28-11-2018

Gap Analysis & Optimization of Fossil Fuel

Fired Boiler Performance

Ansuman Sen Sharma

India Boiler dot Com

What is our
objective?

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Identification & Assessment of

performance improving opportunities
in our system

Corrective measures to optimize

performance

Performance Gap in Boiler System

The Boiler System is comprising of various sub-
systems like Fuel system, water and steam system,
etc.

Each of these systems has a specific objective

…And they follow some basic engineering principles

to fulfil these objectives

If the conditions are ideal, then it gets reflected in

some of the parameters we measure

In field engineering, unfortunately,

nothing is ideal !!
The difference between the ideal and the actual
conditions would reveal the performance gap

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Identification of Performance Gap

Separate Steam Generating System into its various
sub-system and take a close look at each
components

For each component the engineer should ask the

following questions.

1. What is its objective?

2. Which basic engineering principle it follows?

3. What are the ideal conditions?

4. What are the field limitations in their system?

The engineer should know his system good enough

to understand the limitations

Deviation in the parameters would reveal the Gap.

If we have the capability to associate

this deviation with the field
condition, we can diagnose the
problem with reasonable accuracy
and take necessary corrective
actions to reduce the gap.

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But First
we need to change the way
we look at things

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You should see:

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Power Boiler Flow Diagram

HP IP / LP

GEN

comer
Down

Deaerator

Economizer

HP Heater

LP Heater

Condenser
Boiler Feed Pump

PA / FD Fan Cond. Extraction Pump

FROM FUEL HANDLING

SYSTEM

ID Fan
ESP

Various Sub-Systems:

Feed Water System:

Circulating Water & Steam System :

Fuel System :

Combustion Air System :

Flue Gas System :

Steam System :

Ash Handling System :

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Performance Assessment

Performance Optimization

Basics of Physical Measurement

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Physical Measurements

Velocity
Pressure
Energy

mass

Density

Temperature
Power Mole

Volume
Head

1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 kgf = 9.81N (Newton)
1 kg/ cm2 = 0.981 bar; 1 bar = 1.0197 kg/ cm2
1 bar = 105 N/ m2 (Pa) = 102 kPa = 0.1 Mpa
1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 1.033 kg/ cm2 = 1.013 bar
750 mm of Hg = 1 bar
Absolute Pressure = Actual pressure in the system
Gauge Pressure = differential pressure with respect to
atmospheric
1 kg/ cm2g = 2.033 kg/ cm2 absolute (ata)
1 ata = 1 kg/ cm2 abs
1 mm of water column = 1 kg/ m2
10 m of water column = 1 kg/ cm2
1 kg-m = 9.81 N-m = 9.81 J
1 kcal = 4.187 kJ = 3.969 BTU
1kg-m/s = 9.81 W
1 HP (British) = 33000 ft pound/min = 746 Watt ≈ 0.75 kW
1 kWh = 3600 kJ = 860 kcal

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1 kmol = 6.023 x 1026 numbers of molecules

Mass of 1kmol of any substance = Molecular weight in kg
1 Nm3 / Sm3 of gas = 1 m3 at 273 K Temperature and 101.3
kPa pressure
Density of air at NTP = 1.293 kg/ m3
Density of any gas at NTP = molar mass/ 22.4 kg/ nm3
Pressure exerted by liquid column (Head) = h x ρ mmWC;
h x ρ x 10-4 kg/ cm2 ; h x ρ x g Pa, h in m and ρ in kg/ m3
Velocity head = 10-4 x ρv2/ 2g, in kg/ cm2 ; v in m/ s
Specific heat of water = 1 kcal/ kg oC
Specific heat of air = 0.24 kcal/ kg oC
Specific heat of superheated steam = 0.50 kcal/ kg oC
Specific heat of ash = 0.20 kcal/ kg oC
Hydraulic Power of Pump/ Fan (kW) = pressure (kPa) x
discharge (m3/ s)
Power Consumption by electrical equipment = √3VICosΦ

Losses from Boiler System

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1. Heat lost with dry flue gas through chimney =

mg x Cg x (Tg - Ta)

2. Heat loss due to moisture formed by combustion

of Hydrogen in fuel = 9H x {584 + 0.45 x (Tg -
Ta)} kcal/ kg of fuel

3. Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel

= Mw x {584 + 0.45 x (Tg - Ta)} kcal/ kg of fuel

4. Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion

air

= Ma x FH x 0.45 x (Tg - Ta)} kcal/ kg of fuel

5. Heat Lost due to incomplete combustion

= [{CO% / (CO% + CO2%)} x C] x 5654 kcal/ kg

of fuel

6. Heat lost due to un-burnt = [Mash x {0.8 x

UBFA% + 0.2 x UBBA%}/ 100] x 8084 kcal/ kg of
fuel

7. Sensible Heat lost due to fly ash = 0.8 x Mash x

0.2 x (Tg - Ta)

