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PART-1
2ͲFLOWINCLOSEDCONDUITS
2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS
2.1.1 Definition of Laminar and Turbulent Flows:
Reynolds Number
y In a pipe flow,
flow there are 2 types of forces which become important:
ª§ wu · wu º V
1. Inertia
e t a force:
o ce ma x U䌔a x U䌔«¨ ¸ u » 䌱UL3 V UV 2 L2
¬© wt ¹ wx ¼ L
wu V
2. Viscous Force, Fvis Ww A P A 䌱P L2 PVL
wy L
Theinertiaforceisadestabilizingtypeofforce.Becauseit
showsthatvelocityischanginginaflow.
y Viscousforceisastabilizingtypeofforce.
Vi f i bili i ff Th
Theratioofinertia
i fi i
forcetoviscousforceis:
Inertia Force UV 2 L2 VL
Re
Viscous Force PVL Q
y Where
y V = characteristic velocity ĺ V=Uav for a pipe flow
y L= characteristic length ĺ L=D= diameter for a pipe
y Q= kinematic viscosity Therefore For a pipe flow the Reynolds number
becomes:
U av D
Re
Q
y In a pipe flow, two types of flow occurs depending on whether the
inertia force dominating or viscous force dominating. In other words
d
depending
di on th the magnitude
it d off the
th RReynols
l number,
b th there are 2 ttypes
of flow:
Turbulent flow
Re
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow is an irregular condition of flow in which various
quantities such as velocity and pressure show random variations with
time and space coordinates. The physical y quantities are often
described by statistical averages. In this sense we can define a
“steady” turbulent flow: a flow in which the time-average physical
quantities do not change with time time. It is a flow that inertia forces
dominates the viscous forces.
A dye
y injected
j into a turbulent flow would mix immediatelyy byy the
action of the randomly moving fluid particle; it would quickly lose its
identity in this diffusion process.
y Laminar flow is an orderly state of flow in which viscous forces
dominates, and flow takes place as if fluid particles slide over each
other without significant
g mixingg of neigboring
g g fluid pparticles. If a dye
y
were injected into the flow, it would not mix with the neighboring fluid
except by molecular activity: it would retain its identity for a relatively
long period of time.
time
Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Reynolds Experiment:
Dye
D
pipe
Dye streak
Q=VA
u
u(t) u u' (t)
u’
1T
u ³ udt
u(t) T0
u = time-averaged (or mean) value
T T = integration period
t
t0 t0+T
Entrance
E t
pressure
drop
'p
x3-x2= 'x
x1=0 x2=e x3 x
Wall Shear Stress at Entrance Region
Entrance Length:
y For a laminar flow in a circular p
pipe
p with a uniform
flow at the inlet, the entrance length is given by:
LE VD
0.06 Re Re
D X
y For a turbulent flow,
§1·
LE ¨ ¸
4.4(Re) © 6 ¹
D
2.2.2LaminarFlowinPipes:
Assumptions:
• Fluid is incompressible and Newtonian.
• Flow is steady,
steady fully developed,
developed parallel and
and, symmetric with respect
to pipe axis.
• Pipe is straight pipe and has a constant diameter.
diameter
W x
r0 p+(dp/dx)dx
r p
dx
T
z1 z2
Datum
§ dp ·
pA ¨ p dx ¸ A JAdx sin T W2Srdx 0
© dx ¹
dp dz
dxA Jdx A W2Srdx 0
dx dx
Dividing both sides by A=ʌr2:
d ( p Jz ) 2 W
dx r
dh d ( p Jz ) 2W § p ·
¨ since h z¸
dx Jdx Jr © J ¹
when r = 0 => W = 0 dh 2W 2W w
r = ro => W = Ww
dx Jr Jro
Note that the above equations are equally applicable to both laminar
and turbulent flow in pipes.
