The Gibraltar discovery, Llanos foothills, Colombia

Journal of Petroleum Geology,Vol. 27 (4), October 2004, pp 335-356 335

ASPECTS OF THE PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE

BERMEJO FIELD, NORTHWESTERN ORIENTE BASIN,
ECUADOR

G. H. Lee1#, M. A. Eissa2, C. L. Decker**1, J. P. Castagna**,

D. J. O’Meara** and H. D. Marín3

The principal reservoirs in the Bermejo oilfield in the NW Oriente Basin of Ecuador are the Cretaceous
Hollín Formation and the basal sandstone in the Tena Formation ("basalTena sand”). Analysis of 3D
seismic and wireline log data suggests that much of the Hollín Formation consiste of stacked fluvial
channel deposite. In the overlying Ñapo Formation, the excellent correlation of log signatures, continuous
seismic reflections, and the absence of thick sandstone layers (except for the coarsening-upward Ñapo
“T’sand), suggest deposition from uniform processes, possibly in a shelf environment The upper Ñapo and
lower Tena Formations are interpreted as a series of transgressive deposite, punctuated by the basal Tena
sand. Truncation in the Hollín Formation is better observed on east-west seismic Unes than on north-
south seismic Unes, suggesting a north- south trending fluvial system. This, together with the northward
thinning of the top Hollín shale suggesting an east-west trending palaeo-shorezone, further predicts
north-south oriented reservoir distribution. The palaeogeography of the Oriente Basin was probably more
complex than that portrayed in previous depositional models which depict a north-south oriented palaeo-
shorezone and sediment supply from the east. Detailed depth structure maps reveal structural closures
that have not been tested.

1Dept of Environmental Exploration Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, Korea.
2 Institute for Exploration and Development Geosciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA.

'Current address: Gas Technology Institute, Houston, Texas 77090, USA.

3Tecpetrol, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
# Corresponding Author, email: gwanglee@pknu.ac.kr
 336 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

INTRODUCTION

The Bermejo field is located in the NW comer of the

Oriente Basin of Ecuador, about 130 km ENE of the
capital city of Quito (Fig. 1). The field comprises
Bermejo North and South, each of which consists of a
low-relief, NNW-SSE trending hanging-wall anticline
associated with a large reverse fault (Fig. 2). The
Bermejo field currently produces about 5,000 brl/d from
Cretaceous reservoirs, accounting for less than 1% of
national oil output (US Energy Information
Administration, 1998).
This study is part of a larger investigation,
conducted jointly by Tecpetrol and the Institute for
Exploration and Development Geosciences at the
University of Oklahoma, to optimize the reservoir
development at the Bermejo field. The primary
objective of this study is to interpret the depositional
environments of the Cretaceous reservoir rocks using
3D seismic and wireline log data. Depositional
environment analysis can provide important information
regarding the origin and directional trends of reservoirs
and thus help to optimize completion programmes and
the placement of development wells.

OverView and previous work

The Oriente Basin is part of the Sub-Andean retro- are
foreland basin system which extends from Venezuela to
Southern Chile (Christophoul et al., 2002). The basin is
contiguous northward with the Putumayo Basin in
Colombia and southward with the
 G. H. Lee et al. 337

