9), where you need to combine both differential levelling and profile
levelling.

Differential levelling Profile levelling

9. There are several simple ways to determine the elevations of ground points and the differences in elevation
between ground points. You will use a level and a levelling staff with these methods. In the following sections,
each method is fully described to help you choose between them. Table 10 will also help you to compare the
various methods and to select the one best suited to your needs in each type of situation you may encounter.

TABLE 10
Direct levelling methods

Section Type Method Suitability Remarks

Differential Open Check for closing

8.1 Long, narrow stretch of land
levelling traverse error

Check for closing

Differential Closed Perimeter of land area and error.
8.1
levelling traverse base line for radiation Combine with
radiating

Differential Square- Small area with little Squares 10 to 20

8.1
levelling grid vegetation m and 30 to 50 m

Differential Combined with

8.1 Radiating Large area with visibility
levelling closed traverse

Longitudinal Open Non-sighting and sighting Check for closing

8.2
profile levelling traverse level error

Cross-section
8.2 Radiating Sighting level with visibility
profile levelling

Detailed mapping of small

area with a sighting or a non- Slow and accurate.
8.3 Contouring Direct
sighting level and target Progress uphill
levelling staff

Square- Small area with little Terrain, scale and

8.3 Contouring vegetation Especially if accuracy depend
grid
perimeter has been on contour interval.
 surveyed. Small to medium Progress uphill.
scale mapping Suitable for plane-
tabling

Fast and fairly

inaccurate.
Small to medium scale
8.3 Contouring Radiating Progress uphill.
mapping of large area
Suitable for plane-
tabling

Fast, fairly
inaccurate.
Cross- Preliminary survey of a long
8.3 Contouring Progress uphill.
sections and narrow stretch of land
Suitable for plane-
tabling

8.1 How to level by differential

What is differential levelling?
1. You can best understand Find AX with a backsight
differential levelling by first
considering only two points, A and B ,
both of which you can see from one
central levelling station, LS .

 Sight with a level from LS at the

levelling staff on point A. The
point where the line of sight
meets the levelling staff is point
X. Measure AX. This is called
a backsight (BS).

 Turn around and sight from LS at Find BY with a foresight

the levelling staff on point B. The
point where the line of sight
meets the levelling staff is point
Y. Measure BY. This is called
a foresight (FS).

 The difference in The difference in elevation between

elevation between point A and points A and B equals AX minus BY
point B equals BC or (AX- BY) or
(backsight BS - foresight FS).
  If you know the elevation of A,
called E(A), you can calculate the
elevation of B, called E(B), as BS
-FS + E(A).
 But BS + E(A) = HI, the height of
the instrument or the elevation of
the line of sight directed from the
level.

 Therefore,

E(B) = HI
- FS

(the elevation at point B being equal

to the height of the levelling
instrument, minus the foresight).

What are backsights and foresights?

It is important for you to understand
exactly
what "backsight" and "foresight" are in
direct levelling.

2. A backsight (BS) is a sight taken with

the level to a point X of known elevation
E(X), so that the height of the
instrument HI can be found. A
backsight in direct levelling is usually
taken in a backward direction, but not
always. Backsights are also called plus
sights (+ S), because you must always
add them to a known elevation to find
HI.

HI = BS +
E(X)
3. A foresight FS is also a sight taken
with the level, but it can be on any point
Y of the sight line where you have to
determine the elevation E(Y). You will
usually take it in a forward direction,
but not always. Foresights are also
called minus sights (-S) , because they
are always subtracted from HI to
obtain the elevation E of the point.
Remember:

E(Y) = HI-
FS

Surveying two points with one turning point

4. Often you will not be able to see at
the same time the two points you are
surveying, or they might be far apart.
In such cases, you will need to do
a series of differential levellings . These
are similar to the type explained
above, except that you will use
intermediate temporary points
called turning points (TP).

5. You know the elevation of point A,

E(A) = 100 m, and you want to find the
elevation of point B, E(B), which is not
visible from a central levelling station.
Choose a turning point C about halfway
between A and B. Then, set up the
level at LS1, about halfway between A
and C.

6. Measure a backsight on A (for

example, BS = 1.89 m). Measure on C
a foresight FS = 0.72 m. Calculate HI =
BS + E(A) = 1.89 m + 100 m = 101.89
m. Find the elevation of turning point C
as E(C) = HI-FS = 101.89 m - 0.72 m =
101.17 m.
7. Move to a second levelling station, LS2,
about halfway between C and B. Set up the
level and measure BS = 1.96 m, and then FS
= 0.87 m. Calculate HI = BS + E(C) = 1.96 m
+ 101.17 m = 103.13 m. 0btain E(B) = HI- FS
= 103.13 m - 0.87 m = 102.26 m.

8. You can make the calculations more easily

if you record the field measurements in a table ,
as shown in the example. You will not make
any intermediate calculations. All BS's and all
FS's must be added separately. The sum FS
is subtracted from the sum BS to find the
difference in elevation from point A to point
B.

 A positive difference means that B is at a

higher elevation than A.
 A negative difference means that B is at a
lower elevation than A.

Knowing the elevation of A, you can now

easily calculate the elevation of B. In this
case, E(B) = 100 m + 2.26 m = 102.26 m;
this is the same as the result in step 7, which
required more complicated calculations. This
kind of calculation is called an arithmetic
check.

Example
Table form for differential levelling with one
turning point.
Surveying two points using several turning points

9. Often you will need to use more than one turning point between a point of known elevation and another point
of unknown elevation. To do this, you can use the procedure you have just learned, but you will need to record
the field measurements in a table to make calculating the results easier.

10. Knowing the elevation of point A, you need to find the elevation of B. To do this, you need for example
five turning points , TP1 ... TP5, and six levelling stations, LS1 ... LS6.

Note : the turning points and the levelling stations do not have to be on a straight line, but try to place
each levelling station about halfway between the two points you need to survey from it.

11. From each levelling station, measure a backsight (BS) and a foresight (FS) , except:

 at starting point A, where you have only a backsight measurement.

 at ending point B, where you have only a foresight measurement.

Example
Table form for differential levelling with several turning points.
Using step 8 as a guideline, enter all measurements in a table and calculate the results as shown in the example
below. You will find that point B is 2.82 m higher than point A and, therefore, that its elevation is E(B) = 100 m +
2.82 m = 102.82 m.

12. Even if you are careful, you may still make mistakes when you make your arithmetic calculations from the
table. To reduce this kind of error, add two additional columns to your table that will make checking your
calculations easy. In these columns, enter the difference (BS- FS), either positive (+ ) or negative (-), between the
measurements you took at each levelling station. For example, from LS1 you measure BS (A) = 1.50 m and FS
(TP1) = 1.00 m. The difference 1.50 m- 1.00 m = 0.50 m is positive, and you enter it in the (+) column on the TP1
line.

The arithmetic sum of these differences should be equal to the calculated difference in elevation D(E) = +2.82
m. These columns will also help you to calculate the elevation of each turning point , and to check on the
elevation of point B more carefully.

Example
Differential levelling with several turning points

Making topographical surveys by straight open traverses

13. By now, you have learned enough
to make a topographical survey of two
distant points by measuring the
horizontal distance between them and
the difference in their elevation.

When you survey a future fish-farm

site, you will use a very similar method.
You can then prepare a topographic
map of the site (see Chapter 9), which
will become a useful guide for
designing the fish-farm.

14. This is a survey method

using straight open traverses , that is,
several intermediate stations along
one straight line. You know for
example the elevation of starting point
A, E(A) = 63.55 m. You want to know
the distance of point B from point A,
and its elevation. Because of the type
of terrain on which you are surveying,
you cannot see point B from point A,
and you need two turning points ,
TP1 and TP2 , for levelling. Measure
horizontal distances as you move
forward with the level, from point A
toward point B; try to progress along a
straight line. If you cannot, you will
need to use the broken open
traverse survey method, which involves
measuring the azimuths of the traverse
sections as you move forward and
change direction (see step 17).

15. Set out a table like the one in step 12, and add two columns to it for horizontal distances. Enter all your
distance and height measurements in the main part of the table. Then, in the first additional column, record
each partial distance you measure from one point to the next one. In the second column, note the cumulated
distance , which is the distance calculated from the starting point A to the point where you are measuring. The
last number in the second column will be total distance AB.

Example
Topographical survey of a straight open traverse by differential levelling
16. Conclusions . Point B is 1.55 m higher than A and its elevation is 65.10 m. It is 156.5 m distant from point A.
The arithmetic check from the (BS- FS) differences agrees with the calculated difference in elevation.

Making topographical surveys by broken open traverses

17. Remember, that if you survey by broken
open traverses (or zigzags), you will also
have to measure the azimuth of each
traverse section as you proceed, in addition
to distances and elevations.

18. You need for example to survey open

traverse ABCDE from known point A. You
require four turning points, TP1, TP2, TP3
and TP4. You want to know:

 the elevations of points B, C, D and E;

 the horizontal distances between these
points;
 the position of each point in relation to
the others, which will help you in mapping
them.
Proceed with the differential levelling as
described earlier,
measuring foresights and backsights from
each levelling station. Measure
azimuths and horizontal distances as
you progress from the known point A
toward the end point E. All the azimuths
of the turning points of a single line
should be the same. This will help you
check your work.
19. Make a table similar to the one
shown in step 15, and add three extra
columns to it for recording and
checking the azimuth values. Enter all
your measurements in this table. At the
bottom of the table, make all the checks
on the elevation calculations, as you
have learned to do them in the
preceding steps.

Example

Topographical survey of a broken open traverse by differential levelling

Checking on levelling errors

20. Checking on the arithmetic
calculations does not tell you how
accurate your survey has been. To
fully check on your accuracy, level in
the opposite direction , from the final
point to the starting point, using the
same procedure as before. You will
probably find that the elevation of point
A you obtain from this second levelling
differs from the known elevation. This
difference is the closing error .
Example

From point A of a known elevation,

survey by traversing through five
turning points, TP1 ... TP5, and find the
elevation of point B. To check on the
levelling error, survey by traversing BA
through four other turning points, TP6
... TP9; then calculate the elevation of
A. If the known elevation of starting
point A is 153 m, and the calculated
elevation of A at the end of the survey
is 153.2 m, the closing error is 153.2 m -
153 m = 0.2 m.

21. The closing error must be less than the permissible error, which is the limit of error you can have in a survey
for it to be considered accurate. The size of the permissible error depends on the type of
survey(reconnaissance, preliminary, detailed, etc.) and on the total distance travelled during the survey. To
help you find out how accurate your survey has been, calculate the maximum permissible
error (MPE) expressed in centimetres , as follows:

Reconnaissance and preliminary surveys:

MPE(cm) = 10D

Most engineering work:

MPE(cm) = 2.5D

where D is the distance surveyed, expressed in kilometres .

Example

You have just finished a reconnaissance survey. Your closing error was 0.2 m or 20 cm, at the
closure of a traverse 2.5 km + 1.8 km = 4.3 km long. In this case, the maximum permissible
error (in centimetres) equals 10 4.3 = 10 x 2.07 = 20.7 cm. Since your closing error is smaller
than the MPE, your levelling measurements have been accurate enough for the purposes of a
reconnaissance survey.

Making topographical surveys by closed traverses

22. In the previous section, you made a
topographical survey along an open traverse
joining points A and B. You can survey a closed
traverse , such as the perimeter of a fish-farm
site, in a similar way. You should use
each perimeter summit A, B, C, D, E and F of the
polygon as a survey point, and plot turning
points between these summits as you need
to. Make a plan survey as explained in Section
7.1, and use differential levelling to find the
elevation of each perimeter point.

23. If you do not know the exact elevation of

starting point A, you can assume its elevation,
for example E (A) = 100 m. Start the survey at point
A , and proceed clockwise along the perimeter
of the area. Take levelling staff readings at TP1,
TP2, B, TP3, etc., until you reach starting point
A again and close the traverse. At the same
time, make any necessary horizontal distance
and azimuth measurements. Record your
measurements either in two separate tables , one
for plan surveying and one for levelling, or in one
table which includes distance measurements.
From the (BS-FS) columns, you can easily find
the elevation of each point on the basis of the
known (or assumed) elevation at point A. Make
all the checks on the calculations as shown in
steps 15 and 16. Find the closing levelling error
at point A (see step 20). This error should not be
greater than the maximum permissible error (see
step 21).

Example

Topographical survey of a closed traverse by

differential levelling

Making topographical surveys by

the square grid
24. The square-grid method is
particularly useful for surveying small
land areas with little vegetation. In large
areas with high vegetation or forests,
the method is not as easy or practical.
To use the method, you will lay out
squares in the area you are surveying,
and determine the elevation of each
square corner.

25. The size of the squares you lay out

depends on the accuracy you need. For
greater accuracy, the sides of the
squares should be 10 to 20 m long. For
reconnaissance surveys, where you do
not need to be as accurate, the sides of
the squares can be 30 to 50 m long.

26. In the field choose base line AA and

clearly mark it with ranging poles. This
base line should preferably be locatedat
the centre of the site, and it should be
parallel to the longest side of the site.
When you work with a compass, you
may find that it helps to orient this base
line following the north-south direction.

27. Working uphill, chain along this

baseline from the perimeter of the area,
and set stakes at intervals equal to the
size you have chosen for the squares,
such as 20 m. Clearly number these
stakes 1, 2, 3, . . . n.
28. From each of these stakes, lay out a
line, perpendicular to the base line , that
runs all the way across the site.

29. Proceed by chaining along the entire

length of each of these perpendiculars, on
either side of the base line . Set a stake every
20 m (the selected square size). Identify each
of these stakes by:

 a letter (A, B, C, etc.) which refers to the

line, running parallel to the base line, to
which the point belongs;
 a number (1, 2, 3.... n) which refers to the
perpendicular, laid out from the base line,
to which the point belongs.

Example

20 m from point A1, perpendicular 2 crosses

line AA at point A2.
20 m to the left of point A2 lies point B2 , on
line BB.
30. Now that you have laid out the square
grid on the ground, you need to find
the elevation of each corner of the squares ,
which you have marked with stakes.
First establish a bench-mark (BM) on base line
AA near the boundary of the area and
preferably in the part with the lowest elevation
(see steps 42-44). This bench-mark can be
either at a known elevation (such as one point
on a previously surveyed traverse), or at
an assumed elevation (such as 100 m) (see
step 45).

31. You will level the square grid points in two

stages.

 Starting from the bench-mark, measure

the differences in elevation for all the
base points A1, A2, A3, ... An. This is
called longitudinal profile levelling (see
Section 8.2).
 Then, starting at these base-line points
with known elevations, measure the
differences in elevation for all points of
each of the perpendiculars, on each side
of the base line (for example, B2, C2 and
D2 followed by E2, F2 and G2). This is
called cross-section levelling (see Section
8.2).

