Hydroelectricity

Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus
Department of Power Distribution and High-Voltage Technology
Renewable Generation and Storage of Electrical Energy Dr. Klaus Pfeiffer
LG 3
Walther-Pauer-Straße 5
03046 Cottbus
Script Hydroelectricity Phone: (0355) 69-4035

klaus.pfeiffer@tu-cottbus.de
August, 2006
Contents
1 Resources
2 Hydrodynamic basics
3 Types of hydro power plants
4 Turbines
5 Small-scale hydroelectricity
6 Environmental considerations
7 Exercises
Brandenburg University of Technology

Department of Power Distribution and High Voltage Technology Pfeiffer 1
Renewable Generation and Storage of Electrical Energy Hydroelectricity
1. Resources
1.1 The hydro world resource
Total resource (available resource): energy carried by the world’s flowing rivers
⇒ 40.000 TWh per year (about fifteen times the world’s present hydroelectric output)
Technical potential (also referred to as accessible resource): energy that could be extracted
from the accessible part of the resource using current mature technology
⇒ at (14.000 … 15.000) TWh per year
World total electricity production in 2002: 16.000 TWh

Installed overall generating capacity: 3600 GW
⇒ roughly 16% of the world’s output from 20% of the world’s capacity
Region Technical potential Annual output 1) Percent of technical

potential
[TWh/year] [TWh/year] [%]
Asia 5.093 572 11
South America 2.792 507 18
Europe 2.706 729 27
Africa 1.888 80 4
North America 1.668 665 40
Oceania 232 40 17
World 14.379 2.593 18
Table 1: Regional hydro potential and output
1)
Based on average output for the four years 1999 … 2002
1.2 World’s hydro plant capacity and output
World’s installed capacity for large-scale hydroelectricity: 740 GW (by 2002)

The contribution for small-scale hydro plants is very uncertain, but may increase the total by
(5 … 10)%.
Figure 1: World annual hydroelectricity output

Over the past few decades the annual output had an average yearly increase of about
50 TWh. This corresponds to an average world-wide addition of some 14 GW of new hydro
plant capacity each year.
Country Annual output Percent of total

energy output
[TWh/year] [%]
Canada 345 50
Brazil 288 80
USA 264
China 231
Russia 167
Norway 129 99
India 76
Sweden 74 47
France 74 16
Italy 51
Austria 42 70
Switzerland 40 60
Spain 35
Germany 22 4
Table 2: National hydro contributions
Germany:
7.200 hydro power plants generate a total of 22 TWh per year. 4.300 small-scale hydro
power plants with a capacity of < 1000 kW feed into the grids of the utilities which
corresponds to <0,2% of the total energy output.
1.3 Worlds biggest hydro power plants
Ranking Plant location / River Country Capacity

[MW]
1 Itaipu / Parana Brazil / Paraguay 12.600
2 Grand Coulee / Columbia River USA 10.830
3 Guri / Caroni Venezuela 10.300
4 Sajano-Schuschenskoje / Jenissei Russia (Asian part) 6.400
5 Krasnojarsk / Jenissei Russia (Asian part) 6.000
13 Kuibyschew / Wolga Russia (European part) 2.563

2. Hydrodynamic basics
The potential energy of the water is converted into electrical energy in a hydro power plant.
Wpot potential energy

Wkin kinetic energy
H head
g gravitational constant
c water speed
FG Force of gravity
Figure 2: Energy conversion
W pot = FG ⋅ H Fg = m ⋅ g
m 2
Wkin = ⋅c
2
m 2
W pot = Wkin m⋅g ⋅H = ⋅c c = 2 ⋅g ⋅H
2
m m
Example: H = 10 m c = 2 ⋅ 9,81 2
⋅ 10 m = 14
s s
m m
H = 500 m c = 2 ⋅ 9,81 2
⋅ 500 m = 99
s s
Electrical power
W pot = m ⋅ g ⋅ H m = ρ ⋅V ρ water density
W pot = ρ ⋅ V ⋅ g ⋅ H V volume
W pot V V
Pin = Pwater = = ρ ⋅g ⋅ ⋅H Q= flow rate
t t t
Pel
η=
Pmech
kg m
Pel = ηel ⋅ η mech ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Q ⋅ H ρ = 1000 3
g = 9,81
m s2
ηel ≈ 0,9 generator