8. Sensible Heat lost due to bottom ash = 0.2 x

Mash x 0.2 x (Tash - Ta)

9. Heat Lost due to radiation and convection =

Based on ABMA curve, radiation losses is assumed
as 0.4% for power station boiler

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1. Heat lost with dry flue gas through chimney = mg x Cg x (Tg - Ta)
2. Heat loss due to moisture formed by combustion of Hydrogen in fuel
= 9H x {584 + 0.45 x (Tg - Ta)} kcal/ kg of fuel
3. Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel
= Mw x {584 + 0.45 x (Tg - Ta)} kcal/ kg of fuel
4. Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion air
= Ma x FH x 0.45 x (Tg - Ta)} kcal/ kg of fuel

5. Heat Lost due to incomplete combustion

= [{CO% / (CO% + CO2%)} x C] x 5654 kcal/ kg of fuel

6. Heat lost due to un-burnt = [Mash x {0.8 x UBFA% + 0.2 x UBBA%}/

100] x 8084 kcal/ kg of fuel

7. Sensible Heat lost due to fly ash = 0.8 x Mash x 0.2 x (Tg - Ta)

8. Sensible Heat lost due to bottom ash = 0.2 x Mash x 0.2 x (Tash - Ta)

9. Heat Lost due to radiation and convection =

Based on ABMA curve, radiation losses is assumed as 0.4% for power
station boiler

Controllable Losses

1. Heat lost with dry flue gas through chimney =

mg x Cg x (Tg - Ta)
2. 5. Heat Lost due to incomplete combustion
= [{CO% / (CO% + CO2%)} x C] x 5654 kcal/ kg
of fuel

6. Heat lost due to un-burnt = [Mash x {0.8 x

UBFA% + 0.2 x UBBA%}/ 100] x 8084 kcal/ kg of
fuel

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Factors influencing Performance of

Boiler

The steam generator performance depends

on two aspects

Combustion
Conversion of Heat Energy from Chemical
energy of fuel (Fuel and Air System)

Transfer of Heat energy into water &

Steam (Flue Gas system)

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Fuel Characteristics
Combustion Mechanism
Combustion Systems

Combustion Performance Assessment

Combustion Optimization

The types of „Fossil‟ fuels we will discuss:

Coal
Oil

For coal; the types of combustion systems we

will discuss:

Pulverized Coal Fired

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Fuel
The primary source of heat in boiler system is
considered to be „Fossil‟ fuels.

Two major ingredients of these fuels are

Carbon and Hydrogen.

Carbon, Hydrogen and Sulphur are the three

ingredients in fuel which gives away heat
during an exothermic reaction with Oxygen.

Fuel Analysis:

Proximate
Ultimate analysis:
analysis:  Moisture
Carbon – C kg
 Hydrogen – H kg
 Volatile
Sulfur – Matter
S kg
 Nitrogen – N kg
 Ash
Oxygen – O kg
 Fixed
H2O – Carbon
M kg
 Ash – A kg
Total: 1 kg

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VM
Volatile Matter is a complex mixture of
organic materials, which volatilizes quickly
on heating at appx. 300°C and burns in
suspension in a furnace.

The higher the VM, the greater the

combustion speed

Increases Flame length

Increases chance of spontaneous

combustion
Limits Mill o/l temperature in PF

Coal Ash

Ash is the incombustible mineral matter (MM)

left behind when coal is burnt. In the
laboratory, it is the residue left on complete
combustion at 700–750°C in a muffle furnace
performed in a carefully controlled and
specified manner

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Ash

Problems:

Erosion

Slagging, Fouling and Clinkers

Corrosion

Typical proximate analysis result of Indian Coal

Moisture 6%
Ash 38%
Volatile Matter 21%
Fixed Carbon 35%
GCV (Kcal/Kg) 3600

Typical proximate analysis result of Indonesian Coal

Moisture 10%
Ash 15%
Volatile Matter 40%
Fixed Carbon 45%
GCV (Kcal/Kg) 5400

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Typical ultimate analysis of Indian Coal:

Carbon 41.11%

Hydrogen 2.76%

Sulphur 0.41%

Nitrogen 1.22%

Oxygen 9.89%

Moisture 5.98%

Mineral Matter (1.1 x Ash) 38.63

Proximate to Ultimate Analysis:

%C = 0.97C+ 0.7(VM+0.1A) - M(0.6 - 0.01M)
%H2 = 0.036C + 0.086 (VM - 0.1xA) - 0.0035M2 (1-
0.02M)
%N2 = 2.10 - 0.020 VM

Where
C = % of fixed carbon
A = % of ash
VM = % of volatile matter
M = % of moisture