32. If you use a sighting level you can make a

radiating survey (see step 34). Set up your
level at LS1 and take a backsight reading on
the bench-mark (BM). Then, take foresight
readings on as many base-line points as
possible. From this, find the height of the
instrument (HI) and point elevations, with HI =
E(BM) + BS and E (point) = HI- FS. When
necessary, change the levelling station and
find a new HI on the last known point, which
is used as a turning point. Then measure a
series of foresights. Since the distances of
the square grid are all fixed, you do not need
to measure them any more. Note down your
measurements in a table, as shown in the
example.
 Example

Topographical survey by square grid with a sighting level

Levelling
Point BS HI FS Elevation
station Remarks

Assumed
1 BM 1.53 101.53 - 100.00
elevation

A1 - 101.53 1.25 100.28

A2 - 101.53 1.20 100.33

A3 - 101.53 1.15 100.38

2 A3 1.48 101.86 - 100.38 Turning point

A4 - 101.86 1.41 100.45

... ... ... ... ...

A9 ... ... ... ...

Known from A1
5 A1 1.20 101.48 - 100.28
above

B1 - 101.48 0.23 100.25

C1 - 101.48 0.25 100.23

D1 - 101.48 0.28 100.20

6 D1 1.30 101.50 - 100.20 Turning point

E1 - 101.50 0.35 100.15

... ... ... ... ...

G1 - 101.50 0.47 100.03

Known from A2
9 A2 1.35 101.68 - 100.33
above

B2 ... ... - ...

 ... ... ... ... ...

12 F2 ... ... - ...

G2 ... ... - ...

13 A3 ... ... - 100.38 Known from A3

above
... ... ... ... ...

Example

Topographical survey by square-grid with a non-sighting level

33. If you use a non-sighting level , first
follow base line AA. Start with the
bench-mark as a reference point, and
survey all its points A1, A2, ... A9.
Then, repeat this surveying procedure
along each of the perpendiculars,
starting with the known base-line
points as the reference points.

Enter all your measurements in a

table, and find the elevation of each
point of the square grid (see steps 38-
41 for a further explanation).

You can check calculations and survey

measurements at the bottom part of
the table (see this Section, step 41).

Making topographical radiating surveys

34. When you make a radiating survey (see Use X as a point of reference
Section 7.2), you first need to determine the
height of the instrument HI at levelling station 0.
Sight at a point X of known elevation E(X),
and find a backsight (BS). Then,

HI = BS + E(X)

35. Then you need to find the elevation of

each of the points A, B, C and D. Sight at
each of them in turn. You will find a foresight
(FS) for each. Calculate their elevations as

E (point) = HI - FS

36. Record all your measurements in a table.

This table may also include plan-surveying
information, such as azimuths and horizontal
distances. You might also use two different
tables as explained in step 23. The first line of
the table will refer to the known point X . This
point can be one of the perimeter points
which you have already determined, or it can
be a benchmark (see step 42). You find the
position of point 0 from the azimuth of line OX
and the horizontal distance OX.

Example

Topographical radiating survey

Levelling BS FS Elevation Azimuth Distance

Point HI (m) Remarks
station (m) (m) (m) (degree) (m)

Known
0 X 0.45 144.00 - 143.55 285 35.3
elevation

0 A - 144.00 1.65 142.35 50 29.6

0 B - 144.00 0.97 143.03 131 27.3

0 C - 144.00 0.60 143.40 193 25.1

0 D - 144.00 1.12 142.88 266 24.8

Combining traversing and composite radiating

37. This method combines radiating Fix the position of LS 1
with a closed traverse. You can use it
to gather the information you need to
make a topographical map of a land
area such as a fish- farm site (see
Chapter 9). Using what you have
learned so far about surveying, do the
following:

(a) With a closed traverse, plan survey

the boundaries of the area ABCDEA.
Find the lengths and directions of all of
its sides (see Section 7.1).

(b) In the interior of the site, choose a Choose levelling stations

series of levelling stations 1, 2, 3.... 6,
from which you can survey the
surrounding area by radiating.

(c) Fix the position of levelling station 1 by Survey the boundaries

measuring it in relation to known
boundary points such as A and B. You
can use the plane-tabling and
triangulation methods (see Section
9.2).

(d) Join all the selected levelling stations Survey all the levelling stations
by straight lines to form a closed traverse .
Survey it, using turning points as
necessary, to fix the position of each
station and to determine its
elevation . Check for the closing error
(see Section 7.1) and this section, step
20).

(e) Now you are ready to start the Mark radiating lines at the interval you have chosen
detailed topographical survey,
proceeding from each known levelling
station in turn. From station 1, set up a
series of radiating straight lines at a fixed-
angle interval (such as 20°). This means
that each radiating line will be 20° from
the next. Use your magnetic compass
and ranging poles or stakes. Mark on
the ground the north-south line. You will
call this the zero-degree line . Standing on
this line at station 1, measure and mark
a line with a 20° azimuth. Then, moving
around in a clockwise direction on the
same point, measure and mark in turn
lines with azimuth 40°, 60°, ... 340°.

Note: the fixed-angle interval you use

depends on how accurate a survey you
need. Smaller angles will help you make
a more accurate map of the site.

(f) Start at Station 1, using differential

levelling , to survey ground points on
each of these radiating lines. You may
choose any points you want to measure,
for example the intersection of the
radiating line with the boundary of the
site, or a point where the ground
changes slope suddenly, or the location
of a rock or tree. Besides finding the
elevation of these points, measure the
distance between each point and the
levelling station, so that you will be able
to map them later on.

(g) Move to each levelling station in turn

(2, 3, 4, 5, 6), and repeat steps (e) and
(f), measuring the elevation and
distance of unknown random points along
the radiating lines -, so as to survey the
whole area.
(h) Record all the measurements in a
table, and calculate the elevations of all
the surveyed points (see this section,
step 36). You will need two additional
columns in this table:

 one column marked "Line" , where

you will record the azimuth of each
line;

 one column marked "Cumulative

distances" . In this space, you
can separately calculate the
distance from the levelling station to
the points surveyed for each line.

Example

Topographical survey of partial area by composite radiating

Making topographical surveys with non-sighting levels
38. You can also make topographical
surveys along straight lines by using
non-sighting levels , such as the line
level(see Section 5.2) or the flexible-
tube water level (see Section 5.3). You
have already learned how to measure
height differences by using the square-
grid method with such levels (see this
section, step 33).

Remember , when you lay out your grid,

that the distance between points cannot
be more than the length of your level.

39. Work in a team of two or three with

this method. Both the rear person and
the front person will take measurements
in the field, but only one person should
be responsible for noting down these
measurements in the field book.
 Example

Topographical survey with a line level (20 m)

40. Record the measurements in a table for each levelled section. You will be measuring horizontal
distances from one point to the next, and differences in elevation between one point and the next. At both the
starting point and the last point, there is only one height measurement. The rear person will measure it on the
starting point, and the front person will measure it on the last point.

41. Find the cumulated distances from the starting point and the elevations of each point, as shown in the
example. There are three possible checks , which you make at the bottom part of the table.

Making bench-marks for topographical surveys

42. As you have just learned, you will always start differential levelling surveys by measuring a height on a
ground point of known or assumed elevation . This point becomes a bench-mark (BM) . The elevation of
this bench-mark will form the basis for finding the elevation of the other points you need to survey in the area.

43. A bench-mark should be permanent . You should always establish at least one bench-mark near the
construction site of a fish-farm to act as a fixed reference point or object. You may also use a bench-mark as a
turning point during topographical surveys.
44. A bench-mark should be a very well-defined point . You should be able to find and recognize it easily. It
should be easy to reach, so that you can hold a levelling staff on it. You can establish a bench-mark:

 on wooden or bamboo stakes set near the construction site;

 by driving a nail into a tree or tree stump, near the ground line, where it will remain even when
the tree is cut down;
 by fixing a piece of iron rod in a concrete block near ground level;
 on permanent objects or structures which are unlikely to settle, move or be disturbed, such as
a bridge, a large rock or the wall of a building.

Note : it is best to paint the bench-mark, or set several signs near it, to show its location.

45. Generally, the elevation of a bench-

mark E(BM) is not known but is assumed .
When you have established the first
bench-mark for a building project, you
give it an elevation that is a convenient
whole number , such as 100 m. The
number you choose should be large
enough to prevent any point in the
surveyed area from having a negative
elevation.

Note : you have seen in previous

examples that some surveys are
related to previously surveyed points,
This means that the measurements in
the survey are based on these points.
These points then become turning-point
bench-marks. You find their elevations
by levelling, and these then become
known elevations.

8.2 How to level by profile

What is the purpose of profile levelling?
1. The purpose of profile levelling is to Ground line AB
determine the changes in the elevation
of the ground surface along a definite
line . (You have already learned about
profile levelling used with the square-
grid method in Section 8.1, step 31.)
This definite line AB might be the
centre-line of a water-supply canal, a
drainage ditch, a reservoir dam, or a
pond dike. This line might also be the
path of a river bed through a valley,
where you are looking for a dam site,
or it might be one of several lines,
perpendicular to a river bed, which you
lay out across a valley when you are
surveying for a suitable fish-farm site.

2. You will usually transfer the Profile AB

measurements you obtain during
profile levelling onto paper, to make a
kind of diagram or picture called a
graph . This will show changes in
elevation, and how they are related to
horizontal distances. This kind of graph
is called a ground profile. You will learn
how to make one in Sections 9.5 and
9.6.

What does profile levelling consist of?

3. When you profile level, you are
determining a series of elevations of
points which are located at short
measured intervals along a fixed line .
These elevations determine the profile
of the line.

4. There are two kinds of profiles

which are commonly used in fish
culture: longitudinal and cross-section
profiles.

 You survey longitudinal

profiles by profile levelling along a
line which is the main axis of the
survey. This can be the centre-line
of a water canal or the base line of
a square grid.

 You usually survey cross-section

profiles along a line which is
perpendicular to a surveyed
longitudinal profile, using its points
of known elevation as bench-
marks. Cross-sections of valleys
are useful in helping you locate a
good fish-farm site. On a smaller
scale, you can also survey cross-
sections for water-supply canals,
for dam construction, and for pond
construction. You have already
learned how to use cross-section
profiles when surveying by the
square-grid method (see Section
8.1, step 31).

Longitudinal profile levelling by radiating

5. You need to survey line AB, the Mark out the line
centre-line of a water canal. You
decide to make a radiating survey
using a sighting level. Measure
horizontal distances and mark every
25 m of the line with a stake, from its
initial to its final point. Add points
between the stakes where there
are marked changes of slope . On each
stake, clearly indicate its distance from
the initial point A, that is, the
cumulated distance.
6. Set up your level at LS1. Take a Determine HI at LS 1
backsight BS on a bench-mark of
elevation E(BM) to determine the height
of the instrument

HI = BS +
E(BM)

7. From levelling station LS1, read Take foresights at the points you have marked
foresights FS on as many points (for
example, six) of line AB as possible,
starting from the initial point A.

8. When you need to move the level to a Take a foresight from LS 1 to the turning point
new station so that you can take readings
on the points ahead:

 first, choose a turning point TP and

take a foresight FS to find its elevation
from LS1;
 move to the next levelling station LS2,
from which you can see the turning
point TP;
 take a backsight BS on this turning
point to find the new height of the
instrument HI.

9. Read foresights FS on as many points Take a backsight from LS 2 to the turning point
as possible until you reach the end point of
AB. If necessary, use another turning point
and a new levelling station as described in
step 8.
10. Note down all your measurements in a Take foresights at the points you have marked
field book, using a table similar to the ones
you have used with other methods. Find
the elevations of the points (except for the
turning point) by subtracting each FS from
its corresponding HI. In the example of the
table shown here, cumulated horizontal
distances (in metres) appear as point
numbers 00, 25, 50, 65, etc. in the first
column.

Example

Longitudinal profile levelling with a sighting level in a radiating survey

Points(m) BS HI FS Elevation(m) Remarks

BM 1.37 2.87 - 1.50 Nail at foot of tree stump

00 - 2.87 1.53 1.34 Beginning of canal

25 - 2.87 1.67 1.20

50 - 2.87 1.73 1.14

65 - 2.87 1.90 0.97 Marked change of slope

75 - 2.87 2.05 0.82

100 - 2.87 2.22 0.65

TP 1.80 3.07 1.60 1.27 On stone

125 - 3.07 2.27 0.80

 150 - 3.07 2.37 0.70

175 - 3.07 2.57 0.50

200 - 3.07 2.77 0.30

230 - 3.07 3.00 0.07 End of canal

Longitudinal profile levelling by traversing

11. You need to survey the same line Mark the line at 10-m intervals
AB, the centre-line of a water canal, for
profile levelling. You will use a non-
sighting level, such as the flexible tube
water level (see Section 5.3). Since you
are using this kind of level, you will
survey by traversing. Mark the line AB
with stakes driven into the ground at
regular intervals. The length of these
intervals depends on the working length
of your level (in this case, 10 m). Where
there are marked changes in slope, add
intermediate stakes. On each stake,
mark its distance from the initial point A.

12. Level a tie-in line between bench-

mark BM and the initial point A (see
Section 5.3, steps 6-12). This will give
you the elevation of point A, through
intermediate point 1.

13. Proceed with the levelling of the Level a tie-in from the bench-mark,
marked points along the line, using this then level the points on the line
method. At each point, you will make
two scale readings, one rear and one
forward, except at the final point where
you will take only one height
measurement.

14. One person should be responsible

for recording the measurements in a field
book, using a table similar to the one in
Section 8.1, step 41. But, in this case,
you will not need to enter the distances
in the table, since they identify the
surveyed points. Checks are made at
the bottom of the table as usual.
Remember that in this type of survey
there is no need for turning points.
 Example

Longitudinal profile levelling by traversing with a flexible tube water level (10 m)

Cross-section profile levelling

15. After you have found the
elevations of points along a
longitudinal profile, you can proceed
with the survey of perpendicular cross-
sections . These cross-sections can
pass through as many of the points as
necessary. Cross-sections are
commonly used for contouring long,
narrow stretches of land (see Section
8.3).

16. You will need to have more

information on some of the longitudinal
profile points. Choose these points
and mark them. Then, set out and
mark perpendicular lines at these
points (see Section 3.6), and extend
these perpendiculars on both sides of
the traverse as far as you need to. In
this type of levelling, such
perpendiculars are called the cross-
section lines .

Note : at points where the traverse At a turn, make two cross-sections

changes direction (for example, at
point 175 in the drawing), you should
set out two perpendicular lines E and
F; each line will be perpendicular to
one of the traverse sections.
17. Choose and clearly mark the
points you want to survey on each
cross-section line. In this case, these
points do not have to be regularly
spaced. Rather, they should be at
places where the terrain changes since
they should mark changes in slope.

18. As you know the elevations of the

traverse points from a previous survey,
you may treat these points as bench-
marks. Proceed with the profile
levelling of selected points along the
cross-section lines as explained
earlier. You may survey them:

 by radiating, with a sighting

level (see this section, steps 5-
10); or
 by traversing, with a non-sighting
level (see this section, steps 11-
14).

Note : you can also survey by

traversing using a simple sighting
level such as a bamboo sighting level
(see Section 5.6) or a hand level (see
Section 5.7).

19. Your field notes will be similar to those shown in either step 10 or 14, depending on the levelling method you
use. You will identify the points differently, however. You identify each cross-section line by the number of the
traverse point of known elevation. To do this, identify the surveyed points along each cross-section line
according to whether they are to the left or the right of the traverse . Also use their distance (in metres) from
the traverse points as identification. The following example is of field notes and calculations for a radiating
survey, where each cross-section was surveyed from a single levelling station.