ηmech = 0,9 turbine
kg m ⎡ m3 ⎤ m2 J
Pel = 0,9 ⋅ 0,9 ⋅ 1000 3
⋅ 9,81 ⋅ Q ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ H [m ] kg ⋅ =1 = 1W
m s2 ⎣⎢ s ⎦⎥ s 3 s
⎡ m3 ⎤
Pel [kW ] ≈ 8 ⋅ Q ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ H [m ]
⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦

Estimating the water power
Reliable data on flow rates and, equally important, their variations, are essential for the
assessment of the potential capacity of a site. Simple depth and speed monitoring provides a
record of flow rates. For many rivers, particularly in developed countries, such data have
been accumulated for years.
Dealing with time variations adds further problems. The seasonal changes are know and
they come at known times. The more serious problems are with changes over very long or
very short periods. Year-to-year variations can be large. For countries which depend heavily
on hydroelectric power a succession of dry years can mean a serious supply shortage. At the
other extreme, the installation must be designed to survive ‘100-year-flood’, the sudden rush
of water following unusually heavy rain. As in any system, the need to guard against rare but
potentially catastrophic events adds to the cost.
3 Types of hydro power plants
We can classify installations in different ways:

- by the head of the water
- by the capacity of the hydro power plant (rated power output)
- by the type of turbine
- by the location and type of dam, reservoir, etc.
These categories are not independent of one another. The available head is an important
determinant of the other factors, and the head and output largely determine the type of plant
and installation.
Low head
Figure 3: Low head installation
The low dam or barrage of the installation serves to maintain a head of water and also
houses the plant. The head is less than 10 metres. This type of installation is mainly used for
‘Run-of-river’ power stations. The disadvantage is that they have only little storage capacity
and are dependent on the prevailing flow rate. This can present problems of reliability if the
flow varies greatly with the time of year or the weather. The large volume flow through a low-
head plant means that the plant and the associated civil engineering works are large too.

Medium head
Figure 4: Medium head installation Figure 5: The Hoover Dam on the Colorado River
This type of installation is typically used for very large hydroelectric installations with a dam
at a narrow point in a river valley. The large reservoir behind the dam provides sufficient
storage to meet demand in all but exceptionally dry conditions which ensures a reliable
supply. But it will also have flooded an extensive area. The USA has some of the largest
dams of this type, including the Grand Coulee, 170 metres high and creating a reservoir that
stores 9 billion cubic metres of water. Systems of this type don’t have to be on a giant scale
and quite small reservoirs can provide power for hydroelectric plants.
High head
Figure 6: High head installation
In the high head plant the entire reservoir lies well above the outflow level, and the penstock
carrying the water may even pass through a mountain to reach the turbine. With a high head,
the flow needed for a given power is much smaller than for a low head plant, so the turbines,
generators and housing are more compact. But the long penstock adds to the cost, and the
structure must be able to withstand the extremely high pressures below the great depth of
water.

Head Pressure
[m] [kPa]
0 101,3
50 607,9
100 1114,6
200 1621,2
300 2127,8
400 2634,4
Table 3: Water pressure and head
4 Turbines
4.1 Francis turbine
Francis turbines are by far the most common type in present-day medium or large scale
plants. They are used in installations where the head is as low as 15 metres or as high as
600 metres.
Figure 7: Francis turbine runner Figure 8: Francis turbine

a) cut-away diagram
b) flow across guide vanes and runner
As the Francis turbine is completely submerged, it can run equally well with its axis horizontal
or vertical. In medium or high head turbines the flow is channelled in through a scroll case
(also called the volute) a curved tube of diminishing size rather like a snail shell, with the
guide vanes set in its inner surface. Directed by the guide vanes, the water flows in towards
the runner.