Fig. I. Index map showing the distribution of major oilfields ¡n the Oriente Basin, Ecuador (adapted from White
et al., 1995) and the location of the study area (Bermejo field). Inset at bottom right shows the principal tectono-
morphological provinces in Ecuador (adapted from Balkwill et al., 1995).
Marañon Basin of Perú (Fig. 1). The Oriente Basin production from the Tena Formation and the “MI”
produced over 3 billion brl of oil between the 1970s and sandstone of the Ñapo Formation (Fig. 3) (Higley,
the mid-1990s (White et al., 1995). Much of the 2000). The main source rocks are believed to be the
recoverable petroleum in the Oriente Basin is trapped in Ñapo Formation marine shales and limestones (Canfield
low-relief anticlines formed by Andean faulting (White et al., 1982; Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; White etal.,
et al., 1995). These traps consist of footwall anticlines 1995; Higley, 2000).
associated with normal faults, and hanging- wall The Hollín and Ñapo Formations have traditionally
anticlines associated with reverse faults (Dashwood and been interpreted as fluvio-deltaic deposits that
Abbotts, 1990). prograded westward into shoreline and shelf
Primary reservoirs in the Oriente Basin are the environments along the proto-Pacific margin (Macellari,
Cretaceous Hollín and Ñapo Formations, with lesser 1988; Canfield, 1991; White et al., 1995).
 338 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Fig. 2. Distribution of 3D seismic data and location of wells used in this study.The two large
reverse faults bounding Bermejo North and South fields are modified from Marín et al.
(2001). Solid lines indícate seismic profiles and dotted lines well-log cross-sections shown in
other figures.
In the western Oriente Basin, the uppermost section of stages of deposition for the Hollín Formation which
the Hollín Formation grades upward into open marine were, from oldest to youngest: (i) a tide-dominated
strata (White et al., 1995). The overlying Ñapo estuary with minor fluvial channels; (ii) a well-
Formation in the eastern Oriente Basin has also been developed tide-dominated estuary; (iii) drowning of the
interpreted as fluvio-deltaic deposits (Canfield et al., tide-dominated estuary; and (iv) an open shelf. During
1982; Smith, 1989; White et al., 1995). However, Ñapo “T” and “U” deposition, stages ii, iii, and iv were
passing westward, the Ñapo Formation changes repeated. Based on cores and well-log data, Hunter et al.
abruptly to marine shales and limestones and lowstand (2000) suggested that mudstones and rippled-to-
valley-fill sandstones (White et al., 1995). laminated sandstones in the Ñapo Formation represent
Unconformably overlying the Ñapo Formation is a red- deposition in a shallow-marine environment with
bed succession referred to as the Tena Formation occasional tidal influence, whereas trough cross-bedded
(Canfield et al., 1982; Canfield, 1991). sandstones represented a high- energy fluvial channel
Shanmugam et al. (2000) and Shanmugam and environment. Higgs (2002) proposed a tidal shelf model
Poffenberger (2002) reinterpreted the Hollín and Ñapo for the Hollín and Ñapo Formations, based on regional
(“T” and “U”) sands as tide-dominated estuarine considerations and on general sedimentological and
deposits, based on lithofacies analysis of conventional sequence-stratigraphical reasoning. Higgs (2002) argued
cores from the Sacha field in the north-central Oriente that the great areal extent and uniformity of the Hollín
Basin (Fig. 1), and an outcrop study of the basal Hollín and Ñapo facies association across the Oriente Basin,
Formation exposed at a road cut 70 km to the SW. They and the lack of evidence for valley incisión and
suggested that east-west tidal sand bars oriented parallel intertidal sedimentary structures, are more compatible