Example
 Cross-section profile levelling by radiating

Traverse
BS(m) HI(m) FS(m) Elevation(m) Remarks
Point Point

Left Right

50 ... ... ... ... ... ...

Edge of
75 - - 0.54 40.94 - 40.40 existing
path

10 - 40.94 1.09 39.85

18 - 40.94 1.15 39.79

- 9 40.94 0.85 40.09

- 16 40.94 0.68 40.26

Edge of
100 - - 1.15 38.96 - 37.81 maize
field

8 - 38.96 1.23 37.73

- 4 38.96 1.11 37.85

- 16 38.96 0.78 38.18

Edge of
125 - - 0.97 36.64 - 35.67 small
forest

5 - 36.64 1.12 35.52

20 - 36.64 1.55 35.09

- 14 36.64 1.03 35.61

25 36.64 0.89 35.75

150 ... ... ... ... ... ...

8.3 How to contour
What is a contour?
1. A contour is an imaginary continuous
line or curve which joins ground points
of an equal elevation. The elevation of
the ground points must be measured
from the same reference plane*.

Example

When you pour water into a hole in the

ground, you will see that the surface of
the water forms a continuous line made
up of the water's points of contact with
the sides of the hole. This line shows
one contour for this particular water
depth in the hole. A lake or a reservoir
also has a surface contour which
depends on its water level.

What is contouring?
2. Contouring means surveying to
identify the contours on the ground, lay
them out with markers, and plot them
on a plan or map. You will learn more
about planning and mapping contours in
Section 9.4.
3. Contouring is used in fish culture to
solve two kinds of problem:

 if you have fixed the location of a

point, you may have to identify the
contour passing through that
point;

Example

You have chosen the end-point of your

water-supply canal on a fish-farm site.
Now you have to identify the canal's
centre-line, which usually follows a
contour back to the water source
(which may be a point along a river, or
the outlet pipe of a pump).

 If you need to prepare a plan or

map showing the ground relief of
an area, you must find out
the location of contours on the
ground and be able to transfer
them onto paper.

Example

You have chosen a fish-farm site.

Before you can plan, design and build
the farm, you will need to make a
topographical map showing the
location of a series of contours from
which you will be able to define the
ground relief of the site.

4. You have already learned how to

find a contour on the ground from a
fixed point, in the sections on
contouring devices (see Sections 6.2-
6.8).

5. In the following steps, you will learn

how to survey contours over a land
area so that you can prepare a
topographical map (see Section 9.4).

What are the main methods for contouring?

6. It would be an impossible task to
identify all the contours in one area.
Therefore, you will have to decide how
many contours you need to identity in
each area. You will have to fix the
difference in elevation between
contours which are next to each other.
This is called the contour interval .

7. Choosing which contour interval to

use depends mainly on the accuracy
you need, on the scale of the map you
will prepare (see Section 9.1) and on
the kind of terrain you are surveying.
Contour intervals usually vary from 0.25
m to 1 m . This range of intervals allows
good accuracy, and makes it possible
to produce large-scale topographical
maps for flat or slightly sloping ground
(which is usually the type of ground
used for fish-culture sites). Since
smaller contour intervals make
contouring much more difficult, you will
usually make reconnaissance and
preliminary surveys with a contour
interval greater than the one you use
for later, more detailed surveys.

Example

Relationship between the size of

contour intervals and various factors

Contour intervals
Factor
Smaller Larger

Required
High Low
accuracy

Mapping
Large- Small-
scale
scale scale
(Section 9.1)

Type of
Flat Sloping
terrain

8. There are two main methods of Direct contouring

surveying contours:
  a direct method; in which you
trace and mark the line of each
contour on the ground, and then
plan survey these lines so that
they can be mapped,
 an indirect method; in which you
make a topographical survey of
the area to find a series of points
of known elevation. Then you
enter them on a map and
determine the contours from this
map.

Selecting the contouring method

9. When selecting the method you will Indirect contouring
use for contouring, remember that:

 the direct method is much slower,

but is more accurate. Use it only
to contour a relatively small area
which you need to map in detail,
on a large scale;
 the indirect method is faster, but it
is not so accurate. Use it to
contour large areas that you will
map on a medium or small
scale. It should preferably be
combined with plane-tabling (see
Section 7.5).

Laying out contours on the ground with a sighting level

You will now learn the direct method of Establish a bench-mark in the lowest part of the site
contouring which will enable you to lay
out a number of points on the ground
which have exactly the same
elevation.

10. Start your contouring survey of site

ABCDEA at a point of known
elevation, such as an existing bench-
mark BM . If there is no such point of
known elevation in the area, you can
establish one:

 either by differential levelling from

a bench-mark outside the area to
a point within the area;
 or by assuming a convenient
elevation for your bench-mark
(such as 100 m) so that you will
not have points with negative
elevation later.

Note : try to establish this bench-mark

in the middle of the lowest ground of the
area, so that you can survey uphill.

11. Through this bench-mark BM at Lay out line FG from the bench-mark,
point F, lay out and mark a straight line and parallel lines at regular intervals
FG . Make sure you follow the direction
ofthe greatest ground slope . The line
should cross the entire site.

12. At regular intervals, set out a

series of lines parallel to FG. To
choose the interval between parallels,
use:

 10 m or less , if the contour

interval is to be 0.25 to 0.50 m;
 25 to 30 m , if the contour interval
is to be 1 to 1.5 m;
 50 m , if the terrain has a very
gentle or regular slope.

13. If you know the elevation E(BM) of Take a backsight at the bench-mark and
the benchmark BM from a previous calculate the nearest contour line
survey, first find the point on the line
with an elevation that corresponds to a
multiple of the contour interval you have
selected. You can use a sighting
leveltogether with a target levelling
staff.The method will enable you to set
the target on the staff in the right
position for identifying the first contour
on the ground.

Example Set the target at E (BM) - n (Cl)

below the line of sight
 BM is at elevation 59.36 m.
 With a sighting level set up at
LS1 and a levelling staff held on
BM, read BS = 3.23 m.
 Choose the contour interval, for
example Cl = 0.25 m.
 Calculate the multiple of Cl (=
nCl) closest to E(BM) = 59.36 m
as follows:
(a) E(BM) ÷ Cl = 59.36 m ÷ 0.25
m = 237.44 ... or the round
number n = 238;
(b) n x Cl = 238 x 0.25 m = 59.50
m.
 The difference between E(BM)
and n(Cl) equals 59.50 m - 59.36
m = 0.14 m.
 Set the target on a target
levelling staff at the height of
BS minus this difference or
3.23 m - 0.14 m = 3.09 m.
 Find the position of the first
contour at the elevation 59.50
m.

When the target is in the line of sight,

you have found a point on the first countour line
14. You will need an assistant for this Mark the point
method. At LS1, the point from which
you can survey as many surrounding
points as possible, set up the level.
Holding the adjusted target levelling staff ,
your assistant walks slowly uphill from
the bench-mark along the central line
FG . Sight with the level at the target,
and signal to your assistant to stop
when the sighting line lines up with the
target line. The ground point X where
the levelling staff stands should be at
elevation 59.50 m. This is the first
point of the 59.50 m contour. Direct
your assistant to mark this point with a
stake. Remember also to indicate
clearly the elevation of the point on the
stake.

15. Your assistant then moves with the Survey other points on the same contour
levelling staff to another parallel line,
where you determine and mark a
second point Y at elevation 59.50 m in
the same way. This procedure is
repeated on all the parallel lines, until
you have marked contour 59.50
m completely on the ground across the
site.
16. To determine the next contour, you Lower the target by the chosen interval
must change the position of the
target on the staff. As you are moving
uphill , using a selected contour
interval of 0.25 m, you will lower the
target by 0.25 m to a height of 3.09 m -
0.25 m = 2.84 m. In this position, the
target will show the ground points at
elevation 59.50 m + 0.25 m = 59.75 m,
if you continue surveying from the same
levelling station LS1 .

17. From LS1, find all the points on the Survey the next contour
parallel lines at elevation 59.75 m, and
mark a second contour on the
ground. Again lower the target by 0.25
m to the height of 2.84 m - 0.25 m =
2.59 m to determine points at the next
elevation of 60 m.

18. If you need to change the levelling To continue on the same contour, move the level,
station but continue to survey the same then adjust the target
contour:

 ask your assistant to hold the

levelling staff on one of the points
of that contour;
 move the level to a new, more
convenient levelling station;
 tell your assistant to adjust the
target height until it lines up with
the line of sight of the level;
 continue to survey the same
contour.

19. If you need to change the levelling For a new contour, set the target lower than
station at the same time you are the line of sight and...
ready to determine another contour:

 ask your assistant to keep the

levelling staff on a point of the last
surveyed contour;
 move the level to its new station;
adjust the target height to the new
line of sight;
 change this target height to
determine the new contour (by
lowering it 0.25 m, for example,
see step 16).

...Find the new contour

20. When you have determined the various contours at their intersection with each parallel line, you will have to
measure the horizontal distances between all the marked points. To do this, you can chain along the parallel
lines starting from the area boundaries (see Section 2.6). These measurements will help you to prepare a
topographical map of the area (see Section 9.4).

Measure the horizontal distance between the points

Laying out contours with a non-sighting level
21. When you use a non-sighting level Set out a line through the bench-mark,
(such as a line level or an A-frame and parallels at regular intervals
level) to lay out contours over an area
of land, you first need to establish a
bench-mark BM near the boundary of
the area. As usual, this bench-mark
may be either of known elevation or of
assumed elevation. It should also be
located in the part of the area with the
lowest elevation (see Section 8.1,
steps 42-44).

22. Set out a line FC through BM , and

set out lines parallel to it at a selected
distance, as described in steps 11- 12
above.

Example

Selected distance between parallels =

10 m.

23. If you are using a bench-mark with Calculate the nearest contour line
a known elevation , proceed as shown
above in step 13 to calculate the
elevation of the first contour you will
survey near the bench-mark. Also
calculate the difference between the
elevation of this first contour and the
elevation of the bench-mark.

Example

 BM elevation E(BM) = 127,85 m

 Selected contour interval = 0.50
m
 Multiple of E(BM): 127.85 m ÷
0.50 m = 255.7 and therefore
you choose n = 256
 First contour will be at elevation
256 x 0.50 m = 128 m
 Difference in elevation between
E(contour) and E(BM): 128 m -
127.85 = 0.15 m.
24. Then, next to the bench-mark , place Find the difference in height
some objects (such as bricks, stones,
wooden planks, a tin or a box) that will
provide the elevation calculated for the
first contour.

Example Use bricks to make up the height difference at BM

Next to BM, place some bricks and

adjust their top height at 0.15 m higher
than E(BM), using a straight-edge and a
mason's level (see Section 5.1). The top
of these bricks will be at the 128 m
elevation.

25. Find a ground point X which is Finding the contour from a known bench-mark
near BM, is located on the line CF
passing through BM, and has the
same elevation as the objects piled
near BM. To do this, use one of the
methods described earlier (see
Sections 5.1, 6.2-6.4 and 6.6). This
ground point X is the first point of the
contour 128 m.

Example

Using a straight-edge level, transfer the

level 128 m from the top of the bricks to
a ground point X on the line CF passing
through BM.

26. If you are using a bench-mark with Finding the contour from an assumed bench-mark
an assumed elevation , and are working
uphill, determine the point X of the line
passing through BM in the same way.
The elevation of this point will equal
assumed E(BM) plus the contour
interval Cl.

Example

 If E(BM) = 100 m and Cl = 0.50

m, pile bricks 0.50 m high at
BM.
 Locate nearby point X where
E(X) = 100 m + 0.50 m = 100.50
m.
27. Start contouring from point X using Mark the intersections of the contour and the parallels
one of the methods described in
Chapter 6. With a stake , mark each
point where the contour you are
following intersects with one of the
parallel lines . On each stake, clearly
indicate the elevation of the ground
point.

28. Each time you finish laying out a

contour, determine the first point Z, of
the next contour by using a method like
the one described in step 24. At known
point X, where the last contour line
crosses central line CF, place objects
with a total height equal to the contour
interval . Transfer this new level
horizontally along line CF to point Z on
the next contour. If the contour interval
is large, you may have to use
intermediate points to do this in
stages.

Example Transfer the elevation of the contour Interval

 Cl = 0.50 m.
 Transfer first E(contour) by +
0.25 m, from X to Y.
 Repeat again from Y to Z, to
total + 0.50 m = 2 x 0.25 m.

29. When you have laid out all the

contours on the ground with
stakes, measure, from stake to stake,
the horizontal distances along the
parallel lines. This will help you to
prepare a topographical map (see
Section 9.4).

Measure the horizontal distances between the points

Contouring by the indirect method
30. You can also contour by Square grid
the indirect method . In this method, you
make a topographical survey of the
area, using a definite pattern, such as..

 a square grid to determine

elevations for points located at the
intersections of a grid made of
square or rectangular blocks;
 radiating to determine elevations
for random points located on lines
which radiate at a selected angle
interval from a known point;
 cross-sections to determine
elevations for points located on
short lines laid out at right angles
to a surveyed base line.

31. You learned earlier that the Radiation

square-grid pattern is commonly used
to contour relatively small areas,
particularly if their perimeters have
already been surveyed (see Section
8.1, steps 24-33).

32. You also learned about the

radiating pattern , which is particularly
useful for large areas (see Section 8.1,
steps 34-36).

33. Finally, you learned about cross- Cross-sections

sections. These are commonly used in
preliminary surveys, where you need a
contoured plan of a long narrow
stretch of land to select the best
possible route for your purpose. You
lay out lines about 30 to 100 m apart
and about 50 to 100 m long on either
side of a main compass traverse, and
at right angles to it. Then you can find
elevations of points along these cross-
sections (see Section 8.2, steps 15-
19).

9. TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS

9.0 Introduction
What are topographical plans and maps?
1. Topographical plans and maps are Plan
drawings which show the main physical
features on the ground, such as
buildings, fences, roads, rivers, lakes
and forests, as well as the changes in
elevation between land forms such as
valleys and hills (called vertical relief).
You base these plans and maps on
the information you collect from
topographical surveys.

2. Plans are usually large-scale

drawings; maps are usually small-scale
drawings. Depending on the scale you
use to make the drawing (see Section
9.1):

 it is a plan if the scale

is larger than 1 cm for 100 m (1 :
10 000), for example 1 cm for 25
m;
 it is a map if the scale is equal to
or smaller than 1 cm for 100 m (1 :
10 000), for example 1 cm for 200
m or 1 cm for 1000 m.

Example Map

 An engineering plan could

show information you need for
building fish-farm features such
as dikes, ponds, canals or
 outlet structures, at the scale of
1 cm for 25 m (1 : 2 500).
 A topographical map could
show a fish-farm site (scale 1
cm for 200 m or 1 : 20 000) or a
region of a country (scale 1 cm
for 1 000 m or 1 : 100 000).