The shapes of the guide vanes and runner blades and the speed of the water are critical in
producing the smooth flow that leads to high efficiency. Francis turbines run most efficiently
when the blades speed is only slightly less than the speed of the water incident on the
blades.
4.2 Kaplan turbine
Figure 9: Kaplan turbine runner Figure 10: Kaplan turbine (axial-flow turbine)
In the ‘propeller’ or axial-flow turbines the area through which the water enters is as large as
it can be: it is the entire area swept by the blades. Axial-flow turbines are therefore suitable
for very large volume flows and have become usual where the head is only a few metres.
They have the advantage that the angle of the blades can be varied when the power demand
changes. Axial-flow turbines with this feature are called Kaplan turbines.
The optimum blade speed is appreciably greater than the water speed – as much as twice as
fast. This allows a rapid rate of rotation even with relatively low water speeds.
Once you have axial flow there is no need to feed the water in from the side. it might appear
to be better to let it flow in along the axis instead of deflecting it through a right angle. But if
the water flows in along the axis of the turbine, the generator will get in the way (and/or get
wet).
4.3 Pelton turbine
Figure 11: Pelton turbine runner

For heads above 200 metres (or lower for small scale systems) the Pelton wheel is the
preferred turbine. It is essentially a wheel with a set of double cups or ‘buckets’ mounted
around the rim. A high speed jet of water, formed under the pressure of the high head, hits
the splitting edge between each pair of cups in turn as the wheel spins. The water passes
round the curved bowls, and under optimum conditions gives up almost all its kinetic energy.
The Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine. The power can be varied by adjusting the jet size to
change the volume flow rate, or by deflecting the entire jet away from the wheel.
Figure 12: Pelton wheel turbine
Hydraulic efficiency of Pelton wheel
Wuse
η hydr =
Win
m ⎛ 2 2 ⎞
W use = ⎜ c1 − c 2 ⎟
2 ⎝ ⎠
m⎛ 2 2 ⎞
⎜ c1 − c2 ⎟ 2 2
2⎝ ⎠ c1 − c2
η hydr = =
m 2 2
⋅ c1 c1
2
modern turbines: c2 ≈ 0,1 · c1 older turbines: c2 ≈ 0,5 · c1
ηhydr = 0,99 ηhydr = 0,75
Input power
The power input to the Pelton wheel is determined as usual by the effective head and the
flow rate of the water.
From chapter 2 we already know:
Pin = Pwater = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Q ⋅ H
c = 2 ⋅g ⋅H

Furthermore
l V
c= =
t A⋅t
V V
= 2 ⋅g ⋅H Q=
A⋅t t
Q = A⋅ 2 ⋅g ⋅H A area of the jet
Now we can insert the expression for Q in the equation for the water power:
Pin = Pwater = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ A ⋅ 2 ⋅ g ⋅ H ⋅ H
kg m m
Pin = Pwater = 1000 3
⋅ 9,81 2
⋅ 2 ⋅ 9,81 2
⋅ A ⋅ H3
m s s
Pwater [kW] ≈ 45 ⋅ A[m 2 ] ⋅ H[m] 3
The number of jets depends on the prevailing flow rate. This means the prevailing flow rate
determines the required number of jets. In practice one jet can handle a flow rate of 10 m3/s
in maximum.
However, for a Pelton-turbine should be given the required number of jets to ensure the flow
rate.
Figure 13: Pelton wheel in a hydro power plant Figure 14: Pelton wheel installation
The shape of the cups and the splitting edge between Six jets are spaced around the wheel
is clearly to be seen.