with the direction of tidal flows are the most important with a shelf than with estuaries or deltas.
reservoir facies. They further proposed four
 G. H. Lee et al. 339

DOMINANT OIL
PERIO

SOURCE
EPOC
FORMATION MEMBER ROCK (+) PROD.
LITHOLOGY (•)
DI
H

MESA
CHAMBIRA RED BEDS
PLEIST|

ARAJUNO
MIO-

£ CHALCANA
< ORTEGUAZA CRAY SHALES & SS.
cE
tu
í- RED 8 EOS
EOCE

TIYUYACU
NE |

O O yi CONGLOMERATES
TENA Tl_ Z_ Z_I RED BEDS
~MÍS£NS ----- QT5“SST~ •
~~— DK. GRAY SHALES
MICRITIC LMST. ♦
M-2 SAND QTZ. GLAUC. SS.
| CENOMANIAN-

c0 "A” LMST. 1 !■■■»■ | MICRITIC LMST. ♦

D ÑAPO + UPPER »-| 1 | 1 ¡ •
o QTZ. SS. & DK. GRAY
CAMPANIAN

-ir SHALE ---- * -----

UJ + LOWER •
3
ID 1'!'1 DK. GRAY SHALE & ♦
¡r LMST SS.
o T SAND QTZ. GLAUC. •
DK. GRAY SHALE & ♦
UPPER LMST SS.
QTZ. GLAUC.
I HOLLÍN MAIN QTZ. SS. •
x PRE-CRETACEOUS
Q. •

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column, Oriente Basin (from Smith, 1989). Hollín Formation “Main” and “Upper”
terminology is from White et al. (1995).
TECTONIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING the Oriente Basin are related to this basement
deformation.
Ecuador can be divided into three tectono-
The wider Oriente Basin province can be divided
morphologicalprovinceswhichare fromeastto west: the
into the Sub-Andean zone and the Oriente Basin sensu
Oriente, the Cordillera (Andes), and the Costa (Balkwill
stricto (Balkwill et al., 1995; Christophoul et al., 2002;
et al., 1995) (Fig. 1). The Cordillera comprises the sub-
Hungerbühler et al., 2002), separated by a reverse fault
parallel Western Cordillera (Cordillera Occidental) and
system (Fig. 1). The Oriente Basin is asymmetrical in
Eastern Cordillera (Cordillera Real) which are separated
cross-section and dips gently to the west and south
by the inter- Andean Graben (Aspden and Litherland,
(Canfield, 1991). In the western Oriente Basin, an upper
1992). During the Triassic (and Permian?), the región
Cretaceous unconformity continúes in the subsurface,
now occupied by the Cordillera Real experienced
truncating an increasingly older section in a westward
continental margin rifting along a passive proto-Pacifíc
direction. The Late Cretaceous transpressional
margin (Jaillard et al., 1990). This rift regime resulted in
convergence terminated the pericratonic sag history.
a number of basement-involved half grabens, filled with
During the Eocene, Cretaceous and older rocks
coarse clastic sediments and carbonate rocks (Balkwill
were uplifted and exposed along the western margin of
et al., 1995). During the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous,
the Oriente Basin (Smith, 1989). Major volcanic activity
intracratonic convergence within the western South
began in the Miocene while uplift and erosión of the
American craton, caused by the accretion of
older section continued. Since the Pliocene, thrusting
allochthonous oceanic rocks, folded and uplifted the
has affected the exposed Cretaceous section (Smith,
Triassic rift assemblages and older rocks (Aspden and
1989).
Litherland, 1992).
A second phase of convergence in the Cordillera
DATA BASE AND DATA ANALYSIS
Real began in the Late Cretaceous (Balkwill et al.,
1995) and lasted until the early Tertiary (Canfield, Data used in this study consist of (i) a 3D seismic data
1991; Aspden and Litherland, 1992). This transpression set covering both Bermejo North and South fields and
created a network of low-relief basement reverse faults (ii) wireline logs and stratigraphic tops from 45 wells
and structural highs in the Oriente Basin (Balkwill et (16 and 29 wells from Bermejo North and South,
al., 1995), providing lines of basement weakness for respectively) (Fig. 2). Cores and biostratigraphic data
later reactivation. All of the major oil- and gasfields in remain proprietary and thus
 G.H.Lee et al. 340