3. Plans and maps have two main

purposes in fish-farm construction.
They help guide you in choosing a
site, planning the fish-farm, and
designing the structures that are
needed for the farm. Plans and maps
also guide you as you lay out marks
on the ground, so that you can follow
the plan you have made of the fish-
farm, and build the structures on it
correctly.

Starting topographical plans and maps

4. Before you begin a topographical survey, you should try to get any available topographical plans and maps of
the area, even though they may not be exactly the kind of plan or map that you need. General topographical
maps are available from governmental organizations which are responsible for geological surveys or land
surveys, for example. National geographical institutes, soil survey departments and agricultural development
agencies can also usually provide existing topographical maps. The cadastral department (that calculates land
taxes) of your local government may provide local topographical plans.

5. You will often have to make the topographical plans and maps yourself, however. You will base them on a plan
survey (see Chapter 7) and direct levelling (see Chapter 8). In the following sections, you will learn how to:

 make the plan or map directly in the field by plane-tabling (see Section 9.2); or
 make the plan or map from the field measurements recorded in your notebook (see Sections
9.3-9.6).

6. On topographical plans or maps, you should always look for:

 the name of the area or piece of land mapped, and/or the name of the type of project for
which it is used;
 the exact location of the piece of land;
 the name of the person or people who made surveys on which the plan or map is based;
 the date(s) on which the surveys were made;
 the direction of magnetic north;
 the scale at which the plan or map was drawn (see Section 9.1);
 the contour interval, if the vertical relief is shown (see Section 9.3);
 a key, or guide, to the symbols used in the drawing.

This information is often located in one corner of the map. It is called the legend.
9.1 How to make scales for plans and maps
What is the scale of a plan or map?
1. To represent distances you have
measured in the field on a piece of
paper, you need to scale them down.
This means that you must reduce the
size of the distances proportionally
according to a scale. The
scale expresses the relationship which
exists between the distance shown on
a drawing or map and the actual
distance across the ground.
Example

 1 cm on the plan represents 20

m (or 2000 cm) on the ground,
or scale 1:2000.
 1 cm on the map represents 100
m on the ground, or scale
1:10000.
 1 cm on the map represents
1250 m on the ground, or scale
1:125000.

Note: a ratio with a smaller number is a

larger scale, that is, 1: 500 is a larger
scale than 1 : 1000.

Expressing a scale

2. There are three ways of expressing the scale of a drawing:

 as a numerical equivalent such as " 1 cm = 20 m", which you should read as "1 cm on the
plan represents 20 m on the ground";
 as a ratio such as " 1: 2 000" which you should read as " 1 cm on the plan represents 2 000
cm = 20 m on the ground";
 graphically, with a line that is marked off into drawing distances that correspond to convenient
units of distance on the ground.

3. Table 11 gives the numerical equivalents of the most common scales, expressed as fractions. Scales for
both distances (in metres) and surface areas (in square metres) are shown also.

Choosing a scale

4. General topographical maps usually have scales ranging from 1:50000 to 1:250000. These are small-scale
maps. In most countries, 1 :50000 maps are now available. You can use these for general planning of
aquaculture development, including the planning of your fish-farm.

5. To show greater detail, plans are drawn to a larger scale, showing individual structures or land areas. The
scales most often used in plans are 1 :500, 1 :1000, 1 :2000, 1:2500 and 1:5000. Detailed engineering drawings
use scales much larger than 1:500, for example
1 : 100 or 1: 10.

Note: special rulers, called "Kutsch" scales or reduction scales, make it easy to transfer ground distances onto
drawings.
 TABLE 11

Distances and surface areas expressed by scales

Scale Distance: 1 cm Surface area: 1

equals (m) cm2 equals (m2)
1: 300 3 9

500 5 25

600 6 36

1000 10 100

1200 12 144

1500 15 225

2000 20 400

2500 25 750

5000 50 2500 (0.25 ha)

1: 10000 100 10000 (1 ha)

25000 250 62500 (6.25 ha)

50000 500 250000 (25 ha)

 1000000 (100 ha) (1
100000 1000 (1 km)
km2)

1562500 (156.25
125000 1250
ha)

200000 2000 4000000 (400 ha)

250000 2500 6250000 (625 ha)

9.2 How to make a map by plane-tabling

1. In Section 7.5, you read that you
can use a plane-table to make a
reconnaissance survey and to plot
details. In this section, you will learn
how to do this. It is best to use an
alidade for this method (see Section
7.5, steps 21-28), but you can use a
simple ruler, and a series of tailor's
pins to show the observed directions,
instead.

2. First, choose an appropriate scale for

the map you will draw (see Section
9.1, steps 4 and 5). Get an estimate of
the longest distance you need to map,
and decide upon the size of the map
you require. If the map is to be fairly
large, you can draw it on several
sheets of paper, and glue them
together.

Example

 You have a plane-table, size 40

x 55 cm.
 You estimate the longest
distance to be mapped = 400 m.
 From Table 11, you find that if
you use a 1 : 1 000 scale (where
1 cm is equivalent to 10 m), you
will need 40 cm to draw this
distance on your sheet of paper.
 If this scale is large enough for
your purposes, you can use just
one sheet of paper.
3. Cover the board of your plane-table Set up the plane-table at point A
with paper (see Section 7.5, steps 34-
39). Set up the plane-table (see
Section 7.5, steps 40-44) on or near
some major feature A of the area you
need to map, such as a large rock, a
path, a river or a tall tree.

4. Using a well-sharpened pencil with

a hard lead, mark a small point and
circle on your paper. This is point a,
the location of the major feature, where
you have set up your plane-table. Be
sure to choose a section of the paper
from which you can later map the
entire area. For example, if you will be
mapping only ahead of point A, begin
near the centre of the bottom margin
of the plane-table.

Note: you will identify physical features

in the field that you need to map
with capital letters. You will identity the
corresponding points that you draw on
the plane-table sheet with lower-case
letters.
5. Rotate the table so that you will be
drawing the map in the orientation you
need. Using your magnetic compass
as a guide, draw arrows showing the
magnetic north (see Section 7.5, steps
45-46).

Note: you should always try to locate

the north facing the top of your map.
This is a rule which is always applied
in professional topographical maps.
You may not be able to follow the rule,
however, depending on the direction of
the longest distance and on the scale
you select.

6. Using your alidade, sight from the Draw ax

first marked point a to another major
feature B which you can see from the
plane-table location. This could be a
small hill, a bend in a path or a ranging
pole. Draw a thin line ax in this
direction.

Note: you can use the alidade much

more easily if you place a pin at
point a on the board, and
then swivel the alidade around the pin
until you can sight the second point.
7. Measure the horizontal Draw ay
ground distance from the plane-table
station A to the major feature B. Then
mark this distance along
line ax, starting at point a and scaling it
down as line ab.

8. Without moving the plane-table from

point A, repeat this process for all other
major features C, D, etc. which you can
see, and draw lines ac, ad, etc.

9. Move the plane-table to one of the

major features you have just mapped,
such as C. Choose a feature from
which you can easily map another part
of the area, such as the route of a path
or the course of a river.

10. Set up the plane-table over this

point C. Reorient the table. Use the
compass and the magnetic north
arrows you have already drawn (see
step 5 above), or, instead, use the
alidade, backsighting along a drawn
line which passes through the new
station C and a known major feature
such as A (see Section 7.5, step 47).
11. From this new station C, map in
the new major features which you can
see, as explained above.

12. If necessary, move to other

stations to complete the mapping of
the entire area. If you need more
details in the map, go back to one of
the mapped features, reorient the table
by backsighting on another mapped
feature, and map the details as
required.

13. You can use the above procedure for plane-tabling in several different situations in the field, such as:

 mapping an open traverse ;

 mapping a closed traverse;
 mapping by the radiating method;
 mapping by the triangulation method.

Usually, you will use a combination of some of these surveying methods to map an entire area.

Open traverse Closed traverse

Radiation Triangulation

Mapping an open traverse with a plane-table

14. You may need to map an open
traverse ABCD. To do this, you can, for
example, first set up the plane- table at
point B, which has a fixed position and
from which a line BA of known
direction already exists on the ground.
Map the location of station B, the
direction of BA and the distance BA in
turn.

15. Draw the direction of the next

station C, measure distance BC, and
map point c.

16. Move the plane-table to station C, At C, take a backsighting to B, and map D

orient it along CB, and, using the same
procedure as above, map point d.

Note: if the traverse sections ba, cb,

etc. on the map are very short, you
should mark their directions on the
edge of the paper. This will provide
longer lines, so that you can line up
the alidade along them when you must
reorient the plane-table at a new
station by backsighting.

Prolong lines for easier orientation

Mapping a closed traverse with a plane-table

17. You need to map a closed
traverse ABCDEA. First, set up the
plane-table at station A and plot this on
paper as point a; choose a scale and a
location on the paper which will allow
you to plot the other stations within the
limits of the sheet of paper.

18. Using the alidade, take a foresight

through point a to station B and draw
line ax. Measure distances AB and map
point b on line ax.

19. Move the plane-table to station B,

set it up over the point, and orient it by
backsighting along line ba on station A.
Take a foresight to station C, measure
distance BC, and map point c.

20. Using this procedure, map the

locations of the remaining points on the
closed traverse. At the end of the
traverse, when you plot the initial
station A again, you can see any error
of closure. If this error is within
reasonable limits, correct it, using the
graphic method explained in Section
7.1, step 19.
21. From one station on the traverse, Take additional backsights to check your work
you may be able to see two or more of
the preceding stations which are not on
the same straight line as the station
where you are standing (for example,
from C to A, from D to B, or from E to
B). In this case, check the other parts of
the traverse.

Example

From station C, station A is visible. You

should check from C the position of
point a by backsighting on Station A.

Mapping with a plane-table by radiating

22. To use this method, set up the plane- Move the alidade, but not the plane-table
table at a central station 0, from which you
can see all the points you need to map.
Orient the table. On the map, draw lines
representing the directions to these ground
points; to do this, pivot the alidade around
the mapped location of station 0. Measure
horizontal distances OA, OB, OC, OD and
OE, and scale them along each of the
drawn lines to map points a, b, c, d and e.

Mapping with a plane-table by triangulation

23. Before you start plane-tabling, you need Start from the known base-line
to find a base line determined by two known
points visible from each other.This base line
can be a known section of an existing
traverse, or a line between two points fixed
by a previous triangulation. If such a base
line is not available, you must accurately
determine and measure one.
24. Draw the base line AB on the plane-table
sheet. Choose a location which will allow
you to plot the other features of the map
within the limits of the sheet of paper.

25. Set up the plane-table over one of the

two end-points of this base line, at point A,
for example. Then, with ranging poles,
clearly mark the second end-point B, and
the third point C that you need to map. You
should be able to see point C from both point
A and point B.

26. Align the alidade along line ab, which

represents the base line; orient the plane-
table by sighting at the other end-point B of
the base along AB.

27. Place a pin at point a and rotate the Map C from A...
alidade around it until you sight
point C. Draw a thin line from point a along
the edge of the alidade in the direction of
point C.

28. Move the plane-table to B. Orient the ... and from B

table with line ba on the map pointing in the
direction of ground point A. Place a pin
at b and rotate the alidade around it until
you sight point C. Draw a thin line from
point a in the direction of C. Point c is
located on the map at the intersection of
line ac (step 27) and line bc.

29. Point C is now known, and you can use Move to the next triangle
it in a similar way to determine other points,
taking, for example, BC as a base line to
determine D. You can then repeat this
mapping process, using each point as it
becomes known, as long as each point you
need to map is visible from two other
known points.

30. To check how accurately you have Check your work by backsighting
mapped a new point, set up the plane-table
over the corresponding point in the field.
Then orient the table along one line in the
field and take a backsight to check that the
second line on the map corresponds with
the correct line in the field.

Note: you can obtain the best results if you

use triangles with equal sides. The summit
angles in these triangles are all equal to
60°. In all cases, you should avoid angles
smaller than 15° or larger than 165°.

Choose the proper angle

Too small Too large Best angle

Mapping with a plane-table by combined methods

31. In most cases, you will map an Site ABCDA
area with a plane-table by using
a combination of the methods of
traversing, radiating and triangulation.

32. You need to map site ABCDA,

which includes such features as a
rocky area, a group of houses and a
well. Clearly mark points A, B, C and D
with ranging poles.

33. Set up the plane-table at corner A

of the area. Locate the mapped
position of A on the sheet of paper. Be
sure to choose a point which will allow
you to plot the other features of the
map within the limits of the sheet of
paper at the drawing scale you have
chosen. Orient the sheet by drawing
the direction of magnetic north.

34. From station A, you can see the

rocks and the houses. By radiating,
determine the directions of the rocks
and the houses from this station. Then
measure and map AB.

35. Move the plane-table and set it up At B

over corner B. Roughly orient the
board by backsighting to A, and check
this orientation with the magnetic
compass.

36. From station B, you can see the

rocks and the well. By radiating and
triangulation, locate and map the
rocks, and determine the direction of
the well. Measure and map BC.

37. Repeat this process at point C, At C

from which you can check on the
position of the rocks and locate the
well and the houses. Measure and
map CD.

38. Repeat this process at point D, At D

from which you can check on the
positions of the houses and the well.
Measure and map DA.

39. Check the error of closure of Finished map

traverse ABCDA and correct it, if
possible. If the error is too great,
repeat the survey.

40. Finish the map, checking that you

have included all the information you
need (see Section 9.0, step 6).
9.3 How to map by protractor and scale
1. When you map in the office, using
field records, you will usually
plot horizontal distances with a
ruler/scale, and the horizontal
angles with a protractor (see Section
3.3).

2. First, using the scale you have

chosen, make a rough sketch of the
area to determine its size and shape.
From this sketch, decide how large a
piece of paper you will need to make
everything fit and determine the position
of your map on the sheet of paper.

3. Draw the first line in the right place on

the paper and determine its length AB,
using the selected scale. Using a pencil
with a hard lead, accurately mark points
A and B on the paper as two dots with a
small circle around each.

Note: draw the line so that it will extend

beyond the next angle-point B, a distance
greater than the radius R of the
protractor.

4. Place the protractor along line AB so

that:

 its centre is exactly on the second

angle-point B; and
 marks 0° and 180° line up exactly
with line AB.
5. Plot the angle, which you have
obtained from your field notes, remove
the protractor, and draw the second line.
Locate and map point C according to
the measured distance and scale.

6. Place the protractor along this last line

with its centre opposite point C. Lay out the
measured angle, and draw the third line.
Locate and map point D according to the
measured distance and scale.

7. Repeat this process until you have

mapped the entire traverse.

8. Locate the details on the plan from this

traverse line. Plot the positions of buildings,
fences, rocky areas, streams, paths, etc.,
using the scale for distances and the
protractor for angles.

9. You can use a method similar to this one

to map survey information which you have
obtained by radiating, by triangulation, and
by offsets.

9.4 How to map contours

What is a contour line?

What are the characteristics of contour lines?

1. Contour lines are lines drawn to join points of equal elevation. On a plan or map, they represent the
contours you found and marked in the field (see Section 8.3). Contour lines show the three-dimensional ground
topography of a site on a two-dimensional map or plan.

