Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
n Ilmu Politik
Volume 22, Issue 2, November 2018 (98-111)
ISSN 1410-4946 (Print), 2502-7883 (Online)
doi: 10.22146/jsp.31865
Abstract
The word hoax became popular with the development of technology that has potentially increased
the circulation of hoax news. One of the ways hoax news circulates is through mobile instant
messaging applications like WhatsApp, where users can interact directly, or between individuals
who are members of a group. In Indonesia, by 2017, WhatsApp was the most used and the longest-
used mobile instant messaging application, having 35.87 million users. This study focuses on
women using WhatsApp, as previous studies have shown that women dominate social media
use in Indonesia. Using the elaboration likelihood model, this study aimed to investigate how
women process hoax messages about child abduction on WhatsApp. The results of research
through interviews and surveys indicate that women tend to process hoax messages about the
abduction of children through peripheral lines. The lack of media literacy and the tendency to
prioritize the emotional aspects of a story make some women vulnerable to spreading hoaxes
through WhatsApp. In this study, the researchers recommend a digital empowerment movement
to improve women’s media literacy through an online lecture model on WhatsApp. This program
should be professionally managed by experts or academics from relevant fields of study.
Keywords:
hoax news; abduction; mobile instant messaging; WhatsApp; women
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Hani Noor Ilahi, Women and Hoax News Processing on Whatsapp
Picture 1.
One of the broadcasted messages of child abduction
portal that he had also received a report about of the child abduction messages on WhatsApp,
this case and asked his staff to conduct a search a resident from Pontianak City named Maman
for the missing abductees. The Police Officer Budiman was beaten to death by mobs because
has come to SDIT Al Uswah Jagakarsa and met he was suspected of abducting a child. Maman
with the school’s representative. According was visiting his son’s house in order to visit
to the principal’s information, the WhatsApp his grandson. Unfortunately, he did not know
messages were untrue (Batubara, 2016). exactly where his son’s house was. Because
On the national level, Chief of Police Maman looks confused, residents suspected
of the Republic of Indonesia, Tito Karnavian he as the rumored child kidnapper (Nurdin,
(2017) stated that the child abduction news 2017). Similar deaths also occurred in Serang,
circulating through short messages and in Banten. One victim was suspected as having
cyberspace were all hoaxes. According to Tito, a mental disorder (matching the narratives
the persons spreading news about abductions in the abduction messages) and died after
aimed to delegitimize government authority being beaten by hundreds of people on the
and stir up social unease, with the goal of street (Nurdin, 2017). In these cases, the hoax
altering the political momentum around the messages are no longer just disturbing; they
elections of regional heads. Tito asked parents have threatened the tranquility in social life.
to ignore the stories about abductions and to The impact of hoax messages is
remain wary of other hoaxes (Prabowo, 2017). strengthened with the existence of mobile
There is nothing inherently wrong with instant messaging applications, such as
messages saying that children need a proper WhatsApp, that can easily broadcast the
protection and attention, especially in a city. messages online. The phrase, “I got this from
However, when these didactic messages another group,” is often used by WhatsApp users
are conveyed using false information, such to spread information when the original source
messages can be harmful. The messages about is not known. Instead of verifying the content of
child abductions were damaging because the message, users often choose to spread these
they compromised feelings of safety and even messages because it’s easier to do. Additionally,
resulted in death. In March 2017, at the height because users can share information in multiple
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Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Volume 22, Issue 2, November 2018
WhatsApp chat groups, spreading these order to find preventative measures that may
messages happens at an accelerated rate. decrease the spread of false information. In
Moreover, the fantastic number of WhatsApp light of this goal, the primary research question
users in Indonesia makes the country and ideal of this study is as follows: How do women,
“market” for broadcasting hoax messages. especially mothers, process hoax messages
In August 2016, the ComScore research about child abduction on the WhatsApp instant
company reported that WhatsApp is the messaging application?
