LECTURE 1

General considerations

Equivalence is achieved by different transformations: grammatical, lexical,

and stylistic. The causes generating grammatical transformations are not always
purely grammatical but may be lexical as well, though grammatical causes
naturally prevail due to differences in the SL and TL grammatical structures.
Not infrequently, grammatical and lexical causes are so closely interwoven
that the required transformations are of a twofold character. The following example
illustrates this point.

The vigil of the U.S. Embassy supported last week by many prominent
people and still continuing, the marches last Saturday, the resolutions of
organizations have done something to show that the Prime Minister does not speak
for Britain.
Круглосуточная демонстрация у здания американского посольства,
получившая на прошлой неделе поддержку многих видных деятелей, все еще
продолжается. Эта демонстрация и состоявшиеся в субботу походы, а
также принятые различными организациями резолюции, явно
свидетельствуют о том, что премьер-министр отнюдь не говорит от
имени всего английского народа.

A number of lexical and grammatical transformations have been effected in:

1) The long English sentence in which the subject is expressed by three
homogeneous members (the vigil, the marches, the resolutions) is translated by two
separate Russian sentences. The structure of the English sentence is typical of the
structure of brief notes or of leads which usually contain miscellaneous
information on the principles of “who, what, when, where and how”. This,
however, is not usual in Russian newspaper style. The word демонстрация is
repeated as both sentences have the same subject.
2) The word “vigil” has recently developed a new meaning – “around the
clock demonstration”. This new meaning is accordingly rendered by two words
(круглосуточная демонстрация); similarly, the participle “supported” is also
rendered by two Russian words (получившая поддержку);
3) a number of additional words have been introduced: у здания
(посольства), состоявшиеся (в субботу походы), а также принятые
различными (организациями резолюции).
4) The word “last” has been omitted as its meaning is implied in the Russian
adverbial of time (в субботу);
 5) The emphatic meaning of the predicate with its object (have done
something to show) is conveyed by the adverb явно.
6) The cliché (speak for Britain) is rendered by a corresponding cliché
говорить от имени.
7) Finally, the metonymy (Britain) is translated by the words it stands for
весь английский народ.

Strictly speaking only the translation of the complex sentence by meaning of

two sentences can be regarded as a purely grammatical transformation, whereas all
the other transformations are of a mixed character – both lexical and grammatical.

The main task of the translator is to achieve semantic equivalence of the

source text and the translated text. There are three levels of translation:
 word formation,
 morthological (морфологический структура словосочитания)
 sintectical (синтаксис на уровне предложения).

To achieve this goal the translator should use translating transformations

because each language has its own, peculiar structure, and the translator should pay
attention to it. Another problem is a discrepancy of the semantic volume of the
word, because each word is endowed not only with denotative meaning, but also
with a large number of connotative shades that are different in different languages
and cultures

The translation transformation is used to the maximum possible transfer of

all the information contained in the source text, in strict compliance with the norms
of the target language.

The use of translation transformations at the word-formation level is often

used in linguistics in relation to the translation of socio-political and scientific
texts. This is due to the emergence of neologisms in the texts of the listed styles.
Word-compliant suffixes in English and Ukrainian differ in their meaning and
usage. Replacing one part of the language with another is very characteristic in
translation and is often used in translation practice. In literary translation, the
translator should take into account not only word-formation features of the English
language, but also the richness of stylistic resources of the word-formation level of
the Ukrainian language in comparison with English.

At the word-building level, transformations require the following features to

be taken into account: word-formation suffixes and prefixes in different languages
differ in terms of their both productivity and additional meanings.

At the morphological level, the translation transformations are the following:

  categorical replacement,
 partial language replacement,
 morphological lexical replacement,
 antonymic translation.

Categorical replacement – a change of the genus, number, case, time, state, form
of degree of comparison, etc.
The replacement of a part of the language in translation may be related to a
grammar lacquer (lack of a certain part of the language in one of the languages).
Antonym translation is a replacement of the concepts used in the original work.

The use of translation transformations at the syntactic level includes combining

and dividing the sentence, translating conversions with non-specific structures,
replacing the word combination with the word and vice versa, replacing the syntax
in phrases and sentences, adding, omitting, and rearranging.
At the syntactic level, we distinguish the following translation transformations:
 The replacement of the word combination with the word and vice versa.
 The replacement of the syntactic connection in phrases and sentences (for
example, in cases of form syncretism - the use of a complex sentence in the
sense of a complex, unconnected sentence in the sense of a complicated
word, etc.) .
 Sentence division − transformation of a complex sentence of the original
language for two or more independent sentences in the language of
translation.
 The omission of linguistic units and constructions.
 The addition of linguistic units and constructions – a kind of grammatical
transformations representing a lexical increase.
 Permutations − changes in the order of elements in the text of translation in
comparison with the original – are dictated by the rules of the order of
words in one or another structure of a certain language.
 Adoption of the sentence association is used quite often and may be
appropriate when none of the original sentences is a complete opinion