2. As you have already learned (see Section 8.3, step 7), contours are surveyed on the basis of a
selected contour interval. Similarly, contour lines are drawn at equal vertical intervals. You should always
clearly state the contour interval of the mapped contour lines.
 Hill Peak

Two hills Valley

Contour interval = 50 m

3. If you clearly understand the characteristics

of contour lines (CL), you will be able to
survey, make contour maps and read maps
much more easily. The facts to remember
are:

 all points on a contour line are at the

same elevation;
 contour lines cannot cross each other or
divide in any way (such as branching or
splitting off);
 contour lines always close on
themselves, either within or outside the
limits of the map. When they close within
the map's limits, they indicate either
a summit (such as a hill) or
a depression (such as a valley);
 straight, parallel contour lines indicate
horizontal ground;
 evenly spaced contour lines indicate a
uniform, or regular, ground slope;
 the closer the contour lines, the steeper
the slope (see Note);
 widely spaced contour lines indicate a
gentle slope;
 closely spaced contour lines indicate a
steep slope;
 the steepest slope is always at right
angles to the contour lines;
 contour lines cross ridges
perpendicularly;
 contour lines cross river valleys following
 a U- or V-shaped path.

Note: when two contour lines of equal

elevation are near each other, the land
between them is often flatter than the
general trend of slope but its slope is
indeterminate (unknown).

Areas of indeterminate slope

Choosing the contour interval of contour lines

4. Before drawing the contour lines on a
plan or map, you must choose the contour
interval you will use. The contour interval
mainly depends on the accuracy or scale
you need for the drawing, and on the
topography of the area (see Table 12). A
smaller contour interval, such as 0.15 m,
0.25 m or 0.5 m, is generally used for flat
or gently sloping areas. Remember that
most fish-farm sites are located in such
areas.

TABLE 12
Contour intervals (metres)

Map Scale

Topography
Greater than 1:1000 to Smaller than
1:1000 1:10000 1:10000

Flat 0.15 to 0.3 0.3 to 0.6 0.6 to 3

Gently
0.3 to 0.6 0.6 to 1.5 1.5 to 3
sloping
 Hilly 0.6 to 1.5 1.5 to 3 3 to 6

Making a contour map

5. First prepare a planimetric map of the
area. This is a map showing the
boundaries of the land, the surveying
stations, the major physical features and
all available details (see Sections 9.2 and
9.3).

6. Add the points of known ground

elevation to the map. To locate these
points on the map, use a distance scale
and, if necessary, a protractor for
determining any angles. Write the
elevations next to the points.

7. Find the points of lower ground elevation. Then, according to the contour interval you have chosen,
determine which elevation represents the first contour line you need to draw.

8. The first contour line will pass between ground points with elevations which are lower and higher than the
elevation of the contour points. Carefully locate the path of the contour line between these higher and lower
points, as you draw. Note that contour lines are usually curved, not straight. You should draw them free-hand,
rather than using a ruler to connect the points.
9. Using the same procedure, draw the
other contour lines. Show the
progressively higher elevations as
multiples of the selected contour
interval.

Note: contour lines are only drawn for

elevations which are multiples of the
contour interval. Show the elevations of
the contours by writing in numbers at
appropriate intervals; the contour line is
usually broken to leave a space for the
number.

10. This general procedure may

vary, depending on the contour
surveying method you have used in the
field.

(a) If you have used a direct

method (see Section 8.3, steps 10-29),
the plan survey of the contours you
have identified gives you all the
information you need to map the
corresponding contour lines. You will
reduce the measured distances to
scale, and use the parallel lines marked
on the ground as a background to the
contour lines.

(b) If you have used an indirect

method (see Section 8.3, steps 30-33),
you will lay out the pattern of lines roughly
in the drawing, map the points of known
elevation and note their elevations.
Then, estimate the position of the
contour lines, as explained above.

9.5 How to plot longitudinal profiles

Why are longitudinal profiles plotted?

1. Longitudinal profiles are plotted to show relative elevations on a plan. When you design a fish-farm,
longitudinal profiles help you to determine the route and the bottom slope of such works as water-supply and
drainage canals. They are also useful when you need to estimate the amounts of earth you need to dig out or
build up on a site (called the volumes of earthwork), and when you choose sites for the construction of reservoir
dams and river barrages (small dams that channel the water into ditches or canals).

Information from which longitudinal profiles can be plotted

2. You plot a longitudinal profile as a
continuous line drawn through points of
known elevations. The information you
use for this can be:

 ground elevations, which are

separated by known distances,
along several lines; or
 a contour map.

Scales to be used for longitudinal profiles

3. You need two different scales to be
able to plot longitudinal profiles:

 a horizontal scale, which reduces

horizontal ground distances;
 a vertical scale, which reduces
vertical elevations.

Both scales should use the same unit of

length. This is usually the metre.

4. The horizontal scale of the profile

should preferably be the same as the
scale of the plan or map.

Example

If the scale of the plan is 1 cm per

metre, the horizontal scale of the
longitudinal profile should also be 1 cm
per m.
5. In most aquaculture surveys, the
differences in elevation are very small
in comparison to the horizontal
distances. When you plot longitudinal
profiles for such a survey, you will
therefore need to make the differences
in elevation seem larger. You can use
a vertical scale which is from 10 to 100
times larger than the horizontal scale.

Example

Horizontal scale Vertical scale

1 cm per 25 m 1 cm per 2.5 m

1 cm per 10 m 1 cm per 0.25 m

Plotting profiles from contour maps

6. Get some sheets of square-ruled
millimetric paper. Or, use one sheet as
a guide only, placing it under a sheet
of transparent tracing paper on which
you will plot your profiles.

7. On the contour map, draw line AB

along which you need to determine
the longitudinal profile. Study the
range of the elevations you will plot,
choose the vertical scale, and decide
where to start your drawing so that it
will fit within the limits of the sheet of
paper. Choose the horizontal scale
equal to the scale of the contour map. Contour interval 2 m
Horizontal scale: 1 cm = 20 m
Total vertical distance: 506 m - 484 m = 22 m
Example

Contour map with contour interval = 2

m;
contour lines from 484 m to 506 m;
horizontal scale 1 cm = 20 m (map and
profile);
vertical scale 1 cm = 0.25 m.

8. Cut a strip of paper a little longer

than the longitudinal profile AB you
need to draw and about 2 cm wide.
Place this paper strip on the contour
map with one edge exactly on line AB.

9. Mark points A and B with thin

vertical lines to indicate the end-points
of the longitudinal profile. In a similar
way, mark the position of each of the
contour lines along the edge of the
strip. Note the elevations of the main
contour lines next to their mark.

10. Place the paper strip on the drawing

sheet. Its marked edge should line up
with the horizontal line
representing the lowest
elevation present (484 m) in the
longitudinal profile. Align point A on
the strip with the starting point of the
drawing.

11. Transfer all the pencilled marks

from the paper strip to the drawing
and note the main elevations next to
their marks.
12. Using the vertical scale as a reference, transfer each of these marks vertically up to the horizontal line that
corresponds to its elevation. Using a sharp pencil with a hard lead, make a small circled dot at each of these
points on the lines.

13. Join these points with a continuous line, which represents the longitudinal profile of the ground along
selected line AB.

Note: you can only apply this method if the horizontal scale of your drawing is the same as the distance scale of
the contour map.

Plotting profiles from your own field survey

14. You can use measurements of
distances and elevations from a field
survey to plot profiles. Along the
horizontal axis, first plot the positions
of the survey stations which you
have located, for example at regular
intervals along a centre-line (see
Section 8.2) using the horizontal scale
(here 1 cm = 10 m) as a basis. Next to
each of these points, mark its distance
from the starting point of the profile,
the cumulative distance* (in m).

15. For each of these points, plot the

elevations on vertical lines, using the
vertical scale (1 cm = 5 cm) and the
two extreme elevations (1.34 m and
1.06 m) as bases.

16. Join these points with a continuous

line, which represents the profile of the
ground along the centre-line.

17. Add more information, such as the

elevations of the bench-mark (BM) and
of any turning point (TP). If you also
plot the proposed canal slope (0.15
cm/m = 7.5 cm/ 50 m), you can use
the drawing to easily locate areas
where you need to raise the land to a
required level (called a fill*), or places
where you need to dig a channel
(called a cut*). Then you can use the
drawing to estimate the amount of
earthwork these will require.

9.6 How to plot cross-section profiles

1. You can plot cross-section
profiles either from contour
maps or from levelling-survey
information.

2. A good example of when to

use a cross-section profile
plotted from a contour map is
for a study of a river valleywhen
you want to create a water
reservoir, or build a small
barrage that will raise the water
level and fill the fish-ponds by
gravity.

3. If you use the information from

a levelling survey, you can plot
cross-section profiles to
calculate volumes of earthwork
when you are building water
canals and fish-ponds, for
example (see next manual on
Constructions, in this series).

Plotting cross-section profiles from contour maps

4. On the contour map, draw the Scale: 1 cm = 20 m
lines along which you will study
the profiles. These lines should
be perpendicular to a longitudinal
profile.

5. Get several sheets of square-

ruled millimetric paper, or use one
sheet as a guide only, under
transparent tracing paper. Plot
the cross-section profiles with
the help of a marked paper strip
(as described in Section 9.5,
steps 8-13).

6. Remember that: Cross-sections of a

 the horizontal scale of the

drawing should be the same
as the distance scale of the
contour map; and
 the vertical scale of the
drawing should be from 10
to 20 times larger than the
horizontal scale.

valley

Plotting cross-section profiles for earthwork estimates

7. To estimate how much
earthwork you need to do, you
can usually plot cross-sections
to a scale of either 1 cm per
metre or 1 cm per 0.5 m. Use the
larger scale when the amount of
a cut or fill is small. Horizontal
scales and vertical scales should
be identical, so that you can
obtain a true surface area from
the scaled dimensions.

8. You can plot best on square-

ruled millimetric paper or use
one sheet of such paper as a
guide placed under a sheet of
transparent tracing paper.

9. Draw a vertical centre-line

(LL) representing the centre-line
of the cross-section profile. LL
should follow one of the heavier
lines of the squared-ruled paper.

10. On both sides of this centre-

line, draw the ground profile EFD
on the basis of your levelling
data, using the horizontal scale
for distances and the vertical
scale for elevations.

11. From your longitudinal

profile, locate point A on line LL.
In the example, it represents the
elevation of the bottom of the
canal at this particular levelling
station (see Section 9.5, step
17).

12. Through point A, draw

a horizontal line BAC to show the
canal bottom. Make sure that AB
= AC, and each is half the width
of the canal bottom.
13. Through B and C, draw lines
BE and CD representing the
sides of the canal (for example,
with a slope of 1.5: 1). These
two lines intersect the ground
surface at points E and D.

14. The cross-section EBACDFE

represents a vertical section of
the earth. You can then easily
calculate the area of this cross-
section (see, for example,
Section 10.3). Using this area as
a basis, you can estimate the
volume of earth you need to
remove from this location along
the centre-line of the canal.

10. MEASUREMENT OF AREAS

10.1 Introduction

1. One of the main purposes of your topographical survey may be to determine the area of a tract of
land where you want to build a fish-farm. From existing topographical maps, you may need to calculate the area
of a watershed or of a future reservoir (see Water, Volume 4 in this series).

Note: in land surveying, you should regard land areas as horizontal surfaces, not as the actual area of the
ground surface. You always measure horizontal distances.

2. You will often need to know the areas of cross-section profiles to calculate the amount of earthwork you
need to do.

Horizontal area Cross-section area

3. You may determine areas either directly from field measurements, or indirectly, from a plan or map. In the
first case, you will find all the measurements of distances and angles you need by surveying, and you will
calculate the areas from them. In the second case, you will draw a plan or map first (see Chapter 9). Then you
will get the dimensions you need from the scale, and determine the area on that basis.

4. There are several simple methods available for measuring areas. Some of these are graphic
methods, where you compare the plan or map of the area you need to measure to a drawn pattern of known unit
sizes. Others are geometric methods, where you use simple mathematical formulas to calculate areas of
regular geometrical figures, such as triangles, trapeziums*, or areas bounded by an irregular curve.

Note: a trapezium is a four-sided polygon with two parallel sides.

5. The simple methods will be described in detail in the next sections. They are also summarized in Table 13.

Triangle Trapezium 1

Trapezium 2 Irregular area

TABLE 13
Simple area measurement methods

Section Method Remarks

 Graphic method giving rough
10.2 Strips
estimate

Graphic method giving good to very

10.3 Square-grid
good estimates

Subdivision into regular

Geometric method giving good to
10.4 geometric figures such as,
very good estimates
triangles, trapeziums

Geometric method giving good to

10.5 Trapezoidal rule very good estimates Suitable for
curved boundary

10.2 How to use the strips method for measuring areas

1. Get a piece of transparent
paper, such as tracing paper or light-
weight square-ruled millimetric paper.
Its size will depend on the size of the
mapped area you need to measure.

2. On this paper, draw a series of

strips, by drawing a series of parallel
lines at a regular, fixed interval.
Choose thisstrip width W to represent a
certain number of metres. You can
follow the scale of the plan or map to
do this.

Example Scale: 1: 2.000

Scale 1: 2 000; strip width W = 1 cm =

20 m.
Scale 1: 50 000; strip width W = 1 cm =
500 m.

Note: the smaller the strip width, the

more accurate your estimate of the
land area will be.

3. Place the sheet of transparent

paper over the plan or map of the area
you need to measure, and attach it
securely with drawing pins or
transparent tape.
4. For each strip, measure the
distance AB in centimetres along a
central line between the boundaries of
the area shown on the map.

5. Calculate the sum of these

distances in centimetres. Then,
according to the scale you are using,
multiply to find the equivalent distance
in the field, in metres.

Example

Scale is 1 :2000 and 1 cm = 20 m.

Sum of distances = 16 cm.
Equivalent ground distance: 16 x 20 m
= 320 m.

6. Multiply this sum of real distances

(in metres) by the equivalent width of
the strip W (in metres) to obtain
a rough estimate of the total area
in square metres.

Example

Sum of equivalent distances is 320 m.

Strip width (1 cm) is equivalent to 20
m.
Land area: 320 m x 20 m = 6 400 m2 or
0.64 ha

2
Note: 10000 m = 1 hectare (ha)

7. Repeat this procedure at least once

to check on your calculations. 2
Total area = 320 m x 20 m = 6400 m

10.3 How to use the square-grid method for measuring areas

1. Get a piece of transparent square-
ruled paper, or draw a square grid on
transparent tracing paper yourself. To
do this, trace a grid made of 2 mm x 2 mm
squares inside a 10 cm x 10 cm
square, using the example given on the
page.

Note: if you use smaller unit squares on

the grid, your estimate of the land area
will be more accurate; but the minimum
size you should use is 1 mm x 1 mm = 1
mm2.

2. Place this transparent grid over the

drawing of the area you need to
measure, and attach it to the drawing
securely with thumbtacks or tape. If your
grid is smaller than this area, start at
one edge of the drawing. Clearly mark
the outline of the grid, then move to the
next section and proceed in this way
over the entire area.

3. Count the number of full

squares included in the area you need to
measure. To avoid mistakes, mark each
square you count with your pencil,
making a small dot.