most popular mobile application in Indonesia This research begins with a comparison
and has a staggering 35.8 million users. of several previous studies related to this
WhatsApp not only has the most users of any research, then continues with the basics concept
app in Indonesia, but it is also one of the most that used in this research, then the results of
frequently used applications, after Facebook the study, which ends with discussion and
and LINE. Compared to email, WhatsApp conclusion.
facilitates faster information exchange, and the
average amount of time spent using WhatsApp Previous Research
is about eight hours a month. This report Widya Wuri Nugrahaedi’s research (2008)
shows WhatsApp’s superiority over other chat examined the factors that affect individuals’
apps, such as Blackberry Messenger with 34.7 attitudes to hoax e-mail hoax using quantitative
million users, and LINE with 27.6 million users methods from a positivist paradigm. The four
(Pratama, 2017). factors studied were fear, credibility of the
Although gender-based WhatsApp source, cognitive needs, and media literacy. The
user data has not been released, research results of the study mentioned that attitudes
by Accenture, in cooperation with Femina toward hoaxes are strongly influenced by the
magazine, reveals that most women that level of fear that an individual has. A positive
were participants in those research using attitude to a hoax (means that the person accept
the internet for social connection. And that’s the hoax news) is likely arise if the individual
make WhatsApp a must-have application has a high degree of fear, but the credibility of
(Fajriningtyas, 2016). A study from Liliek and the source, cognitive needs, and media literacy
Samudi (2017) showed that Indonesia ranked showed no meaningful correlations.
second from the bottom of the 31 countries If the study looked at the factors behind
surveyed in their level of digital fluency. attitudes to hoaxes via email, while this study
From that position, men’s digital fluency focuses more specifically on how women’s
tended to be higher than women’s, which has attitudes towards hoax messages, especially
been supported by other research (Liliek & messages about child abduction, on WhatsApp.
Samudi, 2009). Lilik and Samudi (2009) also Thus, this research aims to add a point of view
supported the findings of the Accenture study about hoax news processing from a different
since women are described as more interested paradigm, with a different method, on different
in social relationships, while men are more media, and with a more specific target group.
diligent in finding latest information. Clara Novita Anggraini’s research
That women tend to seek out social (2016) focused on new media literacy and the
relationships through technology while being dissemination of hoax information. Her study
less technologically literate creates a deadly aimed to look at student’s new media literacy
brew that may interest researchers. Thus, the skills in spreading hoax information and the
aim of this study is to investigate further the knowledge required and motivations behind
role of women in circulating hoax news in spreading hoax information. Phenomenological
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Hani Noor Ilahi, Women and Hoax News Processing on Whatsapp
methods were used to explore the activity provide entertainment, as with any other joke,
of media awareness of the students when or a feeling of superiority. Prank creators often
disseminating information. The results showed just want to play around, but these actions
that the literacy skills of two students who sometimes have serious consequences.
spreading hoax information in this study is Dunn et al. (2005) report that most
very low and the people do not have any media hoaxes found on the internet can be classified
literacy skills. as either internet chain letters, computer virus/
Despite similar topics about hoaxes software hoaxes, medical hoaxes, rumors, jokes,
spread through WhatsApp, this study focuses or legends. Internet chain letters may take on
on hoax message about abductions and many forms: some require that the receiver pass
processed by women, especially mothers, and on information to others in a group (usually
uses Richard Petty and John Cacioppo’s theory by way warnings or threats if information is
as a guide. not directly passed on to a certain number of
Liliek Budiastuti Wiratno and Samudi’s people), while some appeal into a receiver’s
research (2009) said that women are marketing greed or sympathy (Dunn et al., 2005). The
and product targets in the media, based on they present study focuses on abduction hoaxes
research in Semarang, Indonesia. Women thus because their messaging plays the recipients’
need good knowledge about the media industry feelings to encourage further dissemination.
to adequately filter the information offered.