Fig. 4. (A) Seismic reflection profile and (B) corresponding line drawing interpretaron. Seismic reflections within
the Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín are characterized by variable amplitude and low
continuity, whereas those within the upper part of the Upper Hollín are more continuous and uniform. The Ñapo
Formation is generally characterized by very continuous, parallel, moderate-to-high amplitude reflections. See
Fig. 2 for location.
were not available in this study. The 3D seismic data Data from the 45 wells inelude nine stratigraphic
consist of 540 inlines, trending NNW-SSE with an tops, time-depth tables, and various wireline logs (SP,
azimuth of 345°, and 809 crosslines. A subset of the gamma ray (GR), resistivity, sonic, neutrón porosity,
survey (540 inlines and 595 crosslines) was analyzed in and density). The well log curves were imported into
this study. The bin size was 30 x 30 m; the data are 32- GeoFrame for display and analysis. Well-log
fold over much of the area. ProMAX 2D/3D (versión correlation and interpretation were based primarily on
7.2) and GeoFrame (versión 3.8.1) were used for the GR log because it is the most consistent. The time-
seismic data processing and for data interpretation and depth relationship at each well was refined by synthetic-
mapping, respectively. to-well tie using Hampson-Russell(version
 G. H. Lee et al.
0o 15' NI
0o 10' N
0o 5'N
77° 20' W
2.0.3). To generate the synthetic seismograms, a
Fig. 5. Depth-structure map of top Main Hollín.A structural closure, defined by the l,400m contour and the
reverse fault, is seen ¡n Bermejo South.The depth of the crestal part of the anticline in Bermejo North reaches
about 1,470 m. Contour interval lOm.
wavelet was extracted directly from a subset of the
seismic data and convolved with reflection coeffícients
computed from Sonic and density log data. For wells
without a sonic log, data from nearby wells were used.
The time-depth relationship at each well was further
reñned for time-depth conversión, using the depths of
stratigraphic tops and the two-way travel times of the
tops interpreted from the seismic data.
STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY
Structure of the Bermejo field area
Seismic data forpre-Cretaceous (pre-Hollín) rocks are
generally of poor quality (Fig. 4). Thus, although its top
is well constrained, the intemal structure of the acoustic
basement is not well determined and the truncation of
pre-Cretaceous beds, documented in other parts of the
Oriente Basin (Balkwill et ai, 1995), is not observed in
this study. The eastward-dipping, high-angle reverse
faults forming the western boundaries of Bermejo North
and South together with
341
77° 15’W
other minor faults gradually die out upward into the
shallow part of the section.
We constructed depth structure maps for the top of
the Main Hollín interval (Fig. 5), the top of the Upper
Hollín interval (or top Hollín) (Fig. 6), and top of the
basal Tena (not shown), using the interval velocities
estimated from well data and two-way travel times from
seismic data interpretation. These maps show detailed
structural features that would not be recognizable from
those constructed using 2D seismic reflection profiles
and well data. The most prominent structural features
are the two anticlines corresponding to Bermejo North
and South, respectively, and the reverse faults bounding
the anticlines. These reverse faults trend NW in the
south, but curve NE in the north.
The depths of the top Main Hollín (Fig. 5) in the
mapped area range from less than 1,350 m over the
anticline in Bermejo South to more than 1,700 m in the
northeast. A NW-SE trending structural closure, defined
by the 1,400 m contour and the reverse fault, is seen in
Bermejo South. The main part of this closure
 342 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