Note: towards the centre of the area, you

may be able to count larger
squares made, for example, of 10 x 10 =
100 small squares. This will make your
work easier.

4. Look at the squares around the edge of Half or more squares

the drawing. If more than one-half of any
square is within the drawing, count and
mark it as a full square. Ignore the rest.
5. Add these two sums (steps 3 and 4),
to obtain the total number T of full squares.

6. Add the sums again at least once to

check them.

7. Using the distance scale of the

drawing, calculate the equivalent unit
area for your grid. This is the equivalent
area of one of its small squares.

Example

 Scale 1:2000 or 1 cm = 20 m or 1
mm = 2 m
 Grid square size is 2 mm x 2 mm
 Equivalent unit area of grid = 4 m
x 4 m = 16 m2

8. Multiply the equivalent unit area by

the total number T of full squares to
obtain a fairly good estimate of the
measured area.

Example

 Total count of full squares T =

256
 Equivalent unit area = 16m2

2
Total area = 256 x 16 m = 4096
2
m

Note: when you work with large-scale

plans such as cross-sections, you can
improve the accuracy of your area
estimate by modifying step 5, above. To
do this, look at all the squares
around the edge of the drawing which are
crossed by a drawing line. Then,
estimate by sight the decimal part of the
whole square that you need to include in
the total count (the decimal part is a
fraction of the square, expressed as a
decimal, such as 0.5, 0.1 and 0.9).

Example

Square A = 0.5; B = 0.1; C = 0.9.

10.4 How to subdivide the area into regular geometrical figures

1. When you need to measure areas directly in the field, divide the tract of land into regular geometrical
figures, such as triangles, rectangles or trapeziums. Then take all the necessary measurements, and calculate
the areas according to mathematical formulas (see Annex 1). If a plan or map of the area is available, you can
draw these geometrical figures on it, and find their dimensions by using the reduction scale.

2. In the first manual in this series, Water for Freshwater Fish Culture, FAO Training Series (4), Section 2.0,
you learned how to calculate the area of a pond using this method. In the following steps, you will learn how to
apply it under more difficult circumstances.

Measuring areas by triangles

3. You can easily calculate the area of any
triangle when you know the dimensions of:

 all three sides a, b and c

Area =s(s - a) (s - b)
(s - c)

where s = (a + b + c) ÷ 2;

Example

If a = 35 m; b = 29 m; and c = 45.5 m.
Then s = (35 m + 29 m + 45.5 m) ÷ 2 = 54.75 m

Area2 = 54.75 m (54.75m - 35 m) (54.75 m - 29

m)(54.75 m - 45.5 m)
= 54.75 m x 19.75 m x 25.75 m x 9.25 m = 257
555 m4

Area = (257 555 m4) = 507 m2

 two sides (b, c) and the angle BAC

between them (called the included
angle)

Area = (bc sin

BAC) ÷ 2

obtaining sin BAC from Table 14.

Example

If b = 29 m; c = 45.5 m; and angle BAC = 50°.

Then sin BAC = 0.7660 (Table 14)
Area = (29 m x 45.5 m x 0.7660) ÷ 2 =
1010.737 ÷ 2 = 505.3685 m2
 TABLE 14

Sine values of angles

Degree Sine Degree Sine Degree Sine

1 0.0175 31 0.5150 61 0.8746

2 0.0349 32 0.5299 62 0.8829

3 0.0523 33 0.5446 63 0.8910

4 0.0698 34 0.5592 64 0.8988

5 0.0872 35 0.5736 65 0.9063

6 0.1045 36 0.5878 66 0.9135

7 0.1219 37 0.6018 67 0.9205

8 0.1392 38 0.6157 68 0.9272

9 0.1564 39 0.6293 69 0.9336

10 0.1736 40 0.6428 70 0.9397

11 0.1908 41 0.6561 71 0.9455

12 0.2079 42 0.6691 72 0.9511

13 0.2250 43 0.6820 73 0.9563

14 0.2419 44 0.6947 74 0.9613

15 0.2588 45 0.7071 75 0.9659

16 0.2756 46 0.7193 76 0.9703

17 0.2924 47 0.7314 77 0.9744

18 0.3090 48 0.7431 78 0.9781

19 0.3256 49 0.7547 79 0.9816

20 0.3420 50 0.7660 80 0.9848

 21 0.3584 51 0.7771 81 0.9877

22 0.3746 52 0.7880 82 0.9903

23 0.3907 53 0.7986 83 0.9925

24 0.4067 54 0.8090 84 0.9945

25 0.4226 55 0.8192 85 0.9962

26 0.4384 56 0.8290 86 0.9976

27 0.4540 57 0.8387 87 0.9986

28 0.4695 58 0.8480 88 0.9994

29 0.4848 59 0.8572 89 0.9998

30 0.5000 60 0.8660

4. Subdivide the tract of land into triangles. Two triangles

For a four-sided area, you can do this in two
ways.

 You can join two opposite angles with a

straight line BD. Measure the length of
BD to find the length of the three sides
of each of the two triangles, then
calculate their areas (see step 3,
above). The sum of the two triangular
areas is the total area.
 You can proceed by radiating from
central station 0. Measure consecutive
angles AOB, BOC, COD and DOA. Then
measure distances OA, OB, OC and OD
from 0 to each corner of the site and
calculate the area of each triangle (see
step 3, above). The sum of the four
triangular areas is the total area.

5. On a land tract with more than four sides, Radiation from a central station
you can subdivide its area into triangles:

 by radiating from a central station 0 (see

step 4, above); or
 by radiating from a lateral station, such
as A.
 Radiation from a central station Radiation from a lateral station

6. Check on your calculations. If you

have found the area by using two
opposite angles, use the first procedure.
If you have proceeded by radiating, use
the second.

 Repeat the measurement of the total

area by using the other two
triangles ABC and ACD, formed by
straight line AC.
 Alternatively repeat the
measurements of angles and lengths
from either the same station or a
different one.

Using a base line to subdivide land areas

7. When the shape of the land Area = (base x height) ÷ 2
is polygonal*, you should usually subdivide
the total area you need to measure into a
series of regular geometrical figures (1-7 in
the example) from a common base line
AD. You will lay out offsets from the other
summits of the polygon* which are
perpendicular to this base line to form right
triangles 1,3,4 and 7, and trapeziums 2, 5
and 6.

8. When you are choosing a base line,

remember that it should:

 be easily accessible along its entire

length;
 provide good sights to most of the
summits of the polygon;
 be laid out along the longest side of
the land area to keep the offsets as
short as possible;
 join two polygon summits.

9. Calculate the area of each right-angled Area = Height x (base 1 + base 2) ÷ 2

triangle*, using the formula:

Area = (base x
height) ÷ 2

10. Calculate the area of each

trapezium, using the formula:

Area = height x (base 1 +

base 2) ÷ 2

where:

 Base 1 is parallel to base 2;

 Height is the perpendicular
distance from base 1 to base 2.
11. Add together all these partial areas to
find the total land area. You should use
a table to enter alI the basic dimensions
for both right triangles (one base)
and trapeziums (two bases), as shown in
the example.

Example

 Along base line AD, measure from

point A cumulative distances to
points H, I, J, K, L, and D, as
follows:

Base line (in m)

 From these measurements,

obtain partial distances for each
section AH, HI, IJ, JK, KL and LD as
follows:

Base line (in m)

 Measure offsets HG, IB, ... LE from

the base line to each polygon
summit:
HG = 11.80 m; lB = 5.20 m; ... LE =
9.65 m
 Enter these data in the
following table, and obtain partial
areas of each lot 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and
7; the sum is the total area.

Base(m)
1 Height (B1+B2) / 2 Area
Lot No
(m) (m) (m2)
1 2

1 TR 5.20 6.50 - 3.25 16.90

2 TP 7.65 5.20 6.20 5.70 43.61

 3 TR 6.20 17.10 - 8.55 53.01

4 TR 9.65 4.00 - 2.00 19.30

5 TP 10.50 9.65 14.80 12.22 128.31

6 TP 13.95 14.80 11.80 13.30 185.54

7 TR 11.80 2.80 - 1.40 16.52

Total
463.19
area

1
TR = right-angled triangle; TP trapezium

Subdividing land areas without base lines

12. When the shape of the land is more
complicated than the ones you have just
learned to measure, you will have to use
more than one base line, and subdivide
the area into triangles, and trapeziums of
various shapes. Usually there will be no
existing right angle for you to work with
and you will have to calculate the area of
the trapeziums by taking additional
measurements, which will determine their
heights along perpendicular lines.

Example

Land tract ABCDEFGHIA along a river is subdivided into five lots 1-5 representing three
triangles (1,2,5) and two trapeziums (3 with BE parallel to CD, and 4 with EI parallel to FH). The
land boundary forms a closed polygon, which has been surveyed as shown.
13. Calculate the areas of triangles 1, 2 and 5,
using the lengths of their three sides and the
following formulas:

s = (a + b + c) ÷ 2
area = s(s-a)(s-b)(s-
c)

Example

Take measurements of the sides of the triangles,

as necessary.

Apply the formula area = s(s- a)(s- b)(s-c) in the

following table:

Length x of
(s- x) in m
sides (m)
Triangl s Area
e (m) (m2)
(s- (s- (s-
a b c
a) b) c)

65 86 86 118 53 32 32
1 258773.
0 0 0 5 5 5 5
25

86 98 84 134 48 36 50
2 340258.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
66

66 42 36 30 36
5 720 60 68305.1
0 0 0 0 0
6

Total area of triangles 667337.

07
14. Calculate the areas of trapeziums 3 and 4,
determining their heights and base lengths, and
using the following formula:

area = height x (base 1 +

base 2) ÷ 2

Example

Measure the heights and bases of the

trapeziums, as necessary.

Apply the formula in the following table:

Base (m)
Lot Height (B1 + B2) Area
No. (m) / 2 (m) (m2)
1 2

3 560 980 600 790 442400

4 460 840 660 750 345000

Total area of trapeziums

787400

15. Add the total area of the triangles (step 12)

to the total area of the trapeziums (step 14) to
obtain total land tract area.

Example
2
Total area of triangles = 667337 m
Total area of trapeziums = 787400 m2
Total land tract area = 1454 737 m2
or 145.47 ha
16. Another way of making the calculations
easier is to measure from a plan the height of each
triangle along the perpendicular laid out from one
angle summit to the opposite side (called the
base). Then, to calculate each triangle area as:

area = (height x
base) ÷ 2

Enter all the data in a single table, as explained

in step 11, above.

Example

From a plan, measure heights BJ, BK and LG for

triangles 1,2, and 5, respectively.

Enter all the data in the following table:

Base (m) (B1 +

Lot Height
B2) / 2 Area (m2)
No. (m)
1 2 (m)

1 600 860 - 430 258000

2 810 840 - 420 340200
3 560 980 600 790 2400
4 460 840 660 750 345000
5 206 660 - 330 67980
Total area of land tract
1453580

The total area of the land tract is 145.36 ha,

which is slightly different from the previous
estimate (see step 15). This was caused by
scaling errors when measuring from the plan,
which in this case are small enough (0. 11 ha
or 0.07 percent) to be permissible.

10.5 How to measure areas bounded by a curve

1. In Volume 4 of this series, Water for
Freshwater Fish Culture (see Section 2.0),
you learned how to calculate the area of
a pond that has one curving side. You
can use a similar procedure to determine
the area of a land tract bounded by a
regular curve, by trying to balance the partial
areas.
2. If part of the land tract is bounded on
one side by an irregular curve, such as a
road or river, you can find its area by
using the trapezoidal rule as explained in
this section.

3. Set out straight line AB joining the sides of the tract of land and running as closely as possible to the curved
boundary. To determine the irregular area ABCDA, proceed as follows.

4. Measure distance AB and subdivide it into a number of regular intervals, each, for example, 22.5 m long.
Mark each of the intervals on AB with ranging poles.

Note: the shorter these intervals are, the more accurate your area estimate will be.

5. At each of these marked points, set

out a perpendicular line joining AB to the
curved boundary. Measure each of
these offsets.

6. Calculate area ABCDA using the

following formula:
 Area = interval x (ho +
hn + 2hi) ÷ 2

where:

ho is the length of the first offset, AD;

hn is the length of the last offset, BC;
and
hi is the sum of the lengths of all
the intermediate offsets.

Example

Interval = 112.5 m ÷ 5 = 22.5 m

ho = 20 m and hn = 10 m
hi = 27 m + 6 m + 14 m + 32 m = 79 m
Area ABCDA = 22.5 m x (20 m + 10 m +
158 m) ÷ 2 = (22.5 m x 188 m) ÷ 2 = 2115
2
m

Note: remember that you must still

calculate the area of AXYBA and add
it to the area of ABCDA to get the total
area DAXYBCD.

7. If you can lay out line AB so that

it touches the two ends of the curved
boundary, your calculations will be
much simpler. In this case, h o and
hn are both equal to zero, and the
formula becomes:

Area = interval
x hi

where hi is the sum of the lengths of

all the intermediate offsets.
Example

Interval = 158 m ÷ 6 = 26.3 m

hi = 25 m + 27 m + 2 m + 23 m + 24 m =
101 m
2
Area= 26.3 m x 101 m = 2 656.3 m

Note: remember that you must still

calculate the area of AXYBA and add
it to the area of the curved section to
get the total area.

11. TOPOGRAPHY AND FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE

11.0 What you have learned

1. In the previous chapters of this
manual you have learned:

 how to measure the various

parameters, or fixed values, which
describe the topography of a tract of
land, such as distances, horizontal
and vertical angles, and differences
in elevations;
 how to make a topographical plan
survey;
 how to survey the local relief by
direct levelling;
 how to determine contours in the
field;
 how to prepare topographical plans
and maps and
 how to measure areas, both in the
field and from plans or maps.

2. On the basis of this new knowledge,

you should now be able to:

 choose a suitable site for the

construction of a small reservoir or
freshwater fish-ponds;
 design your fish-farm and plan its
construction.

3. You will learn more about site

selectionand about fish-farm design and
construction in the next volumes of Simple
Methods for Aquaculture. In the following
sections, some of this information will be
briefly discussed to give you a better
idea of how you can use topographical
surveys to design and build your fish-
farm. You should also refer to some of
the examples presented in each of the
previous chapters. You can use them as
guidelines or suggestions for your own
fish-farm project.

11.1 How to make preliminary studies from topographical maps

1. Before you begin a field survey, you Stream network
will usually need to study available
topographical maps to get information
for various projects that you want to
do, and to compare these projects and
the advantages and disadvantages of
each. You can then more easily
choose the order in which you will
make the reconnaissance field
surveys.

2. Some of the most useful things you

can learn from a topographical map
are the size of a drainage area, the size
of a flooded area, the characteristics of
selected ground profiles and
the distribution of slope categories in a
given area.

Finding the size of the drainage area and the availability of water for fish
culture

3. You have learned (in Volume 4, Water) that the catchment basin of a stream is the total land area which
feeds water to that particular stream.

4. At a particular point A on a stream, the total water available is usually provided by a series of individual
catchment basins. These define the drainage area for point A. This area is bounded by the divide line,
which is a line drawn along the ridges surrounding a drainage area.