Ww For Laminar flow:
y du du
r
W W P P (1)
CL dy dr
d (p Jz) r
W (2)
dx 2
Instantaneous
profiles
Comparison of laminar and turbulent flow
Laminar Turbulent
Ww Ww
Ww,turb>Ww,lam
2.1.3 Head Losses in Pipes:
V2
hm Km
2g
2.2.1 Derivation of Darcy Weisbach Equation:
y Co
Consider
s de a ssteady
e dy fully
u y deve
developed
oped flow
ow in a pprismatic
s c ppipe
pe
(A = constant along centerline)
L
1
2
CV
V1 WsinT
p1A1 V2 p A
2 2
x R
Ff
WcosT T
W
z1 z2
V1 = V2 = V, A1 = A2 = A, D1 = D2, E1 = E2
a) Relationship b/w wall shear stress and head loss:
Continuity Equation:
Q V1A 2 V2 A 2 VA Constant
Momentum
M t E
Equation:
ti
p1A1 p 2 A 2 W sin T Ff UQ(E 2 V2 E1V1 )
p1A p 2 A JA(z1 z 2 ) W w PL 0
where RH is hydraulic radius
p p W w LP Ww L ( 2/4)/(ʌD)=D/4=R/2
RH=A/P=(ʌD )( )
z1 1 z 2 2 (1)
J J JA JR H D = pipe diameter
R = pipe radius
Energy Equation gives:
p1 p
z1 z2 2 hf (2)
J J
Ww L 2W w L 4W w L
hf
JR H JR JD
y In Fluid Mechanics
Mechanics, the wall-shear
wall shear stress can be
expressed as: 1 2
Ww C f UU av
2
Where Cf is a coefficient of friction. Therefore head loss
can be
b written
itt as
Ww L 2W w L 4W w L L 1 1 2
hf 4 C f UU av
JR H JR JD D Ug 2
or
2
L U av
hf f where f 4C f friction factor
D 2g
Darcy – Weisbach Friction Factor
1) L
Laminar
i Fl R 2000
Flow: Re
u(r)
r
umax
2
8LPVav 32LPV 2V 32LPV 64 L V
hf 2 2 2
Jro JD 2V JD Re D 2g
2
LV
Recall Darcy Weisbach equation: h f f
D2g
64
Then f in Laminar Flow.
Re
Friction factor for turbulent flow
y For hydraulically
F h d li ll smooth th pipe,
i ff=f(Re)
f(R ) only
l
y For frictionally transition zone: f=f(Re, İ/D)
y For fully rough pipe: f=f(İ/D) only.
2) Turbulent Flow: Re 4000
CL
Velocity profile
R=D/2
R D/2 u u ( y)
y
Gs
x
Viscous sublayer
Gs H H Gs
H
Rough Pipe-
Hydraulically
y y
1 § H · §H·
2 log¨ ¸ f func ¨ ¸
Rough Flow f © 3.7D ¹ ©D¹
2.2.4 Moody Diagram:
Moody diagram. (From L.F. Moody, Trans. ASME, Vol.66,1944.) (Note: If e/D = 0.01
and Re = 104, the dot locates ƒ = 0.043.)
Swamee – Jain Formula (Explicit)
1.325
f 2
ª § H 5.74 ·º
«ln¨¨ 0.9 ¸¸»
«¬ © 3.7D R e ¹»¼
p V2 L V2 8fL
H z hf f sin ce V Q / A then hf Q2
J 2g D 2g gS2D5
Given : Q (or V), L, D, Q, H. Find : hf It is straightforward problem.
4Q VSD 2
1) First calculate velocity: V (or Q )
SD 2 4
VD 4 Q
2) Then Reynold number Re =
Q SD Q
3) and relative roughness H/D
4)) ( , ) is determined either from Moodyy
Then the friction factor f(Re,H/D)
Chart or from Equations.
5) Hence compute the head loss, hf, from the Darcy-Weissbach equation.