0o 15' Fig. 7
N
shows a
segment
of seismic
section
traversing
well BS-
30
(location
in Fig. 2),
together
with type
0o 10'
N (GR and
resistivity)
has not been
drilled. To the logs from
this well.
SE is a smaller
Also
closure, outlined
by the 1,400 m shown are
type logs
contour. The
for the
depth of the
crestal part of the Hollín
Formation
anticline in
and a part
Bermejo North
reaches about of the
Ñapo
1,470 m; the
Formation
closure here is
from the
defined 0o 5' N - Sacha
by the
0
field and a
1,490 m contour and the reverse fault. 77 20' W
composite log for the western Oriente Basin.
The structure of the top Upper Hollín (Fig. 6) is The primary reservoirs at the Bermejo field are the

Fig. 6. Depth-structure map of top Upper Hollín (top Hollín).Two closures are seen in Bermejo South.The
closure in Bermejo North ¡s defined by the 1,450m contour and the reverse fault. Contour interval I Om.
very similar to that of the top Main Hollín. However, Hollín and basal Tena sands. Small volumes of oil have
the reverse faults and the axial regions of the anticlines also been produced from the “A” Limestone of the
are offset slightly westward due to the eastward dip of Ñapo Formation at the BN-02 well (Marín et al., 2001).
the reverse faults. The depth of the top Upper Hollín in Unlike many other fields in the Oriente Basin, the Ñapo
the mapped area varíes from less than 1,300 m in sands in the Bermejo field are generally either thin or
Bermejo South to over 1,650 m in the NE part of nearly absent.
Bermejo North. Two closures, outlined by the 1,350 m
contour, are seen in Bermejo South. The main part of the Hollín Formation
larger closure has not been drilled. The closure in The Hollín Formation overlies a pre-Cretaceous
Bermejo North is defined by the 1,450 m contour and basement consisting of granite, metamorphic rocks and
the reverse fault. conglomerates (Beicip-Franlab, 1994). It is divided into
The structure of the top basal Tena sand also reveáis the Main Hollín and the thinner Upper Hollín (Fig. 7),
two closures corresponding to Bermejo North and separated by a thin shale layer. Seismic reflections
South. The main parts of theses closures have not been within the Main Hollin and lower part of the Upper
tested. Hollín are characterized by variable
Reservoir description
 G. H. Lee et al.
amplitude and low continuity, whereas those of the
upper part of the Upper Hollín are more continuous and
uniform (Fig. 4). Seismic profiles show numerous
erosional surfaces in the Main Hollín and the lower part
of the Upper Hollín (Fig. 8). These erosional surfaces
are more easily recognized on the east-west lines than
on the north-south lines. The top of the Upper Hollín is
represented by a very continuous reflector.
The GR curves of the Main Hollín are generally
characterized by blocky or barrel-shaped sands.
Relatively high (> 120 API units) GR fingers or shales
of various thicknesses are also present (Figs. 7,9,10).
The individual sand units and interbedded shales in the
Main Hollín cannot be correlated across the area.
The textural and structural features of the Hollín
Formation in the study area, observed from core
samples (Beicip-Franlab, 1994), are characterized by: (i)
an upward decrease of sandstone percentage; (ii) an
upward increase of calcite fraction; (iii) an upward
decrease of the number and thickness of coal beds; and
(iv) a change of sedimentary structures from cross-
bedding in the Main Hollín to flaser bedding in the
Upper Hollín.
The gross thickness ofthe Main Hollín varíes from
less than 50 m to over 80 m across the Bermejo field
(Fig. 11 A). Overall, the Main Hollín thins gradually to
the south. The net sand thickness (Fig. 1 IB) was
estimated from the GR data. Because the GR readings
of the blocky intervals are consistently less than 40 API
units, we used a 40 API cut-off for sand. Net sand
thicknesses range from less than 10 m in the central part
of Bermejo South to over 60 m in the northem part. The
net-to-gross ratios of the Main Hollín (not shown) range
from 0.3 to 0.7.
The GR curves of the lower part of the Upper
Hollín are characterized by a blocky and/or irregular
signature (Figs. 7,9,10), similar to those of the Main
Hollín. Correlation of the individual sand units is
difficult but some sand units in the upper part of the
Upper Hollin appear to be correlatable over a few
kilometers (e.g. BN 7 to BN17 in Fig. 9; BS13 to BS 19
in Fig. 10). High GR readings or shales become more
abundant towards the upper part of the Upper Hollín.
The gross thickness of the Upper Hollín displays a
pattem nearly opposite to that of the Main Hollín (Fig.
12A). The 40m isopach contour outlines a WNW-ESE
trending región of thicker Upper Hollín in Bermejo
South. Bermejo North shows two regions of thicker sand
(> 40 m). The net sand distribution (Fig. 12B) suggests
a more-or-less north-south trending elongate feature,
outlined by the 5m contour. The net-to-gross ratios of
the Upper Hollín range from 0 to 0.4, much lower than
those of the Main Hollín.
The uppermost part of the Upper Hollín in the study
area is a well-defined shale layer (Figs. 9, 10),
corresponding to a very continuous reflector in seismic
data (Fig. 4). This shale layer gradually thins northward
343
from about 15 m to less than 2 m (Fig. 13).
Ñapo Formation
The Ñapo Formation conformably overlies the Hollín
Formation. Seismic reflections within the Ñapo
Formation are characterized by moderate-to-high
amplitude and good continuity (Figs. 4, 7). The GR
signatures of the Ñapo Formation contrast sharply with
those of the Hollín Formation in that: (i) high (> 100
API units) GR shales are dominant; (ii) individual log
signatures can be easily correlated across the study area;
and (iii) very high (> 200 API units) GR readings are
locally present (Figs. 7, 9, 10).
The Ñapo “T” generally exhibits a coarsening-
upward log signature. The gross thickness (not shown)
varíes from less than 8 m to 15 m. It is thick (> 12 m)
over much of Bermejo North and in the central part of
Bermejo South.
Overlying the Ñapo “T” is the “B” Limestone,
characterized by irregular GR readings (Figs. 7,9,10).
The “B” Limestone in tum is overlain by a thick (about
40-50m) unit of high and fairly uniform GR signatures,
similar to the shale layer underlying the Ñapo “T”.
The interval between this shale and the “MI”
Limestone is characterized by relatively high and
irregular GR readings, including some very high valúes
(> 200 API units). Within this interval, the Ñapo “U”
and other sand units (M1 and M2 or San Femando
Members; Smith, 1989) (Fig. 7), which are important
reservoirs in other fields in the western Oriente Basin,
are apparently replaced by limestones and/or not
recognizable. The “A” Limestone is about 25m thick
and occurs throughout the study area.
The zone between the “MI” Limestone and the
Tena Formation consists of a series of fining-upward
cycles that can be correlated across the area. Minor
blocky or coarsening upward log signatures are also
seen locally.
Tena Formation
The logged interval of the Tena Formation is
characterized by relatively high GR readings except for
the basal Tena sand, which is the uppermost producing
sandstone in the Oriente Basin. Fining- upward GR
motifs occur, like those of the upper interval of the
Ñapo Formation, although the overall GR readings are
higher.
The GR curves of the basal Tena sand are
characterized by one or more low GR peaks (Figs. 7,
9,10) and by a sharp base and fining-upward signature
where it is relatively thick. In some wells, the basal
Tena sand is very thin (< 1 m) or hardly recognizable.
 344