The study looked at the position of women as WhatsApp
a filter for their children in consuming media WhatsApp is an instant messaging
messages, while this study looks at women’s application for smartphones that allows
position in processing messages, mainly hoax users to send and receive real-time location
messages about child abduction. information, images, video, audio, and text
messages to individuals and groups at no
Literature Review cost (Church & De Oliveira, 2013). WhatsApp
Hoax requires a mobile internet connection to work,
The word of hoax has become a popular and two parties must have WhatsApp software
word to fabricated, false, or fake events, installed on their phone to communicate
especially in cyber media texts: through WhatsApp. WhatsApp provides
A hoaxs not just a form of news or additional social information to its users as
opinion, but also includes data, photos, and users can see when friends are online, when
images. In the context of cyber media, hoaxes they are typing a message, and when they last
can be interpreted as text used as false news or accessed the app (if that feature is enabled).
deceptive efforts spread through cyber media WhatsApp also provides delivery notifications
to the reader to trust everything (Triartanto, for when messages are sent and received by
2015, p. 33). others (Church & de Oliveira, 2013). WhatsApp
More than simply deceptive, hoaxes can is beginning to challenge large social media
also bring people into conflict and are even platforms like Facebook and Twitter, traditional
(rarely) used for personal benefit. According texting, and even email (Saner, 2016).
to Salomon (2009) and Milhorn (2007), hoaxes Church and de Oliviera (2013) found
are often meant to joke or other people into that there are eight factors that motivate users
believing something which is actually untrue to choose WhatsApp over other messaging
or fake. Milhorn (2007) also said that hoaxes are services. The first is WhatsApp’s low cost
not always aimed at financial gain and simply because it is internet-based. Second is social
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influence, which means users choose WhatsApp Reviewing the literature on attitude persistence
because close relatives and friends also use revealed that the many different empirical
the app. A third factor is that WhatsApp has findings and theories in the ELM field might
no character limit for messages, unlike some profitably be viewed as emphasizing one of
other platforms. Fourth, WhatsApp facilitates just two relatively distinct routes to persuasion
group chats and a sense of connectedness. (Petty, 1977; Petty & Cacioppo, 1978, on Petty
WhatsApp considered a more personal app and & Cacioppo, 1986).
is commonly used in communities with close The first type of persuasion results from a
relationships. Fifth, becasuse its immediacy, person’s careful and thoughtful consideration of
privacy concern & expectation. WhatsApp the merits of the information presented in support
users assume that messages sent via this app of an advocacy (central route). The other type
would always be read and receive an immediate of persuasion, however, points to factors in the
reply. Furthermore, additional features allow its persuasion context (e.g. an attractive source) that
users to see the online status of other contacts, induced change without necessitating scrutiny
and the status of sent messages (a single check of the merits of the information presented
means sent, a double check means delivered, (peripheral route). In the accumulated literature,
and a blue check means read). WhatsApp also the first kind of persuasion appeared to be more
allows its users to block messages sent from enduring than the latter (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).
other users. Sixth, WhatsApp is reliable. For This theory exposes the differences in evaluating
its users, WhatsApp messages are assumed to critical arguments depending on how a person
always be delivered to the receiver. Seventh, processes information. There are two ways,
WhatsApp provides another technological namely central and peripherals. Elaboration
means to communicate . The eighth factor is and critical thinking refers to the central, non-
WhatsApp’s notification handling mechanism, elaborating, and minimal critical thinking route
which allows users to turn off notifications from that refer to the peripheral path (Littlejohn, 2010).
a group or mute notification entirely. When using the central route, people
WhatsApp was chosen as the instant consider an argument carefully, and if their
messaging application used in this study attitudes change, then the change tends to
because, referring to Fajriningtyas’ (2016) be fixed and will affect how they behave.