5. If you have a topographical map of the region, you can draw the divide line and define the drainage area for
each point you choose along a stream (dotted lines). You may want to obtain the water supply for your fish-farm,
which will be built downstream, at point A. Starting from point A, draw a line perpendicular to the contour
lines on either side of the stream bed, until you reach the points B and C with the highest altitude. Then join B
to D, using the same method, and continue from E, F, ...I, etc. until you reach point C on the other bank of the
stream. The area you have enclosed by the divide line ABD ... SCA is the drainage area for point A on the
stream.
6. Using the square-grid method, preferably (see Section 10.3), find the area of the region enclosed by the divide
line to find the size of the drainage areafor stream point A.

7. You can estimate the quantity of water available at point A from the size of the drainage area, the most
common vegetation there, the general relief and the amount of rainfall in the area. To do this, you need to obtain
the values of the local runoff coefficients from a government office, such as the hydrological service.

Example

Water availability per square kilometre of drainage area in the Bouaké region, Cote d'Ivoire,
Western Africa

1
Annual Runoff Runoff (mm)
Water
rainfall coefficient
 2 3 2
(mm) (percent) availability (m /km )

800 0.9 7 7000

900 2.8 25 25000

1000 4.7 47 47000

1100 6.6 72 72000

1150 7.5 87 87000

1200 8.5 101 101000

1300 10.4 135 135000

1400 12.3 172 172000

1500 14.2 212 212000

1600 16.1 257 257000

1700 18.0 305 305000

1
Runoff (mm) = annual rainfall (mm) x (runoff coefficient ÷ 100)
2
Water availability (m3/km2) = runoff (mm) x 1000

As the average annual rainfall in this region amounts to 1 150 mm, you can estimate the average water
availabilityto be about 87000 m 3/km 2 of drainage area for this particular region of the country. If the calculated
drainage area upstream from point A is 2.72 km 2, the average water availability at point A can be estimated as
87000 m3/km2 x 2.72 km2 = 236640 m3 per year.
Finding the size of the area to be flooded

8. If you need to build a dam at point A to create a water reservoir, you can fairly easily determine the size of
the area to be flooded upstream from point A, if you know the elevation of the water surface in the
reservoir.

9. At the dam site, identify the contour line on the topographical map which, on one side of the stream,
corresponds to the elevation of the reservoir's water surface. Follow this contour line first upstream, then across
the stream, and finally downstream, back to the dam site. The area enclosed within this contour line will be the
flooded area for that particular reservoir water level.

Example

Elevation of reservoir water surface level: 690 m. Follow the 690 m contour line from point B at
the dam site, on the left bank, up to point C (stream crossing) and back down to point D at the
dam site, on the right bank. The flooded area at the 690 m water level will be BCDB.
10. Using the square-grid method, preferably (see Section 10.3), find the area of the zone within the selected
contour line to obtain the size of the flooded area. If you know the average depth of the reservoir, you can
then calculate the volume of water which is stored in it.
Obtaining ground profiles from topographical maps

11. From a topographical map, you can find the profile of the ground along any selected straight line AB. Draw
line AB on the map. Place one edge of a straight strip of white paper along this line, and mark on it the position
of the main contour lines 775 m, 750 m ... 675 m which line AB intersects. Next to these marks, note their
elevations.

12. Transfer these marks onto square-ruled millimetric paper, using a horizontal distance scaleidentical to the
map scale.

13. Make a vertical scale for elevations 10 to 30 times larger than the horizontal scale, and mark this scale
according to the contour lines present along the profile.

14. Indicate the elevation of each distance mark by a point along a perpendicular line.
15. Join these points to obtain the ground profile along line AB.

Profile along line AB

Finding differences in elevation along a stream

16. You may need to choose a site on
a stream to build a dike which will
create a water storage reservoir, or
you may want to use an existing
stream to supply a fish-farm with
water. In these cases, you should
study the longitudinal profile of the
stream and determine its slope
between two selected points. If you
are choosing a dam site, you should
study the slope from the dam site to
the highest elevation (upper reach) of
the future reservoir. This study will
give you an idea of the volume of water
that can be stored in the reservoir. If you
want to divert a stream to supply
water, you will measure the slope from
the water-intake point on the fish-farm to
its water outlet. This study will give you
the difference in elevation available for
you to build a fish-farm on the site
which lies between these two points.

Pond site

17. To determine the slope of the stream between A and B, for example, first clearly mark on the map the two
extreme points A and B of the profile you want to study. Then mark points C, D, E and F, at which contour lines
cross the stream bed. For later reference, you may also mark points of particular interest along the stream,
such as a tributary or branch of the stream (G, H), or a road bridge.

18. Starting at point A, measure to the millimetre, the distancesAG, GC, CD ... FB between these various
marked points, closely following the stream bed as you do so. Enter these measurements in a table as shown in
the example.

19. Using the map scale, transform these map measurements into ground distances (in metres), and
calculate the cumulative distances from point A, as shown in the table in the example.

20. From the contour lines of the map, determine the elevations of points A, G, C, D, H, E, F and B, and enter
these figures in the table. As you are working downstream, these altitudes should steadily decrease by a
constant value equal to the contour interval of the map.
Example Longitudinal profile AB

Longitudinal profile of stream section AB

Map Cumulati
Strea Ground1 distan Elevatio
distanc ve
m ce n2
e distance
point (m) (m)
(cm) (m)

690
A 2.9 580 0

(tributar
G 0.7 140 580
y)
 C 1.1 220 720 685

D 0.4 80 940 680

H 2.1 420 1020 (tributar

y)
E 0.5 100 1440
675
F 1.1 220 1540
670
B 1760
665

1
Ground distance (m) = map distance (cm) x map
scale (m/cm).
2
From contour lines with contour interval = 5 m.

21. Draw the longitudinal profile of the AB stream section as explained earlier (see Section 9.5), using the
information you have gathered. To its horizontal scale, add the positions of the additional points of interest so that
you can refer to them later.

22. From this longitudinal profile, you can now easily determine the difference in elevation existing between any
two points X and Y of the stream within this section AB.

Determining the shape of stream valleys

23. Using a method similar to the one described in steps 11-15, you can also determine the general shape of a
stream valley. To do this, you will draw cross-section profiles perpendicular to the stream bed, at points of
interest to you. These points will depend on the purpose of your survey. If you are planning to build a small
dam, you will draw cross-section AB. If you are looking for a suitable fish-farm site, you will draw cross- section
CD.
24. Get a strip of paper and align one of its edges with the cross-section line. Mark on the strip the positions of
the various contour lines, together with a few elevations for reference.
25. Transfer these marks onto the horizontal scale of a cross-section profile (see Section 9.5). This scale will be
the same as the map scale.

26. Select a vertical scale for the elevations 10 to 30 times larger than the horizontal scale. Transfer the
elevations of each mark vertically onto the graph. The line joining the points represents the cross-section
profile of the valley along line AB.

27. If you repeat this procedure for line CD, you will draw the valley cross-section profile CD. When
comparing it to cross-section AB, you can see that the two profiles are different. Profile AB has a true V-shape,
but profile CD has a V-shape deformed on one side.

Cross section AB Cross section CD

28. In the context of fish culture, cross-section valley profiles may be classified into four types, according to their
shape. When you know the shape of the valley in the area where you want to build your fish-farm, you will be
able to:

 decide which type of pond to build;

 design your fish-farm better.

This information will be explained to you in the next volume in this series. You will learn, for example, that site AB
above would be a good place to build a dam at minimum cost, but it would not be suitable for fish-ponds. At site
CD, however, the XYZ side of the valley shows a lateral slope (1.25 to 2.17 percent) suitable for the construction
of fish-ponds (see step 27, above).

Making a slope map from a topographical map

29. Ground slope is one of the most important elements in the selection of a suitable site for fish-pond
construction. The best slope conditions for a fish-pond are on land with a slope averaging 0.5 to 1.5
percent, but conditions on near-to-horizontal ground and on ground with slopes from 1.5 to 3 percent are still
fairly good. As the slope increases, the cost of construction increases also, particularly above 5 percent slope.

30. When you study a topographical map, you may find it useful to determine a series of slope categorieson it.
In this way, you will have made a slope map.

Example
Ground slope categories useful in fish culture

A- ground slope smaller than or equal to 1.5 percent

B- ground slope between 1.5 and 3 percent
C - ground slope between 3 and 5 percent
D - ground slope greater than 5 percent

31. To prepare a slope map, you must first make contour line-spacing guides for each of the slope categories
and for the particular topographical map you are using. If this topographical map has:

 a distance reduction scale where 1 cm = n (m)

 a contour interval Cl(m)

the interval X (in cm) between the lines of your spacing guide is calculated as:

X = (100 Cl) ÷ (nS)

S being the greatest slope in percent characterizing each of the slope categories you want to map.

Usefulness of slopes Categories for slope map

Example

You have a topographical map on

which you want to map the above four
slope categories (A, B, C, D). You first
need to make three spacing guides for
1.5, 3 and 5 percent slopes,
respectively. The topographical map
scale is 1 :50000 (1 cm = 500 m) and the
contour interval is 5 m. Calculate the
intervals X between the lines of your
spacing guides as follows:

 1.5 percent slope: X = (100 x 5)

÷ (500 x 1.5) = 500 ÷ 750 = 0.67
cm or 6.7 mm
 3 percent slope: X = (100 x 5) ÷
(500 x 3) = 500 ÷ 1500 = 0.33 cm
or 3.3 mm
 5 percent slope: X = (100 x 5) ÷
(500 x 5) = 500 ÷ 2 500 = 0.2 cm
or 2 mm

32. Get several sheets of squared-

ruled millimetric paper and prepare
your spacing guides as follows:

 using a sharp pencil with a hard

lead, draw a line across the sheet
of paper close to the bottom;
 for a vertical distance of about 15
cm, draw a series of lines parallel
to this bottom line, at a distance
equal to the interval X (calculated
as explained above), for example,
6.7 mm for the 1.5 percent slope.
1.5 percent is your spacing guide;
 up to a further vertical distance of
about 10 cm, draw a second
series of lines parallel to the first
series, at a distance equal to the
interval X calculated for the
second slope value, for example,
3.3 mm for the 3 percent slope. 3
percent is your spacing guide;
 repeat the procedure to obtain
the 5 percent spacing guide.
33. You are now ready to make
your slope map, identifying, for
example, the four slope categories on
the topographical map. Proceed in the
following way:

(a) Get several differently coloured

crayons or coloured pencils.
Select one colour to represent each slope
category. The lightest colour can
represent the least sloping ground (0
to 1.5 percent), while the darkest
colour can be for the most sloping
ground (more than 5 percent).

(b) Cut a 2 cm strip off your contour-

line spacing guide (see step 32) which
gives the minimum interval between
contour lines on your topographical map
for the "1.5 to 3 percent" category, the
"3 to 5 percent" category, and the
"greater than 5 percent" category. Cut
the strip perpendicular to the spacing
lines so that all three categories are
shown on it.

(c) Place this strip on the map. Then, going through them one by one, determine which sections have intervals
between the contour lines smaller than or equal to the interval on the strip section that corresponds to the 5
percent spacing guide. Since such sections have slopes equal to or greater than 5 percent, you should colour
them with the darkest colour.

Note: you should compare the interval of the strip with the intervals between contour lines along a line
perpendicular to the contour lines, which is the direction of maximum slope.

(d) Repeat the same procedure with the section of the strip corresponding to the 3 percent spacing
guide. Determine which uncoloured sections of the map have intervals between contour lines smaller than or
equal to the strip interval. Such sections have slopes from 3 to 5 percent, and you should colour them with the
next lightest colour.

(e) Repeat this procedure with the section of the strip that corresponds to the 1.5 percent spacing guide, and
determine the uncoloured sections of the map which have slopes from 1.5 to 3 percent. Colour them with the
next lightest colour.

(f) Finally, using the same procedure, check that the uncoloured sections of the map have intervals between
the contour lines greater than the interval on the 1.5 percent section of the strip. Colour these sections
with slopes less than 1.5 percent with the lightest colour of all.
11.2 How to make a reconnaissance survey of a possible site

1. After you have made preliminary studies from available topographical maps, you can choose the best
potential site(s) for the construction of fish-ponds (see the next volume in this series).

2. You should now organize a reconnaissance survey of the selected site(s) in the field in order to obtain more
detailed topographical information. This survey should include, at least, a longitudinal profile of the stream
valley and/or the selected site(s), as well as cross-section profiles of the site(s). If you are planning the
construction of a reservoir, you can survey its maximum area by contouring and find its maximum water level by
levelling. Then, you can calculate both the surface area and the water volume of the reservoir.

Longitudinal profile Cross-section profile

 Contouring

Studying the longitudinal profile of the stream valley

3. First, make a levelling survey to
obtain the longitudinal profile of the
stream valley (see Section 8.2). To do
this, traverse along a series of straight
lines closely following the stream. Plot
the profile on graph paper (see
Section 9.5). Then you can calculate
the difference in elevationbetween any
two points of the longitudinal profile,
such as the future water intake F and
the future water outlet A. This
difference in elevation E(F)-E(A)
should be great enough to allow you to
build the proposed fish-farm (see next
volume in this series).

4. If you are planning to build a Reservoir AF

reservoir, you can use a similar
procedure to easily estimate the
approximate height of the dam at point
A, together with the maximum water
depth of the future reservoir.

Making cross-section profiles of the potential site

5. You survey a series of cross-section
profiles GH, IJ, ...,based on the above
longitudinal profile, across a valley at
intervals of 20 to 50 m, covering the
entire area of the potential site (see
Section 8.2). Plot the profiles on graph
paper. This makes it possible to
calculate the ground slopes and, on this
basis, design the fish-farm.

Contour-mapping of the potential site

6. From the results of the above
survey, you can also prepare a plan of
the potential site, and plot the contours
on it (see Section 9.4, step 10).

7. In another contour mapping method,

you first choose a reference pointon the
potential site, such as the water intake
point A at the stream. Point A will then
be used as a bench-mark with a given
elevation E(A) = 100 m, for example:
from point A, you will identify the E(A)
contour ABC ... H in the potential site,
by contouring (see Section 8.3).

8. At intervals of 20 to 50 m on this
E(A) contour, you will survey
perpendicular cross-section profiles from
the contour to the stream. From the
results of this survey you can identify
other contours and prepare a contour
map.

Finding the maximum area of a reservoir

9. When you have fixed the positions
of both the water inlet A and the dam
centre-line XY of a proposed reservoir,
you can easily determine, on the
ground, the maximum area of this future
reservoir. From the water inlet A, find
the position of contour E(A) by
contouring from A on both stream
banks to line XY.

11.3 How to make a feasibility study of a potential site

1. From the data obtained during the reconnaissance surveys, you can draw a topographical plan to scale,
showing the various distances and elevations. You can study the design of the fish-farm or, if you need to build a
dam, you can obtain additional information on the characteristics of the water reservoir that will result from the
dam. Fish-farm design will be discussed further in the next volume in this series, and you will learn more about
the characteristics of reservoirs there. In this section you will learn how to estimate the volume of a dike built from
earth, and how to calculate height differences for pumping stations.
Estimating the area of the future reservoir
2. On your topographical plan, transfer the
position of the E(A) contour which encloses
the maximum area of the future reservoir
(see step 9 above). You may then estimate
the size of the area enclosed by the E(A)
contour line, using measurements on the
map.