2.3.2 Determination of average velocity (Type II):
L V2
H1 H2 h" , h" hf f (hm | 0)
D 2g
V H1 H2 2gD hf
2gD
fL fL
V,D,Q
Re=VD/Q
MoodyChartorEqs.
y q
H/D
Solution Procedure (Type II)
H
1
1. Calculate relative roughness;
D
2. Assume an initial guess for friction factor,
(if it is a rough pipe, then assume completely rough turbulent
flow for which f=f(H/D) only.
flow, only If it is a smooth pipe assume that
f(0)=0.015 or 0.020, which is a middle value in Moody chart).
hf D2g
3. Calculate velocity; V
fL
VD
4. Calculate Reynolds
y number;; R e
Q
5. Determine f by using data from Step1 and 4; f(i+1)
(use Moody Chart, or Equation)
6. Check if f(i+1) = f(i) ;? if no, go to step 3 with f(i+1)
SD2
if yes, continue and Calculate Q or V Q V
4
Iteration Table
f (i) V Re f (i+1)*
f(0) Assumed calculated calculated f (1)-determined
f (1) calculated calculated f (2) -determined
f (2) calculated calculated f (3) -determined
. . . .
. iteration is . stopped . when . f(i)=f(i+1)
. . . .
f (i) f (i+1)
DV Dh V
Re Re
Q Q
§ H· § H ·
f f ¨Re, ¸ f f ¨¨ R e , ¸¸
© D¹ © Dh ¹
FrictionlossfornonͲcircularconduits
1 2
for P2 P1
A 2 A1
Dh D
hf ! hf
2 1
V2 ! V1
H H
! and R e 2 | R e1 f 2 ! f1
Dh D
HydraulicDiameter
y For non-round
non round pipes, define the hydraulic
diameter
Dh = 4A/P
A = cross-section
cross section area
P = wetted perimeter
Example:
p openp channel
Ac = 0.15 * 0.5 = 0.075m2
P = 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.5 = 0.8m
Don’t count free surface, since it does
not contribute to friction along pipe
walls!
Dh = 4A/P = 4*0.075/0.8 = 0.375m
What does it mean? This channel flow
is equivalent to a round pipe of
diameter 0.375m (approximately).
2.4NONUNIFORMFLOWINCLOSEDCONDUITS
2.4.1Local(Minor) Losses:
(b)
Outle
Q
Pipe t
Separated
flow
Pump
•Pipe entrance or exit
Elbow
Tee Valve •Sudden expansion or contraction
•Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
•Valves, open or partially closed
•Gradual expansions
p or contractions
Separated flow
Inlet
Vena contracta
Flow separation
at corner
MinorLosses
MinorLosses
MinorLosses
MinorLosses
MinorLosses
h" hf hm
totall loss
l = H1 – H2
friction loss: hf = f (L/D)(V2/2g)
minor loss: hm = Km (V2/2g)
Km is the loss coefficient
For each pipe segment (i.e. reaches along which pipe diameter
remains constant) there may be several minor losses.
losses
Determinationof
i i f
MinorLosses
V2
hm Km
2g
ExpandingFlows
Continuity Eqn.:
Eqn :
Q V1A1 V2 A 2
x
venturi nozzle
FLOWMETERS
OrificeMeter
OrificeMeter
VenturiMeter
Diverging
Cone
Converging
Cone
(2)
Entry Energyequation(VelocityǦpressure)
((1))
Condservation of mass
Condservationofmass
2gh SGm 1 E
D2
Qact Cd A 2
1 E4 D1
z1 z2
h
Datum
VenturiMeter
Operation of a venturi meter is based on the principle that an increase in velocity
causes a decrease
d iin pressure.
Energy equation between sections (1) and (2): Continuity equation:
p V2 p V2 Q
and V2
Q
z1 1 1 z2 2 2 V1
A2
J 2g J 2g A1
p1 Q2 p2 Q2
z1 z2
J 2gA12 J 2gA 22
A2 p1 p2 D2
Q 2g'h where: 'h z1 z 2 E
1 E
4 1/ 2 J D1
Cd A 2
Qact 2g'h
1 E 4 1/ 2
VenturiMeter
'h can be found from U-tube manometer reading using hydrostatic principle:
p1 J z1 z p2 J z 2 z h J mh
Rearranging gives:
p1 p2 §J ·
'h z1 z 2 h ¨ m 1¸
J © J ¹
'h = h (SGm-1)
2gh SGm 1
Qact Cd A 2
1 E4
The Equation is independent of z1 and z2, so the manometer reading hm for a given
rate of flow Qact is not affected by the inclination of the venturi meter.