(•oas) giAiirraAvai AVM-OMI

Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Fig. 7. From left to right: (i) a segment of seismic profile traversing the Hollín-Napo-Tena interval in the BS-30 well in the Bermejo field; (ii) GR and resistivity logs from this
well; (iii) GR and resistivity logs from a typical well in the Sacha field (from Shanmugam et al., 2000); and (iv) a composite log for the western Oriente Basin (White et al.,
1995). Datum for the logs is top Hollín. See Fig. 2 for the seismic line location.
 G. H. Lee et al.

Fig. 8. (A) Seismic reflection profile flattened on top Upper Hollín wíth well logs superimposed and (B) line drawing interpretaron showing numerous irregular surfaces in
the Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín. Log traces at each well are GR (left) and resistivíty (right) curves. No resistivity log is available at BN-13. See Fíg. 2
for location.
345
 346 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

A A'
NNW qqir
BN-02 BN-16 BN-18 BN-10 BN-15 BN-17 BN-08 BN-13 BN-07 OOC

Fig. 9. NNW-SSE stratigraphic GR log cross-section A-A' across Bermejo North. Gamma-ray curves in the
Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín are characterized by blocky or barrel-shaped signatures,
and by poor correlatability. Gamma-ray signatures of the Ñapo Formation are characterized by good
correlation.
The interval between the “MI” Limestone and top basalTena consists of a series of fining-upward cycles.
Datum is top Upper Hollín. See Fig. 2 for location.
The isopach and net-sand maps (Fig. 14) suggest a NE- Hollín Formation
SW trending elongate feature. An area isolated by the The textural and structural features of the Hollín
5m contour is seen in the central part of Bermejo South. Formation in the study area, observed from the core
The cored intervals of the basal Tena sand consist of samples (Beicip-Franlab, 1994), may reflect upward
fine- to medium-grained quartz sandstones with cross- increasing marine/tidal influence and the deterioration
stratification and intercalations of shales (Beicip- of reservoir quality toward the later part of Hollín
Franlab, 1994). deposition. However, it is difficult to determine how
extensive marine/tidal processes would have affected
RESERVOIR FACIES INTERPRETATION AND Hollín and Ñapo deposition because of very brief
DISCUSSION published descriptions of the core data and the lack of
Reservoir facies interpretation biostratigrahic information.
The numerous erosional surfaces in the Main Hollín
Facies interpretations for the Hollín and Ñapo
and the lower part of the Upper Hollín may not be
Formations by White et al. (1995), Shanmugam et al.
compatible with the tidal shelf model of Higgs (2002)
(2000), and this study are summarized in Table 1.
because erosión would not be widespread and
 G. H. Lee et al.
White et al. (1995)
Area Western Oriente Basin
Data Core and outcrop descriptions, seismic, well Core (Sacha field), limited outcrop
logs, petrophysical analyses
Ñapo Top
Open marine (shelf) Marginal marine
Fluvio-deltaic Marginal marine Base
Open marine (shelf)
Open marine (shelf) Shorezone
Upper
Top „ , , .
Hollin Coastal plain
Main Braidplain
Base Alluvial valley
Table I. Facies interpretations for the Hollín and Ñapo Formatlons by White et al. (1995), Shanmugam et al.
(2000), and this study.
extensive in a tidal shelf where thick sands are
deposited mainly as sand bars and broad sand fíats
(Dalrympleetal., 1992, p. 1136). Moreover, bar-like or
smooth and mounded seismic facies, characteristic of
tidal sand bars, are not seen in the Hollín Formation in
the Bermejo field.
The tide-dominated estuary model of Shanmugam
et al. (2000) is based mainly on lithofacies analysis of
conventional cores (> 150 m) from the Sacha field. The
fluvio-deltaic model of White et al. (1995), on the other
hand, is based on an extensive data set including
seismic, well logs, and over 1,100 m of cores ffom
various fields in the western Oriente Basin. The
sedimentary features observed from the Hollín and
Ñapo Formations in the Sacha field, such as mud
drapes on bed forms, bidirectional cross-bedding and
sandy and muddy rhythmites, strongly suggest tidal
influence. However, because the Sacha field occupied
only a very small area along the outer margin of an
apparently large estuary or embayment (Shanmugam et
al., 2002, p. 675), it may not be appropriate to
generalize the depositional environments in the Oriente
Basin on the basis of the Sacha field study alone. Tide-
related sedimentary structures can also occur in
fluvially-dominated deposits because tidal processes
can significantly influence fluvial environments several
tens of kilometers from an open estuary or coeval
shoreline (Shanley et al., 1992; Shanley and McCabe,
1993). Thus, flaser bedding observed in the cores ffom
the Upper Hollín in the Bermejo field does not
necessarily indícate that tidal processes domínate over
fluvial processes. In addition, channels in a tide-
dominated estuary would be much muddier than fluvial
channels (Brownridge and Moslow, 1989) and thus
may not be as blocky as the sands in the Hollín
Formation in the Bermejo field.
White et al. (1995) interpreted the stacked cross-
bedded sandstone with interbedded mudstone in the
Main Hollín in the western Oriente Basin as braid-
347
1
Shanmugam et al. (2000) This Study
Sacha Field Bermejo Field
descriptions (Hollín, Lorcto Coca Road) Seismic, well logs, limited core descripitions
Upper Not interpreted
Open marine (shelf) except Ñapo "T” sand
"T" (deltaic)
Tide-dominated estuary and
Lower
"U" shelf
Tide-dominated estuary and shelf Marginal marine L ' Tide-
Upper
influenced Fluvial 1 |
Tide-dominated estuary and fluvial Main Alluvial plain
plain deposits. We also propose that the Main Hollín
and the lower part of the Upper Hollín in the Bermejo
field represent stacked or amalgamated channels,
deposited in a multiple-channel System probably in a
braid-plain environment. The apparently north-south
trending erosional truncation in the Hollín Formation
further suggests that the channels trend more-or-less
north-south. The lack of continuity in seismic
reflections, however, makes it difficult to map the
truncation. Seismic attribute maps for the Hollín
Formation do not clearly reveal individual channels
either.
The transgression during the later part of Hollín
deposition gradually drowned the study area. The good
continuity and uniform nature of the seismic reflections
in the upper part of the Upper Hollín are possibly due
to increasing marine influence (Brown and Fisher,
1985). The flaser bedding in the Upper Hollín probably
suggests tidal influence. The areas of thick net sand in
the Upper Hollín, outlined by the 5m contour (Fig.
12B), may be part of a fluvio-tidal channel System. The
distinct shale layer with very high GR valúes that caps
the Hollín Formation probably marks fully marine
conditions at the end of Hollín deposition, as marine
flooding events are characterized by widespread shale
deposition (Galloway, 1989) and high GR readings.
This shale layer thins northward, suggesting a
northward marine transgression and thus an east-west
trending palaeo- shorezone. The orientation of the
palaeo-shorezone, the north-south trending truncational
features in the Main Hollín and the lower part of the
Upper Hollín, and the southward thinning of the Main
Hollín further
348 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Upper Hollín. See Fig. 2 for location.

Fig. 11. (A) Gross-thickness and (B) net-sand thickness maps of the Main Hollín.The net-sand thlcknesses range from less than 10 m in the central part of Bermejo South to over 60
m in the northern part. Contour intervals for (A) and (B) are 2 m and 5 m, respectively.