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Problems with Liquid Fuel (FO)

Viscosity
Solid contamination
Water contamination
High Sulfur

Important factors to be considered for

Liquid fuel:
Heating
Atomizing
Cleaning
Draining
Exit Temperature and Cold End temperature

Combustion Mechanism

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Combustion is a chemical reaction of:

C + O2 = CO2 + 8084 kcal/ kg

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + 34500 kcal/ kg

S + O2 = SO2 + 2224 kcal/ kg

Oxidation of 1 kg of Carbon:

2430 kcal 5654 kcal

2C + O2 = 2CO + O2 = 2CO2

Incomplete Combustion Complete Combustion

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Combustion mechanism:

Fuel + Air Flue Gas + Heat

C N2 N2
H2 O2 CO2
S CO
N2 SO2
O2 O2
H2O H2O
Ash

Assessing Air Requirement

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Minimum Theoretical Air required for

complete combustion
= [2.67C + 8H - O + S] x 100/23

Excess Air from measured O2%

EA% = 100 x O/ (21 - O)

Excess Air from measured Air to Fuel Ratio

(PA Flow + FD Flow)/ Fuel Flow – Theoretical Air

3 T of Combustion

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Time

Temperature

Turbulence

Time

Reaction Time Retention Time

Type of fuel and fuel characteristics

Particle size in case of solid and liquid fuel

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Reaction Time of coal particle in PF Boiler:

From HPT
To HPT

To IPT

FSH

HRH

PSH CRH

volatiles LTSH

Char
coal particle ECO
d=30-70m

APH

tdevolatile=1-5ms tvolatiles=50-100ms tchar=1-2sec

Time

Reaction Time Retention Time

Velocity of flue gas

Particle size in case of solid and
liquid fuel

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Temperature

Ignition Temperatures of different combustible

Sulphur 250oC

Fixed Carbon 400oC

C2H2 (Acetylene) 480oC

C2H6 (Ethane) 540oC

C2H4 (Ethylene) 550oC

Hydrogen 610oC

CH4 (Methane) 650oC

CO 655oC

Turbulence

Mixing of air and fuel to ensure contact of

Oxygen with the combustible in the fuel

Combustion would start only after the

contact if the ignition energy is available

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Time

Temperature

Turbulence

Flue Gas Temperature Profile in PF Boiler:

Delayed To HPT
From HPT
Combustion ~ 800 - 850oC To IPT
Secondary
Combustion

~ 650 - 700oC

C FSH

HRH C O2

PSH CRH
~ 900 - 950oC O2

LTSH ~ 450 - 480oC

~ 1100 - 1200oC ~ 350 - 380oC

C O2 ECO

APH

~ 130 - 140oC

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SH metal temperature ~ 450 –

~ 800 - 850oC
550oC

Soot Formation
FSH

HRH

PSH CRH
~ 900 - 950oC
Water wall metal temperature is
below 370oC

Soot Formation

~ 1100 - 1200oC
CH4 C2H6

volatiles

Turbulence is the most important T

How and where the air is given is more

important than how much is given!

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Total air supplied as:

Primary Air

Secondary Air

Role of Primary Air in combustion:

Primary Air mixes with the fuel before entering

the furnace to create combustible mixture
Neither air rich, nor fuel rich mixture is desirable
High primary air will proportionately reduce the
secondary air quantity as quantity of total air is
controlled by O2 percentage
Oxygen rich condition during primary
combustion increases the possibility of SOx and
NOx formation

Role of Secondary Air in combustion:

It ensures complete combustion
It contributes to the turbulence by increasing the
∆P across furnace to wind box

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Additional Role of Primary Air in PF Boilers:

The job of PA is to lift the pulverized coal from the

mill to the furnace
This air would be proportional to the coal mass
to be delivered to the furnace
Low CV coal would require higher proportion of
PA
Reduction of PA may increase Mill reject

In the worst case, it may affect the furnace

temperature, pressure and steam load and lead to
fuel pipe chocking

Additional Role of Primary Air in PF Boilers:

when the primary airflow is very high, the fuel particles

“outrun” the secondary air and result in longer-than-
optimum flames

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Coal Combustion Systems

Pulverized Coal Fired Furnace:

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The usual safe mill outlet temperatures for

various fuels:

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Coal size distribution For PF Boiler.