2 5 PIPELINESYSTEMS
2.5 PIPELINE SYSTEMS
2.5.1PipesinSeries:
D1,f1 D2,f2 Dn,fn
A B
L1 L2 Ln
QA = Q1 = Q2= …………=Q
Qn =Q
QB
h",AB=6hf,i+6hm,i ; i=1,..,n
2 5 PIPELINESYSTEMS
2.5 PIPELINE SYSTEMS
PipesinSeriesandEquivalentPipes:
A B C
Pipes A and B are connected in series, pipe C is the equivalent of them.
hLA hLB hLC
QA QB QC Q
fc, Lc, Dc are the equivalent friction factor, equivalent pipe length, and equivalent
diameter, respectively.
LC L A LB
If fA=fB=fc=, then
D5C D5A DB5
2 5 PIPELINESYSTEMS
2.5 PIPELINE SYSTEMS
PipesinSeriesandEquivalentPipes:
Generalizing for n pipes in series:
Branch 2
A Branch i B
Branch n
QA=Q1+Q2+……+Qn=QB
h",AB= h",1= h",2=...= h",i=...= h",n
If fA=fB=fc , then
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
§ D5c · § D5A · § D5 ·
¨ ¸
¨L ¸
¨
¨L ¸
¸ ¨¨ B ¸¸
© C¹ © A¹ © LB ¹
§ D 5eq · n § D 5i · 2
¨ ¸ ¦ ¨¨ ¸¸ 3
¨L ¸
© eq ¹ i 1
© Li ¹ n
E
Example2.8:
l 28
y Given a three-pipe series system as shown below. The total pressure drop is
pA-p
pB = 150 kPa,, and the elevation dropp is zA-zB = 5 m. The ppipe
p data are
pipe L (m) D (cm) H (mm)
1 100 8 0.24
2 150 6 0 12
0.12
3 80 4 0.20
§ p A pB · § L1 ·V2 L V
2
§ L ·V 2
¨¨ J J ¸¸ z A z B ¨¨ f1 1¸¸ 1 f2 2 2 ¨¨ f3 3 1¸¸ 3
© ¹ © D1 ¹ 2g D 2 2g © D 3 ¹ 2g
from continuity:
V1A 1 V2 A 2 V3 A 3
2 2
§8· §8·
A1 ¨ ¸ A2 ¨ ¸ A3 and A1 1.78 A 2 4A 3
©6¹ ©4¹
V2 1.78 V1 and V3 4 V1
2 2 2
§p p · § L1 ·V L V 2§ L ·V
¨ A B ¸ z A z B 1¸¸ 1 1.78 f 2 2 1 4 ¨¨ f 3 3 1¸¸ 1
2
¨¨ f1
© J J ¹ © D 1 ¹ 2g D 2 2g © D 3 ¹ 2g
2
Then; 2
Then; 2
Q = 10.167 m3/hr
SOLUTION (using eqivalent pipe approach):
Based on the assumptions that all f’s are of the same magnitude
L eq n Li
5 ¦ 5
D eq i 1 Di
hence one may either choose an equivalent Leq and determine Deq or
choose an equivalent Deq and find Leq to proceed.