Estimating the volume of the future reservoir

3. In Water for Freshwater Fish
Culture (Volume 4, Section 4.2), you
learned simple methods for determining
the volume of a future reservoir. Now, you
will learn a fairly accurate, rapid field
method based on topographical
surveys.

4. Every 20 to 50 m along the

longitudinal axis AZ of the future
reservoir, mark perpendicular lines BC,
DE ... QR within the area enclosed by
contour E(A). Use wooden pegs at 25 m
intervals along the perpendiculars, and
mark them on each side of the axis AZ.

5. Start from end-point B of line BC,

on contour E(A) where the maximum
water level will line up with the ground
elevation. Using a target levelling staff
and a sighting level, transfer elevation
E(A) to the top of the pegs a, b and c.Drive
them into the ground until they are at
the correct elevation. Pegs a, b and c
now clearly show the maximum depth of
water which will be present at each of
these points when the reservoir is full.

6. Repeat this procedure for

each transversal line DE, FG ... QR
successively; similarly, stake out XY,
the centre line of the proposed dike.

7. In a simple table, measure and

record the height of each peg above ground
level for each transversal line, including
line XY, as shown in the example.

Example

Peg height, m
Line
a b c d e

BC 0.45 0.87 0.38 - -

DE 0.85 1.42 0.73 - -

FG 0.22 0.87 1.63 0.79 -

KL 0.49 0.98 1.89 0.91 0.58

... ... ... ... ... ...

XY 0.82 2.42 0.84 - -

8. Using the correct scale, draw the

cross-sections BC, DE ... QR, and XY of the
completely filled reservoiron square-ruled
millimetric paper. Use a vertical scale 10
times larger, for example, than the
horizontal distance scale. Remember
that the end-points of each cross-
section have, by definition, a zero depth
of water.

9. Calculate the area of each cross-section, adding the partial areas of triangles and trapeziums as necessary
(see mathematical formulas in Annex 1).

Area BC

Example

Area BC = triangle 1 + trapezium 2 + trapezium 3 + triangle 4

2
 Triangle 1 = (17 m x= 3.825 m
0.45 m) ÷ 2

 Trapezium 2 = [(0.45 m= 16.500

+ 0.87 m) ÷ 2] x 25 m m2

 Trapezium 3 = [(0.87 m= 15.625

+ 0.38 m) ÷ 2] x 25 m m2

 Triangle 4 = (13 m x= 2.470

0.38 m) ÷ 2 m2

Area BC = 38.420
2
m
10. Add the areas of cross-sections BC, DE ... QR, and multiply this sum by the fixed interval between
cross- sections (in this case, 25 m) to obtain an estimate of the volume of the reservoir upstream from
the last cross- section QR.

Example

Volume of reservoir from point A to line QR = (area BC + area DE + ... + area QR) x 25 m

11. Estimate the volume of the last section of the reservoir, between cross-section QR and the dike's centre-
line XY. Multiply the area of cross-section XY (see step 9) by half the distance between previous cross-
sections.

Example

Volume section QR/Z = (area XY) x (25 m ÷ 2)

12. Calculate the volume of the entire reservoir by adding:

 the volume A/QR obtained in step 10; and

 the volume of QR/Z obtained in step 11.

Example

Volume A/Z = volume A/QR + volume QR/Z

Estimating the volume of an earth dam

13. To rapidly estimate the volume of an Mid-points to calculate the volume of dam XY
earth dike XYto be built across a given
valley, use the following method. It will
provide a volume estimate about 10 percent
smaller than the actual volume. But this
level of accuracy is good enough for the
initial estimate.

14. Using the information from the table in

step 7, calculate the heights h of the dam
XY at mid-points between consecutive
pegs.

Example

For the dam XY there are only two mid-

points to consider: one between pegs a
and b, and one between pegs b and c.

 Dike height a/b = (0.82 m + 2.42 m)

÷ 2 = 1.62 m
 Dike height b/c = (2.42 m + 0.84 m)
÷ 2 = 1.63 m
15. Using the correct scale, draw the transversal section of the type of dike you plan to build (see Constructions,
20 in this series). There are three measurements, in particular, which you must determine:

 the width C of the highest point, or crown, of the dike;

 the dry-side slope of the wall outside the reservoir, D: 1;
 the wet-side slope of the wall inside the reservoir, W: 1.

16. If you know these characteristics of the dike, you can calculate the area of any transversal section of this
dike by adding:

 rectangle 1 area = C x h;
 triangle 2 area = (D x h) x (h ÷ 2);
 triangle 3 area = (W x h) x (h ÷ 2).

Therefore, the area A of any transversal section of the dike equals:

2 2
A = (Ch) + (Dh ÷ 2) + (Wh ÷
2)

where C is the crown width of the dike, h the height, Dthe dry slope, and W the wet slope.

17. Apply the above formula to successively calculate the section area of the dike at each of the XY mid-
points, using the h-values obtained in step 14.

Example

It the dike characteristics are fixed as follows: C = 4 m; dry slope = 1.5: 1; wet slope = 2: 1;

the dike's transversal section areas are:

 At mid-point a/b where h1 = 1.62 m

A1= (4 m x 1.62 m) + (1.5 x 1.622 m) ÷ 2 + (2 x 1.622 m) ÷ 2 = 6.48 m2 + 1.97 m2 + 2.62 m2 =
11.07 m2
 At mid-point b/c where h2 = 1.63 m
2 2 2 2
A2 = (4 m x 1.63 m) + (1.5 x 1.63 m) ÷ 2 + (2 x 1.63 m) ÷ 2 = 6.52 m + 1.99 m + 2.66
m2 = 11.17 m2

18. Calculate the partial volumes of each portion of the dike marked by pegs a, b, c, etc. To do this, multiply
each corresponding mid-point section area by the length of the dam portion.

Example

Partial volumes of the dike with pegs a, b and c at 25 m intervals:

  For portion a/b V1 = A1 x 25 m = 11.07 m2 x 25 m = 276.75 m3
 For portion b/c V2 = A2 x 25 m = 11. 17 m2 x 25 m = 279.25 m3

19. Obtain the estimate of the total volume of the dikeby adding these partial volumes.

Example

Total volume of dike XY = 276.75 m3 + 279.25 m3 = 556 m3

Using what you know about topography to install a pumping station

20. You may be planning to pump water for your reservoir either from a well or from an existing body of water. If
so, the kind of pump you choose will greatly depend on the difference in elevation between the two extremities of
your water pipeline and the pump. Usually, you will site the pump at an intermediate elevation, where it can bring
the water up by suction from a lower elevation (the source of water) and force it on to a higher elevation (a
reservoir tank, for example).

21. When you are choosing a site for your pumping station, two differences in elevation are particularly important:

 From the water-source surface to the pump, the suction head(in metres);
 From the pump to the reservoir, the delivery head (in metres).

22. To obtain these differences in elevation, you may use direct levelling from the water source A to the
pumping station B, and to the site C of the reservoir tower. Then, knowing the ground elevations at these
points and the various vertical distances (for example, water source/pump axis and pump axis/tank water), you
can easily calculate the suction head and the delivery head.

23. You can instead use an indirect method to find the differences in elevation:

 measure the vertical angles made with the horizontal plane by successively sighting lines AB
and BD (see Chapter 4);
 measure horizontal distances AE and BC (see Chapter 2);
 calculate the differences in elevation, as follows:
o EB = AE tan BAE
 o CD = BC tan DBC,
 obtaining the tangent values from Annex II.

Direct levelling Measure angles BAE and DBC...

...then measure horizontal distances AE and BC

and
calculate the differences in elevation

11.4 How to make levelling surveys for fish-farm construction

1. You have already learned that you need to know how to use the right topographical methods during the
construction of your fish-farm. Now you will learn about two additional topographical methods, one for the
construction of a water-supply canal and one for the construction of a pond.

Staking out a water supply canal for construction

2. You learned, in earlier chapters, how to first survey the centre-line of a water-supply canal (see Sections 7.1
and 8.2), then how to draw its longitudinal profile (see Section 9.5) and its cross-section profile (see Section 9.6).
You have also learned how you can contour (see Section 8.3) to rapidly identify the route a canal can
take between the water intake point and the fish-farm water inlets.
3. Once the route of the water-supply canal has been carefully defined and identified in the field, you need to
stake it out before you can begin building it. To do this, you will first have to clear a 1 to 2 m stretch of land along
the canal centre-line. Then you will set out a series of short pegs along this centre-line. The summits of the
pegs must correspond to a horizontal reference level, that is, the tops must all be at the same height.

4. The distance between these reference pegs depends on the levelling method you are using. Usually, the
simplest method to use is to proceed from the starting point A with a 4 m straight edge and a mason's level (see
Section 6.6). But you could also use a clisimeter (see Section 4.5) and a target levelling staff. In this case, the
pegs are placed at 5 to 10 m intervals.

5. Then, define the cross-section profile of the canal. (see Constructions, 20, in this series) Add pegs as you
need them, to direct the workers in their digging.

Cross section

6. If you are building a canal without a bottom slope, you can show the workers the fixed distance to which
they must dig by giving them a wooden stake the same length as the top level of the centre-line pegs.
7. If you are building a canal with a bottom slope, the simplest method you can use is to give a similar slope to
the horizontal reference level which joins the top of the centre-line pegs. To do this, proceed in the following
way:

(a) From the value of the slope and the distance between consecutive stakes, calculate how much difference in
elevation should exist from one peg to the next one.

Example

Using a straight-edge and mason's level for levelling, place your pegs at 4 m intervals. If the
slope of the canal bottom is to be, for example, 0.1 percent, the difference in elevation between
one peg and the next equals (0.1 m x 4 m) ÷ 100 m = 0.004 m = 4 mm.

Canal bottom, no slope Setting slope

(b) Cut a small piece of wood of the same thickness as this difference in elevation.

(c) Put this piece of wood on top of the second peg, and drive this peg deeper into the ground until the top
of the first peg and the top of this second one are again horizontal. Use a straight-edge and mason's level, for
example, to guide you in doing this.

(d) Move to the third peg, put the piece of wood on top of it, and drive the peg into the ground until the wood is
horizontal again, between the top of the second peg and the top of this one.

(e) Repeat this procedure until you reach the end of the canal centre-line.

(f) The line joining the top of the centre-line pegs now has a slope equal to the required slope of the canal bottom.
You can dig the canal as in step 6, using a constant reference length from the top of each peg.

Staking out a pond bottom before construction

8. You have already learned how to
survey the periphery, or boundary line, of
your ponds by setting out a series of
rectangular areas and the centre-lines
of the dikes you need to build (see
Section 3.7) or by contouring at the
maximum water level (see Section
11.2).

9. When you have found the area of

your ponds, but before you start
building them, you will usually need to
know how much earth you will have to
remove at the various points of the
pond. You will also need to indicate
this clearly on the site so that the
workers can proceed with the pond
construction correctly. To do this, you
will need to stake out the bottom of
each pond.

10. One simple way of staking out a

pond bottom is to make a survey by
radiation from the lowest point of the
future pond, its water outlet. Proceed
in the following way.

(a) From point 0 (the lowest point of the

future pond), mark a series of
lines radiating over the major part of
the pond bottom area, using pegs.

(b) Starting with line OX, for example,

place a series of pegs along it at fixed
intervals. The size of these intervals will
vary according to the levelling method
you use. For example, it will be 4 m for
the straight- edge/mason's level
method, and 5 to 10 m when you use
a sighting level.

(c) Starting from point 0, survey line

OX and put the top of all of the pegsat a
horizontal reference level.

(d) Repeat the same procedure for all

the marked radiating lines; in this way,
you will obtain a series of pegs whose
tops are all at the same reference
level, and which are dispersed all over
the pond bottom area.
(e) On each peg you must now clearly
indicate the vertical distance from the
top of the peg to the bottom of the
pond.

(f) From the slope which the pond Calculate the difference in elevation for the desired
bottom will have (see Constructions, slope
20, in this series) and from the
distancebetween consecutive pegs on
each radiating line, calculate the
difference in elevation necessary from
one peg to the next one in each line.

Example

 Slope of pond bottom is to be 1

percent.
 Distance between stakes is 5 m.
 Difference in elevation should
be (1 m x 5 m) ÷ 100 m = 0.05 m
= 5 cm.

(g) From the fixed elevation to be

given to point 0 at the pond outlet (see
the next volume in this series), and
from the surveyed elevation of the top
of the peg set out at that point,
calculate the difference in
elevation required at 0 from the top of
the peg. Mark this difference clearly on
stake 0.

Example

 Elevation to be given according

to construction plans to point 0
= 102.53 m.
 Actual elevation of the top of
peg 0 obtained by levelling from
bench-mark = 103.43 m.
 Difference in elevation required
at 0 = 103.43 m - 102.53 m = 0.90
m = 90 cm.
(h) Starting with line OX at point 0, Line OZ
calculate the difference in elevation
between the peg top and the pond
bottom for each successive
peg. Subtract the difference obtained
above in (f) each time. Repeat the
same procedure for all the other
radiating lines. To make your
measurements clearer, you can use a
simple table as shown in the example.
Clearly mark these values on the
pegs. When the workers dig the pond,
they will use the values as a reference
guide.

Example

Difference in elevation between peg

tops and pond bottom, in centimetres

Peg
Line
01 a b c d e f

OX 90 85 80 - - - -

OY 90 85 80 75 - - -

OZ 90 85 80 75 70 65 60

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

1
At point 0, the difference in elevation is
90 cm from plans. The fixed difference
to be subtracted is 5 cm, see above.

ANNEX I

Some useful mathematical formulae for regular geometrical figures

PERIMETER LENGTH AND SURFACE AREA

Figure Perimeter (P) Area (A)

Square a P = 4a A = a2
 Rectangle ab P = 2a + 2b A = ab

Right-angle triangle
P=a+b+c A = ab ÷ 2
abc

Trapezium abcdh P = a + b + c A = (a + b) (h ÷
(a parallel to c) +d 2)

P = 6.28r A = 3.14r2
Circle rd
P = 3.14d A = 3.14d2 ÷ 4

SIDE LENGTH OF RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLE

ABC abc

c = a cos ABC
b = a sin ABC
c = (a2-b2)
b = c tan ABC

Note: tan - see Annex II; cos - see Annex III; sin - see Table 14

ANNEX II

Tangents and values of angles

(Tan = angles expressed in degrees d and minutes m)
 ANNEX Ill

Cosine values of angles

(d = degrees, m = minutes, cos = cosine, x = difference)

MAIN TABLE

TABLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS, P

Example

To calculate intermediate cosine values using the proportional parts, for cos 7°38' for example,
proceed as follows:
 from the Main Table, calculate cos 7°30' = 0.9914;
 obtain the difference between this value and the next, x = 3;
 find column 3 in Table of Proportional Parts, P;
 move down this column to line m = 8, to find P = 2.4;
 subtract P from the last number (4) of the value read from the Main Table, 0.9914 -
0.00024 = 0.99116. This is cos 7°38'.