TI kness (m)
Gross Thickness (m)

— 0 o WN
\'v-
VTV \

\.. Yvw ......... m ... \ . \ .. \ . i

A\ J ___ %
O LOCATlON WEll ^ i
•<>• NON-PRODUCIN6
WELL %
PRODUCING WELL

0 5' N
o

-I
_ 0 5 N
o 1
(B)

Fig. 12. (A) Gross-thickness and (B) net-sand thickness maps of the Upper Hollín.The Upper Hollín is thinnest in the northern Bermejo South and in Bermejo North, and
becomes thick in the SW and east.The net sand distribution suggests a north-south trending elongate feature. Contour interval 2 m.
350 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Fig. 13. Isopach map of the shale layer forming the topmost part of the Upper Hollín.The
shale layer gradually thins northward. Contour interval I m.
suggest that much of the Hollín Formation was sourced
ffom the north. The north-south well-log cross-sectíon
traversing the Sacha field (Shanmugam et al., 2000, p.
676), however, shows only a hint of a thin shale layer in
the topmost part of the Hollín Formation. This makes it
difficult to interpret the direction of marine
transgression during Hollín deposition in the Sacha
field, although the tide- dominated estuary model
indicates a north-south trending palaeo-shorezone.
Ñapo Formation
The most conspicuous features of the Ñapo Formation
in the Bermejo field are: (i) the excellent correlation of
log signatures; (ii) very continuous and uniform seismic
reflections; and (iii) the absence of thick sand layers
except for the Ñapo “T”. These suggest that the Ñapo
Formation represents deposition from widespread
sedimentary processes probably in a shallow marine
environment. The lack of thick sand layers, comparad
to many other fields in the western Oriente Basin, may
suggest that the Bermejo field was located further from
terrigenous sources during much
of Ñapo deposition. The very high GR peaks probably
represent periods of flooding.
Higgs (2002) noted the extensive distribution of the
Ñapo “T” and “U” facies association in the Oriente
Basin. He further argued, based on the composite log
for the Ñapo “T” (Fig. 7) shown by White et al. (1995),
that the sharp base of the Ñapo “T” suggests
eustatically-forced regressions, emplacing inner-shelf
sands (bars and sheets) on outer-shelf muds. The
composite log for the Ñapo “T” is generally blocky and
is characterized by a sharp base and a fining- or
deepening-upward top (Fig. 7). White et al. (1995)
interpreted the Ñapo “T” as incised-valley fill and
estuarine deltaic deposits. The Ñapo “T” in the Sacha
field also shows evidence for deepening or drowning
(Shanmugam et al., 2000). In contrast, the log character
of the Ñapo “T” in the Bermejo field is characterized by
a coarsening-upward textural profile, suggesting
progradation/regrassion. The gradational base of the
Ñapo “T” in the Bermejo field further suggests a
gradual transition probably ffom shelf muds to coarser-
grained deposits. We interpret the Ñapo “T” as deltaic
deposits. The fluvial System responsible for
 352 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Fig. 15. Distribution of GR signaturas (Type I and Type 2) of Ñapo “T”.Type I is characterized by
well-defined coarsening upward with a sharp top, and dominates in Bermejo North and the
northern part of Bermejo South. Type 2 is characterized by gradational top and basal contacts,
and mainly occurs in the Southern part of the study area.

the Ñapo “T” may have resulted from a sea-level fall
and/or gradual migration of fluvial facies into the area.
Hunter et al. (2000) correlated the Ñapo “T” with the
late Albian (98 Ma) sea-level lowstand. The thin,
blocky topmost part of the Ñapo “T”, seen in some of
the GR logs, may represent distributary channels
cutting through the top of the distributary mouth bars.
The GR signatures of the Ñapo “T” in the Bermejo
field can be grouped further into two types:
Type 1, characterized by well-defined coarsening
upward with a sharp top; and
Type 2, characterized by gradational top and basal
contacts (Fig. 15).
Type 1 dominates in Bermejo North where the
Ñapo “T” is generally thick (compare Fig. 9 and Fig.
10) and the northern part of Bermejo South, whereas
Type 2 mainly occurs in the Southern part of the study
area where the Ñapo “T” is thinner (Fig. 15).
Types 1 and 2 may represent distributary mouth
bars and bar-fringe deposits, respectively. Thus, the
zonal distribution of Ñapo “T” GR log types may
suggest more-or-less southward progradation.
Tena Formation
The logged interval of the Tena Formation is
characterized by a series of fining-upward sequences
similar to the upper part of the Ñapo Formation,
suggesting transgression. However, the GR valúes for
these sequences are higher than those of the upper part
of the Ñapo Formation. The sharp base and fining
upward signatures (Figs. 9, 10) of the GR logs of the
basal Tena and the abrupt transition from black
calcareous shales to sand across the Ñapo-Tena
boundary observed in the cored samples (Beicip-
Franlab, 1994), indicate an erosive event over much of
the area. This erosive event may be due to an abrupt
sea-level fall and/or to a sudden shift of a channel
system into the area. The NE-SW trending elongate
feature in the basal Tena sand may represent fluvial
facies deposited during this event. The area isolated
 TENA
G. H. Lee et al.