for L eq ¦L 330
330 100 150 80
then 5
0.1 10 10 and D eq 0.0505 m
D eq 0.08 5 0.06 5 0.04 5
PA/J
A Deq = 5.05 cm
PB/J
zA B
zB
L= 330 m
L V2
HA HB f
D 2g
2 2
VA P VB P L V2
A zA B zB f
2g J 2g J D 2g
L V2
20.3 f
D 2g
H 1.325
V 1.46 m/s ; Re 72284 ; 0.004 ; f 2
D ª § 0.004 5.74 ·º
«ln¨© 3.7 722840.9 ¸¹»
¬ ¼
H
f 0.0301 V 1.42 m/s ; Re 70304 ; 0.004
D
f 0.0302 V 1.42 m/s
S
Q 1.42 0.0505 2 0.0028 m 3 /s
4
Q 10.24 m 3 /hr
For D eq 0.06 m
L eq
0.1 10 10 L eq 778 m
5
D eq
L V2
then H A HB f
D 2g
2 2
VA P VB P L V2
A zA B zB f
2g J 2g J D 2g
L V2
20.3 f
D 2g
Assume H=0.2 mm and hydraulically
rough flow. Then
1.325
H /D 0.0033 f 2
0.0269
ª § H / D ·º
«ln¨ 3.7 ¸»
¬ © ¹¼
778 V 2
20.3 0.0269
0.06 2g
f 0.0269 V 1.14 m/s ; Re 67059 ; f 0.0289
f 0.0289 V 1.06 m/s ; Re 62353 ; f 0.0291
f 0.0291 V 1.06 m/s ; Re 62353 ; f 0.0291
S
Q 1.06 0.06 2 0.0030 m 3 /s
4
Q 10 .8 m 3 /hr
E
Example2.9:
l 29
Assume that the same three pipes of previous example are now in
parallel with the same total loss of 20.3
20 3 m.
m Compute the total rate
Q(m3/hr), neglecting the minor losses.
D1=8 cm
A D2=6 cm B
D =44 cm
SOLUTION-1:
SOLUTION 1 3
Pipe H/D f1 V Re f2
1 0.003 0.268 3.46 271373 0.268
2 0.002 0.247 2.55 150000 0.247 f’s have converged
3 0.005
0 005 0.315
0 315 22.52
52 98823 0.315
0 315
Pipe
p V(m/s)
( ) Q(m( 3/s)) Q(m
( 3/hr))
1 3.46 0.0174 62.6
2 2.55 0.0072 26.0 Q= 100 m3/hr
3 2.52 0.0032 11.4
TOTAL 100
SOLUTION-2:
SOLUTION 2
Using equivalent pipe approach;
Based on the assumption that ff’ss are of the same magnitude;
1/ 2 1/ 2
§ D5 · § D5 ·
¨ eq ¸ 6¨¨ i ¸¸
¨ L eq ¸
© ¹ © Li ¹
hence one may either choose an equivalent length Leq and
determine Deq or vice versa to proceed.
6L i
For L eq 110 m
3
1/ 2 5 1/ 2 5 1/ 2 5 1/ 2
§ D 5eq · § 0.08 · § · § ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ 0.06 ¸ ¨ 0.04 ¸ 2.88x10 4
¨L ¸ ¨ 100 ¸ ¨ 150 ¸ ¨ 80 ¸
© eq ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹
Deq = 0.098
0 098 m
Then H A
HB hf
L V2
HA HB 20.3 f
D 2g ; L = 110 m, D = 0.098m
Since both f and V are not known assume H=0.2 mm and
hydraulically rough flow such that
H/D = 0.002
V2
20.3 1122.45 f
2g
i H/D fi V Re fi+1
0 0.002 0.0234 3.89 373745 0.024
1 0.002 0.024 3.84 368941 0.024 f1= f2
Then HA = HB + hf L V2
HA - HB = 20.3 = f ; L = 39.3 m , D = 0.08 m
D 2g
Since both f and V are not known assume H=0.2 mm and hydraulically
rough flow such that
H/D = 0.0025 2
V
20.3 491.25 f
2g
i H/D fi V Re fi+1
0 0.0025 0.0249 5.71 447843 0.0253
1 0.0025 0.0253 5.66 443922 0.0253 f1= f2
Therefore, V = 5.66 m/s
0284 m3/s
Q = 00.0284 /
Q = 102.4 m3/hr
2.5.3BranchingPipes,Junctions:
2 53B hi Pi J i
TheJunctionProblem
h1
Res. 1 h3
HGL
line 1
hj
Res. 3
h2
line 3
Res. 2 line 2
zj
Junction, j
r0
TheJunctionProblem:
h1
¦ ( r )Q i 0
Res. 1 h3
HGL (flows towards the junction are
hj considered to be negative!)