4.4 Ranges of application
We have seen that in general Pelton wheels are most suitable for high heads, Kaplan
turbines for low heads and Francis turbines for the intermediate ranges. But beside the head
the available power also matters.
Figure 15: Ranges of application of different types of turbine
Figure 15 represents one way to display the ranges of application of the different turbines. It
shows the ranges of head, flow rate and corresponding power which best suit each type.
Note the overlap at the boundaries which means, that for the parameters there both turbines
are applicable.
Specific speed
One factor missing from the diagram in figure 15 is the rate of rotation n of the turbine.
With the specific speed of a turbine which is given by the manufacturer (along with other
ratings), the rate of rotation can be determined:
1 3
ns ⎛ Q ⎞ 2 ⎛ H1 ⎞ 4
= ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟
n ⎜⎝ Q1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ H ⎠
m3
Q1 = 1
s
H1 = 1 m
The rate of rotation of the turbine determines the number of pole pairs of the generator
connected to the turbine. Table 4 shows the required number of pole pairs of the generator
for generating 50-Hz electrical power.
Turbine rate of rotation n [min-1] 750 500 375 250 167 125 75
Number of pole pairs p 4 6 8 12 18 24 40
Table 4: Required number of pole pairs in dependency of the turbine rate of rotation
So a suitable turbine and rate of rotation can be found for a proposed site.

As a summary Table 5 contains the previous explained most important turbine parameters
and their range of application.
Specific speed ns Head H Flow rate Q Rate of rotation n

Turbine typ
[rpm] [m] [m3·s-1] [rpm]
Pelton 3 … 20 ~ 200 … 2000 ~ 0,5 … 50 some 100 … 750
Francis 20 … 160 ~ 15 … 600 ~ 1 … 700 some 100
Kaplan 100 … 300 ~ 3 … 50 ~ 5 … 1000 some 10 … 200
Table 5: Overview of hydro turbines
5 Small-scale hydroelectricity
There is no agreed formal definition of the term small-scale hydro (SSH). The prevailing view
places the upper limit at 10 MW capacity (as in Switzerland, for instance) but the UK sets it at
5 MW and the USA at 30 MW. Other terms such as mini-, micro- and pico- are also use, for
ranges of diminishing capacity down to a few hundred watts.
Many SSH plants are run-of-river, with heads of only a few metres.
The renewed interest in smaller systems appears to be a consequence of rather different
factors in different regions of the world. In the industrialized countries, environmental issues
are increasingly limiting the potential for further large-scale hydro development, and small-
scale plants are encouraged. And some developing countries are seeing advantages in step-
wise electrification by the establishment of local rather than nation-wide grid systems.
World small-scale hydro data
It is generally agreed that world SSH capacity and output are rising. A World Energy Council
survey (2003) reports an installed SSH (<10 MW) capacity of 18 GW in 38 selected countries
at the end of 1999. These included the main contributors in the Americas and Europe, but
not China. Estimates of the world-wide rate of increase in SSH capacity tend to lie between
(1 … 2) GW per year. In summary it seems probable that world operational capacity in 2003
lies in the range (50 … 60) GW. Taking the lower figure and assuming an average load factor
of 35% suggests an annual output of about 150 TWh – about 6% of total hydro output, or 1%
of world electricity generation.
China
About 300 million people in China derive their electricity from SSH (defined there as a plant
with less than 25 MW capacity). An intensive program of local electrification over the past
few decades has led to a total installed capacity in early 2002 of over 26 GW. The ‘100.000
SSH plants’ in China, widely reported in the early 1990s, have become 43.000 now. China
distinguishes between micro (<100 kW), mini (100 … 500) kW and small (0,5 … 25) MW
plants. Of the 43.000 plants, about 90% are micro or mini, but three-quarters of the output
comes from the remaining 10%, the ‘small’ installations.