research about working women in Indonesia, Conversely, if a peripheral route is used, the
WhatsApp is seen as a mandatory application changes are usually temporary, and do not
for smart phones. This study thus focuses have much effect on behavior. The critical
on how mothers process hoax news about way of thinking is influenced by two main
abductions through chain messages on factors, namely motivation and ability. When
WhatsApp. our motivation is high, people tend towards
the central route, and when motivation is
Elaboration Likelihood Theory low, people tend to follow our peripheral
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) route. Motivation is influenced by at least
provides a general framework for organizing, three factors. The first is the involvement, or
categorizing, and understanding the basic how far a topic is relevant to someone The
processes underlying the effectiveness of second factor of motivation is the diversity of
persuasive communications (Petty & Cacioppo, arguments. The more diverse the arguments
1986). The ELM began with attempts to from various sources, the more someone will
account for the differential persistence of be able to think before making a decision. The
communication-induced attitude change. third factor in motivation is the tendency of
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Hani Noor
However, no matter how motivated people are,Ilahi,
theyWomen and Hoaxuse
still cannot News Processing
central on Whatsapp
processing if
Persuasive
Communication Peripheral Atttude Shift
Attitude is relatively temporary,
susceptible, and unpredictive of
behavior
Motivated to Process?
Source:
Source: Petty and Cacioppo (1986)
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the meaning of the messages it carries. Potter The interviews in this study were
explains that there are three building blocks between researchers and informants selected
of media literacy: personal locus, knowledge to provide information about her reactions
structures, and skills. Personal locus refers to to WhatsApp hoax messages about child
people’s purpose and energy. Purpose leads abduction. Each informant was chosen by
people to the information they really need using purposive sampling technique, which
and ignores another information that is not gives specific criteria based on the character
needed. Meanwhile, energy will encourage of the target population. The criteria is: a)
individuals to gain that information. The woman; b) mother; c) WhatsApp user for at
more individuals recognize their personal least 1 year; d) uses WhatsApp more often than
locus, the control comes with information any other mobile instant messaging app; and
processing. Knowledge structures refer to a set e) incorporated in chat groups in WhatsApp.
of organized information in human memory. This criteria were chosen based on the needs
This structure helps individuals see patterns of researchers and to ensure that informant
that map out pathways to gain information. The has sufficient experience to be asked about the
more knowledge structures an audience has, theme of this research.
the more media can be consumed. Skills refers Purposive sampling in this study
to the tools used by individuals to construct generally used a heterogeneous sampling
their knowledge structures. method to collect data from people with
To have good media literacy skills, one different views that may not be proportional
must have the ability to access media, analyze to the real population. The final sample
media content according to context, criticize the group included two mothers with different
mass media, and write their own messages in occupational backgrounds, one a housewife
various forms and types of media. Trisilowaty and the other a working mother, to see the
(2012) in her journal’s article entitled Freedom tendency of opinions in each job category.
of Information in the Age of Online Media Separation of this category refers to previous
stated, when situations where information research (Ananda, 2013) which saw differences
comes in abundance from many sources, we in the psychological characteristics of women
need to increase maturity and awareness in in those categories. The names of informants
sorting the incoming information. Which one is used in this study stated below:
the good one, which one is true or doubtful one.
Because with the good ability of media literacy, Table 1.
an individual can understand and being critical List of informants
with what is conveyed by the media, so it is No Name Profession Addresse
expected to counteract the negative effects 1 W Stay at Home Mom Depok
2 DNA Working Mom Cimahi
caused by media.
Source: Author design
Methods
This study uses a qualitative approach The questionnaires through a Google
to understand women’s attitudes toward hoax Form link in this study were distributing
messages about child abduction on WhatsApp. openly by researchers via WhatsApp, some
This research was conducted via interviews of which forwarded message back to her
and a survey to understand the experience WhatsApp friends. At the end, researchers
and opinions of each research subject to gain found 56 participants who match with the
qualitative data. criteria for this study.