Fig. 16. Cretaceous depositional model for the Bermejo field. During Main Hollín and lower Upper Hollín deposition, the area was a braid plain.The area was drowned by
the ensuing marine transgression from the south or SW, which was interrupted by a regression that deposited the deltaic Ñapo “T”. As the sea level rose again, carbonate
and fine-grained sedimentation prevailed. Increasing clastic input and/or greater water depths terminated carbonate sedimentation.followed by a series of transgressive
events.These transgressive events were punctuated by an abrupt sea-level fall and/or a sudden shift of fluvial facies into the area, depositing the basal Tena sand.
353
 354 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador
by the 5ra contour in the central part of Bermejo South
may be an abandoned channel segment.
Reservoir body orientation
An important aspect of this study is that the reservoir
sands in the Hollín Formation in the Bermejo field are
predicted to trend north-south. The conventional fluvio-
deltaic model (Macellari, 1988; Canfield, 1991; White
et al., 1995) would predict that the primary reservoirs
are east-west trending channels and more- or-less north-
south trending distributary mouth bars. The tide-
dominated estuary model (Shanmugam et al., 2000), on
the other hand, predicts that east-west trending tidal
sand bars are the principal reservoirs. We interpret that
the palaeogeography of the Oriente Basin was more
complex than that of the existing depositional models
that depict a north-south oriented shorezone and
sediment supply from the east. The isopach maps for
the Hollín and Ñapo reservoirs for the entire Oriente
Basin (Dashwood and Abbots, 1990, p. 93) suggest that
sediments were supplied from the east and NE for the
Hollín and Ñapo Formations. The individual isopach
contours, however, are quite variable, suggesting more
complex sediment-transport directions and intra-
depositional hiatuses. Information on the origin and
directional trends of depositional systems is very
important to understand reservoir orientation,
connectivity and directional permeability, all of which
are factors which are used for optimizing completion
programmes and the placement of development wells.
Depositional model
The depositionl model proposed for the Bermejo field is
illustrated in Fig. 16. During Main Hollín and lower
Upper Hollín deposition, the study area was a braid
plain. Ensuing marine transgression, probably from the
south or SW, gradually drowned the area. Continued
marine transgression during Ñapo deposition
completely inundated the area, resulting in a shelf
environment. The marine transgression was interrupted
by the deposition of the deltaic Ñapo “T” sand. As the
delta was abandoned with a sea-level rise, carbonate
and fine-grained sedimentation prevailed in the area.
The carbonate deposition was terminated by increasing
clastic input and/or greater water depths during the later
part of Ñapo deposition. A series of transgressive
events characterized the upper Ñapo and lower Tena
deposition. These transgressive events were interrupted
by an abrupt sea- level fall and/or a shift of a channel
system into the area that deposited the basal Tena sand.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper
Hollín in the Bermejo field are interpreted as fluvial
deposits. The numerous erosional surfaces in the Main
Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín may
indícate múltiple channel erosión and switching. The
truncation is better observed on east-west lines than on
north-south lines, suggesting a north-south trending
fluvial system.
The distinct shale layer with very high GR valúes
that caps the Hollín Formation may mark fully
transgressive conditions. The northward thinning of this
shale unit suggests northward marine transgression and
thus an east-west trending palaeo- shorezone. The
orientation of the palaeo-shorezone, the north-south
trending truncational features in the Main Hollín and
the lower part of the Upper Hollín, and the southward
thinning of the Main Hollín suggest that much of the
Hollín Formation was sourced from the north. Thus, the
channel sands in the Hollín Formation are predicted to
be oriented in a north-south direction.
The Ñapo Formation is interpreted to have been
deposited by uniform and widespread processes,
probably in a shallow marine environment. The Ñapo
“T” is generally coarsening-upward, indicating
progradation/regression, and has a gradational base
suggesting a gradual transition from shelf muds to
coarser-grained deposits.
After Ñapo “T” deposition, carbonate and fine-
grained sedimentation became dominant in the area.
During the later part of Ñapo deposition, increasing
clastic input and/or greater water depths terminated
carbonate sedimentation. These relatively fine-grained
deposits were punctuated by the basal Tena sand. The
NE-SW trending elongate feature in the basal Tena sand
probably suggests that sediments were supplied from
the NE.
The palaeogeography of the Oriente Basin was
probably more complex than that described by previous
depositional models which depict a north- south
oriented palaeo-shorezone and sediment supply from
the east.
Depth structure maps, based on 3D seismic data,
reveal that the main parts of the structural closures have
not been tested.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Tecpetrol (Argentina) for permission to
publish this work. We also thank Jan Dodson and Tim
Kwiatkowski for assistance in Computer work.
Schlumberger and Hampson-Russell are appreciated for
granting educational licenses and technical support. R.
Higgs and M. Keeley provided thorough reviews; their
comments significantly improved the paper. This study
was completed while G. H. Lee was visiting the
Institute for Exploration and Development
Geosciences (EDGe), University of Oklahoma, with
financial support from the Korea Research Foundation
through the Faculty Research Abroad Program (KRF-
2001-013-H00004). The EDGe provided partial
fimding for this study.
 G. H. Lee et al. 355

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