6 Environmental considerations
The environmental issues associated with hydroelectricity are no less controversial than
those for other energy sources.
Benefits
- no release of CO2 and oxides of sulphur and nitrogen that lead to acid rain
- it produces no particulates or chemical compounds such as dioxins that are directly
harmful to human health
- it emits no radioactivity
- flood control or irrigation
Hydrological effects
Any hydrological change will certainly affect the ecology and thus the local community. A
hydroelectric installation does rearrange the resource. Diverting a river into a canal, or a
mountain stream into a pipe, may not greatly change the total flow, but it can have a marked
effect on the environment (fall in the water table with wells drying up, vegetation dying etc.).
And evaporation from the exposed surface of a large reservoir may appreciably reduce the
available water supply.
Dams and reservoirs
Any structure on the scale of a major hydroelectric dam will affect its environment in many
ways. The construction process itself can cause widespread disturbance with long-lasting
effects on a fragile eco-system.
Catastrophes - most obviously harmful effect of a large dam is when it fails

- Example: 1971 earthquake which severely damaged the Lower San
Fernando Dam north of Los Angeles; had the reservoir been at its
maximum height, some 15 million tonnes of water could have been
released on to the 80.000 inhabitants of the valley below
Silk - silt is accumulating behind the dam, reducing its useful volume and
the hydro potential of the site
- Example: Hoover Dam (USA Colorado River) lost about one sixth of
its useful storage volume in its first 30 years
- Example Aswan High Dam (Egypt): the land downstream the dam
no longer receives the soil and nutrients previously carried by the
annual Nile floods; an agricultural system has largely been
destroyed to be replaced by irrigation and the use of fertilizers

Social effects
The most important social effect is the displacement of people from that location where a
reservoir will be placed.
Example: The Aswan and Kariba dams involved the relocation of some 80.000 and 60.000
people respectively. The water of the Three Gorges Dam will submerge about 100 towns and
displace over a million people. It is estimated that during the second half of the twentieth
century, some 10 million people were displaced by reservoirs in China alone.

7 Exercises
Exercise 1
The following parameters are given for a hydro installation:

Head H = 300 m
m3
Flow rate Q = 100
s
kg m
Use a value of ρ = 1000 for the water density and a value of g = 9,81 for the
m 3
s2
acceleration of gravity.
1. Calculate the power output of a turbine which will be used in this hydro installation.
Assume a mechanical efficiency of the turbine of ηmech = 0,9.
2. Determine the type of turbine which is applicable for the given parameters.
3. Calculate the required number of pole pairs for a 50-Hz-generator if the specific speed of
the turbine is given by ns = 46 rpm.
Solution 1) Pout_turb = η mech ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Q ⋅ H
kg m m3
Pout_turb = 0,9 ⋅ 1000 ⋅ 9,81 ⋅ 100 ⋅ 300 m
m3 s2 s
m2 J
Pout_turb = 265 MW kg ⋅ 3
=1 = 1W
s s
2) From figure 15 (Ranges of application of different types of turbines) it is to

be seen that the Francis turbine best meets the requirements.
ns 46 rpm
3) n= 1
= 3
3
⎛Q ⎞2 ⎛ H1 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 1 ⎞4
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ 100 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Q1 ⎠ ⎝ H ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
Rate of rotation of the turbine n = 332 rpm
For 50-Hz electrical power output we need for a single-pole generator

to spin at this rate: 50 cycles per second, or 50 · 60 = 3000 rpm. Because
the rate of rotation of the turbine is lower we need a multi-pole generator
with the following number of pole pairs:
3000 rpm
p= =9
332 rpm