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Hani Noor Ilahi, Women and Hoax News Processing on Whatsapp
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Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Volume 22, Issue 2, November 2018
as mothers, both female informants interviewed Furthermore, W even felt anxious to see any
by researchers claimed to have given special vehicles or people whose movements were
attention to the child abduction cases that suspicious around the school environment. She
became viral in 2017. They both also continued admitted that she often looked for suspicious
to stay alert for information about dangers activity, such as a mysterious car or a stranger
to their children, wherever they may be. For making odd gestures, around the school if she
home, for example, there is a group chat called was nearby.
“Arisan Ibu-Ibu” on WhatsApp, which shares This study also found that there are
the latest information related to the dangers differences in how child abduction messages
for children. For school, there is a group chat were received by W and her partner. W received
of fellow students’ parents, and one of the messages about child abduction with feelings
conversation topics is about child safety and of worry, fear, and anxiety. However, when she
security in the school environment. tried to communicate these messages to her
The feeling of fear associated with spouse, her spouse told W to make a filter when
these abduction messages also made both she received the message. According to W, in
respondents feel that the message was her partner’s point of view, she is a woman
important to be spread. By sharing these who can be easily made to believe anything.
messages, they would make others aware of The first thing her partner asked when she
various motives that are usually done by the shared the information was about where she
perpetrators of abduction. They both agreed got the information, the validity of the news,
that messages about abductions make them and whether the sender actually knew about
more alert and cautious with their children the event. During the interview, W said:
in different environments. Messages about “In fact, I just know from my husband
children, especially those related to child safety, that eventually there are people who
lead me to read those messages more carefully take advantage financially from
spreading false news in the media,
(W, 2017). They believe that the messages
something that never crossed my
about abduction come from the community mind before.”
near the incidents, making it easy for them to
immediately trust the messages they received. W said she usually found out the truth
This was especially true if the sender was a of the messages after discussing them with her
person they trusted or was sent repeatedly from husband. Her husband who told her which
different sources. messages were true and good to spread to
The main difference between informant others, as well as ones that are false and should
DNA and informant W is evident in the way only be for personal consumption. Before
they followed-up after receiving the message. talking with her husband, W said she often
Their alertness manifested in different ways. talked about the message with her friends
DNA preferred to refrain from spreading the on her group chat, ignoring the truth of the
message with the assumption that the same message. In W’s mind as a housewife, the
message is usually already spread from different responsibility of her children safety is in her
chat groups, while W preferred to immediately hands, unlike when she had a career and felt
spread the information the moment she that responsibility was shared with her mother,
received it. W’s reasoning corresponded with who helped her to look after the children
the qualitative data: she did not want the during work hours.
same incident to occur in her territory, so she DNA said she tended to consider the
wanted everyone to be aware of the danger. relevance of such messages from a few points:
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Hani Noor Ilahi, Women and Hoax News Processing on Whatsapp
“Don’t believe right away. I evaluate always trusted every message she received
the message in terms of logic, because there was often similar information
message structure, and the main from other groups, complete with pictures
source of information that I trust, or video that confirmed the message. The
namely newspapers or magazines.”
community and sense of connectedness on
WhatsApp stand out in this aspect.
Although she confessed, she also discussed Because women engage directly with
the messages with her husband several times, these messages, they play a significant role
DNA did not treat her husband as her main in ensuring (or not) if a message spreads in
information filter. She also claimed to prefer to WhatsApp. However, this study showed
send wisdom quotes, and information about a lack of critical engagement with those
business and parenting. Although the message messages. As the informants mentioned, there
about children is priority for her, DNA did not is an affirmation of previous information or
hastily send the abduction information to her an emotional response that obscures the truth
circle of friends. She preferred to keep the message of the message itself. This is also seen in the
for herself, especially for her self-awareness as a quantitative data which showed that the first
woman working outside the home. response of women is to spread the information,
even when the original source of the message
Discussion is unclear. Moreover the hoax message about
Women and Information Evaluation child abduction is assumed as if no one would
Based on the ELM, there are two paths be harmed because it is about humanity. So, for
that one uses when they receive a message, the sake of awareness, the message that may
the central path and the peripheral path. actually be a lie seems to be forgiven.