line 1 Res. 3
h2
line 3 hj=zj+pj/J
/
Res. 2
zj
line 2 h",i= hf,i + hm,i=zi-hhj
Junction, j r0
Identifytheproblem:
y Given
9Reservoir elevations, z1,z2, z3
9Pipe characteristics: L1,L2,L3,D1,D2,D3,İ1, İ2 ,İ3
y Determine
? The flow rate Q1,Q2, Q3
? and direction on each pipe
? Junction head: hj (piozometer head)
SolutionProcedure:
yAssume an appropriate
pp p pp
direction for the flow in each pipe
yAssume a junction head
If friction factor is unknown
Make best assumption for the initial value of the friction factor
(fully turbulent rough flow)
yWrite
W it energy equationti from
f eachh reservoir
i to
t the
th junction
j ti
Calculate the flow rate for each pipe by using energy equation
yPut into continuiy equation the determined discharge values
yCheck that the continuity equation is satisfied or not
yIf not change the junction head
E
Example2.10:
l 2 10
Find the flow rate in each pipe, neglecting the minor losses. (Q=1.02x10-6 m2/s)
Pipe 2 z2=100 m
L2 =150 m
D2=66 cm 2
H2=0.12 mm
z3=40 m
z1=20
20 m J 3
1 Pipe 3
Pipe 1 L3 =80 m
L1 =100 m D3=4 cm
D1=8 cm H3=0.20 mm
H1=0.24 mm
Assume junction head, hJ and check if Q1+Q2+Q3 = 0. If not, iterate
by assuming new hJ until ¦ Qi = 0 checks.
Iteration 1:
p
Assume h j z j j z 3 40 m
J
Pi 1
Pipe
h j h f1 z1
2
L 1 V1
h j z1 f1
D1 2g
2
100 V1
40 20 f1
0 .08 2 u 9 .81 f1 V1 Re1 H/D f
0 . 3139 0.0262 3.46 271372.6 0.003 0.0268
V1 0.0268 3.42 268235.4 0.003 0.0268
f1
Q1 43 . 6 m 3 / hr ((outflow))
Pipe 2
z 2 h f2 hj
2
150 V2
100 30 f2
0 .06 2 u 9 .81
0 . 5494 f2 V2 Re2 H/D f
V2 0.0243 4.75 279411 0.002 0.0242
f2
Q2 48 .4 m 3 / hr (inflow)
Pi 3
Pipe
z 3 h f3 hj
z3 h j h f3
2
L 3 V3
40 30 f3
D 3 2g
0 . 0981 f3 V3 Re3 H/D f
V3 0.0304 1.80 70588.24 0.005 0.0320
f3 0.0320 1.75 68627.46 0.005 0.0320
Q3 7 . 9 m 3 / hr (inflow)
Continuity at the junction:
¦Q 43 . 6 48 . 4 7 . 9 12 . 7 ¢ 0 i fl
inflow > outflow
tfl
Interpolation
hj (m)
40
40 30
hj 30 u 12 . 7 34 . 25 m
17 . 2 ( 12 . 7 )
30 Q (m3/s)
-12.7 17.2
Assume
A hj 34 .25 m
Pipe 1
0 . 2237 f1 V1 Re1 H/D f
V1 0.0270 2.88 225757 0.003 0.0269
f1
Q1 52 . 1m 3 / hr
Pipe 2
0 . 516 f2 V2 Re2 H/D f
V2
f2 00.0242
0242 44.62
62 271765 00.002
002 00.0242
0242
Q2 47 m 3 / hr
Pipe 3
0 . 0564 f3 V3 Re3 H/D f
V3 0.032 1.33 52157 0.005 0.0324
f3 0 0324 1.32
0.0324 1 32 51764 0.005
0 005 0
0.0324
0324
Q3 5 .97 m 3 / hr
% Error
¦Q j 0 . 87
u 100 1 .6 %
¦Q i f low
inf l 47 5 . 97