Exercise 2
Given is a Pelton turbine with 6 jets. The available head is 382 metres with a flow rate of
23,7 m3/s (if 6 jets are available).
1. Calculate the power of the turbine.
2. Calculate the speed of the water at the end of the down pipe (at the jets).
3. Calculate the specific speed of the turbine for a rate of rotation of 240 min-1.
4. Calculate the specific speed of the turbine if only one jet is in operation.
Solution W m⋅g ⋅H
1) Pturbine = = = ρ ⋅ g ⋅Q ⋅ H
t t
kg m m3
Pturbine = 1000 ⋅ 9,81 ⋅ 382 m ⋅ 23,7
m3 s2 s
m2 J
Pturbine = 88,8 MW kg ⋅ 3
=1 = 1W
s s
m 2
2) m⋅g ⋅H = ⋅c
2
m m
c = 2 ⋅ g ⋅ H = 2 ⋅ 9,81 2
⋅ 382 m = 86,6
s s
1 3
⎛ Q ⎞2 ⎛ H ⎞4
3) ns = n ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ Q1 ⎠ ⎝ H ⎠
3
⎛ 1 ⎞4
ns = 240 rpm ⋅ 23,7 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 13,5 rpm
⎝ 382 ⎠
3
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞4
4) ns = 240 rpm ⋅ ⋅ 23,7 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 5,5 rpm
6 ⎝ 382 ⎠

Exercise 3
Given is a hydro installation with the following parameters:

Head H = 110 m
Water speed c = 45 m/s
Turbine power P = 200 MW
Calculate the required diameter of the down pipe.
Solution π
Pturbine = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Q ⋅ H Q = A⋅c A= ⋅ d2
4
π
Pturbine = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H ⋅ ⋅ d2 ⋅ c
4
4 ⋅ Pturbine
d2 =
ρ ⋅ g ⋅H ⋅π ⋅c
kg ⋅ m 2
800 ⋅ E6 ⋅
4 ⋅ 200 MW s3
d= = = 5,3 m 2
kg m m kg
1000 3 ⋅ 9,81 2 ⋅ 110 m ⋅ π ⋅ 45 0,15 ⋅ E9 ⋅
m s s s3
d = 2,3 m
References:
This script is based on
Boyle, G.: Renewable energy. Oxford University Press, 2004


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Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus

Department of Power Distribution and High-Voltage Technology

Renewable Generation and Storage of Electrical Energy Dr. Klaus Pfeiffer

Script Hydroelectricity Phone: (0355) 69-4035

Brandenburg University of Technology

World total electricity production in 2002: 16.000 TWh

Region Technical potential Annual output 1) Percent of technical

1.2 World’s hydro plant capacity and output

World’s installed capacity for large-scale hydroelectricity: 740 GW (by 2002)

Figure 1: World annual hydroelectricity output

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Country Annual output Percent of total

1.3 Worlds biggest hydro power plants

Ranking Plant location / River Country Capacity

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Wpot potential energy

W pot = m ⋅ g ⋅ H m = ρ ⋅V ρ water density

ηel ≈ 0,9 generator

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Estimating the water power

3 Types of hydro power plants

We can classify installations in different ways:

Figure 3: Low head installation

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Figure 6: High head installation

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Figure 7: Francis turbine runner Figure 8: Francis turbine

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4.2 Kaplan turbine

4.3 Pelton turbine

Figure 11: Pelton turbine runner

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Figure 12: Pelton wheel turbine

Hydraulic efficiency of Pelton wheel

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Pwater [kW] ≈ 45 ⋅ A[m 2 ] ⋅ H[m] 3

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4.4 Ranges of application

Figure 15: Ranges of application of different types of turbine

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Specific speed ns Head H Flow rate Q Rate of rotation n

World small-scale hydro data

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Dams and reservoirs

Catastrophes - most obviously harmful effect of a large dam is when it fails

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The following parameters are given for a hydro installation:

Solution 1) Pout_turb = η mech ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Q ⋅ H

2) From figure 15 (Ranges of application of different types of turbines) it is to

Rate of rotation of the turbine n = 332 rpm

For 50-Hz electrical power output we need for a single-pole generator

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Given is a hydro installation with the following parameters:

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