Central routes focus on the need for critical The third factor is the tendency of to
argumentation, while peripheral routes are enjoy thinking critically. Based on this study’s
more superficial and tend to change behavior results, 40% women love to talk and discuss
only temporarily. As mentioned earlier, critical the messages they receive. They, who also
thinking is influenced by two things: motivation enjoy to discussing and finding out the truth
and ability. Motivation itself is influenced by at about the message, are quite high, in the
least three things, namely the involvement, 40% range. However, through the findings
diversity of arguments, and people’s tendency during the interviews, it was confirmed that
to enjoy critical thinking. their enjoyment of thinking critically was
Based on the results of the research above, often dominated by emotional responses
it is interesting that women actually a have high to abduction messages. As a result, many
motivation to think further about WhatsApp women assume information about these child
hoax messages about child abduction. Their abduction cases should be spread immediately
involvement in the issue of child abduction for the sake of social awareness. Because for
arises from their sense of responsibility to the female respondents, people out there will
children. believe in the message, even though they
Once respondents received a message themselves don’t believe it.
about child abduction, there was a push to The pleasure of critical thinking among
find out the chronogical and motive behind the female respondents appears in the tendency
incident. The information they often get from to check messages from channels other than
different WhatsApp groups chat complements WhatsApp, such as social media and online
each other. As informed by informant W, she news portals. Even so, it cannot be denied that
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the channels cannot guarantee that the info responses dominate message processing, there
provided is valid and reliable. Unfortunately, is no deep change in cognitive structure. The
some of these other sources are equally biased, assumption is that information about abduction
meaning people who originally wanted to find is dangerous and that it is better to alert others
out the truth of a message can become trapped than ignore the information.
in circulating hoax messages. Therefore, Robert Cialdini mentioned six cues that
information about how to improve critical trigger a response program “click whirr”. This
thinking and women’s ability distinguish gesture allows one to fly to the peripheral
between true and false information is a route with automatic steering: 1) Exchange
necessity. Such knowledge involves developing (reciprocation); 2) Consistency; 3) Social
skills in media literacy. Proof; 4) Desire; 5) Powers; 6) Scarcity (Griffin,
Based on the analysis above, the tendency 2012). The female respondents in this study
of women in Indonesia receiving WhatsApp at least show consistency sign and social
messages about child abduction is to process proof that: “The message of child abduction
those messages through a peripheral route. is a useful message, and we all need messages
Persuasive messages about child abduction are that make us aware, right?” This process
often accepted
meaning by women
people who who wanted
originally feel motivated through
to find out peripheral
the truth routes also
of a message canexplains
become how
because of a personal responsibility they have. for some people, the message can manifest
trapped in circulating hoax messages. Therefore, information about how to improve critical
Though they have the skills and opportunity to an unpredictable attitude. Examples of such
access and
thinking masswomen's
media, worries and anxiety between
ability distinguish shape truebehavior include
and false the persecution
information of innocent
is a necessity.
message processing rather than more critical people who are falsely accused as abductors (as
Such knowledge involves developing skills in media literacy.
approaches. Because these initial emotional discussed before) or the excessive worry that
Picture 2.
PictureRoutes
Peripheral 2.
Peripheral Routes
Yes (W)
Motivated to Process?
Personal Responsibility Peripheral Cue Present?
Yes (W, DNA)
Consistency and Social Proof
No (W)
Ability to Process?
No (DNA)
Repetition, Prior Knowledge
Yes (DNA)
Retain Initial Attitude
Nature of Cognitive Processing
Initial attitude, argument quality
Unfavorable
Thoughts
Predominate
Yes (DNA)
No (DNA)
Cognitive Structure Change?
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Based on the analysis above, the tendency of women in Indonesia receiving
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Hani Noor Ilahi, Women and Hoax News Processing on Whatsapp
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