70% < 200 mesh (75 micron)

Size Distribution : 100 – 150 ~ 30%

75 - 100 ~ 10%
Retention in 50 mesh should be less than 1%

0.2%
70 – 75% < 200 mesh

75 - 80% < 200 mesh

75 - 80% < 200 mesh

80 - 85% < 200 mesh

80 - 85% < 200 mesh

Grindability Index (Hardgrove Index)

G = 6.93W + 13
Mill Output x
100%

Hardgrove Index

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Fineness of Mill product

Capacity Factor

Fineness Percentage through 200 Mesh

SADC Wind Box Auxiliary Air Distribution

FF __ %

F __ %

EF __ %

E __ %

DE __ %

D __ %

CD __ %

C __ %

BC __ %

B __ %
If B, C, D, E in service???
AB __ %

A __ %

AA __ %

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Fouling & Slagging:

Fouling & Slagging:

Fusing of ash take place,

If furnace temperature exceeds Initial Deformation range of
ash
• Reducing atmosphere lowers the Initial Deformation
Temperature
• Ferrous iron content (Fe2) increases and act as catalyst in
substantially lowering IDT of ash
• When ratio of SiO2 to total oxides is high, slagging is less.
At < 0.6 slagging high
• Delay in evacuation of bottom ash, results in build up of
slag
• Design features of boiler furnace and bottom hopper

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Fouling & Slagging Indicator:

When percentage Iron Oxide - Fe2O3 in Ash by weight is:

• 3 to 8 -- Non- slagging
• 8 to 15 -- Slagging to some extent
• 15 to 23 -- High slagging property

Base to Acid Ratio 0.4 - 0.6 >> High Slagging possibility

Oxide Range (%) by wt Acidic (A)/ Basic (B)

SiO2 10–70 A
Al2O3 8–38 A
Fe2O3 2–50 B
CaO 0.5–30 B
MgO 0.3–8 B
Na2O 0.1–8 B
K2O 0.1–3 B
TiO2 0.4–3.5 A
SO3 0.1–30 A

Fouling & Slagging Indicator:

when slagging index of Ash is in the range of:

• 1230 to 1340 deg C -- Medium slagging property
• 1050 to 1230 deg C -- High slagging property
• < 1050 deg C -- Severe slagging property

4 IDT + HT IDT - Initial Deformation

Slagging Index Fs is ------------------ Temperature
5 HT - Hemisphere
Temperature

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Fouling & Slagging Indicator:

FEGT should be 50 – 55oC less than IDT

Furnace exit O2 should be more than 3% in case of

slagging coal

PA to SA ratio should be optimum

Negative aspects of high excess air

Increase in loss of sensible heat carried away by

flue gas
Increase in auxiliary power (FD & ID fan)
Limitation on boiler load due to exhaustion of ID
fan capacity
Increase in NOx and SO3 formation
Increase in erosion due to increase in flue gas
velocity
Shift in heat transfer from furnace to convection
pass resulting in heating up of down stream
components

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Combustion Optimization

Combustion Optimization

Combustion condition (3T) optimization

Combustion Air optimization

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Draught System

ΔP across the furnace = 450 mmwc

+ 450 - 450

Eva SH1 SH2 Eco APH

+ 100 - 350

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For PF Boilers
Parameters/ data needed

Ultimate Analysis of coal

O2, CO and CO2 at exit gas

LOI in Fly ash and Bottom ash

Platen SH inlet and boiler exit temperature

Furnace-wind box DP

PA & FD mass flow

Mill reject

Fuel flow

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Optimization Steps
Identify and stop Furnace Ingress

Calculate min. theo. Air from ultimate analysis

Measure FD and PA flow as per actual

Measure fuel flow and calculate air to fuel ratio

Calculate actual excess air

Check O2 and calculate theoretical excess air

Try to reduce PA flow by little margin

Check Mill reject and Fuel pipe chocking

Check Furnace Temperature and Boiler Pressure

Increase SA through WB by the same margin to

increase furnace DP

Adjust classifier setting to control fines to optimize LOI

in FA and BA

Use burner tilt to bring FG temp. to FSH inlet near

design value and reduce spray

Continue reducing PA and increasing SA to reach

optimum

Calculate CO loss, Dry gas loss and Un-burnt Loss

Reduce total air by delta indifferent trials to acquire

comparative TCL

Select combustion parameters with the minimum TCL

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Transfer of Heat energy into

water & Steam (Flue Gas system)

Flue Gas System

FS
H
SH 2

SH 1

ECO

APH

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Mode of heat transfer in furnace

~ 800 - 850oC

FS
H ~ 650 -
SH 2
700oC
~ 900 - 950oC
SH 1

~ 450 - 480oC

~ 1100 - ECO ~ 350 - 380oC

1200oC

APH

~ 130 - 140oC

Heat Transfer mode:

Luminous & Non-luminous Gas Radiation
Gas convection

~ 800 - 850oC

~ 650 - 700oC
~ 900 - 950oC

~ 450 - 480oC
~ 1100 - 1200oC

~ 350 - 380oC

~ 130 - 140oC

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Heat transfer through Radiation process is

much higher as compared to Convection

Radiation Heat Transfer P = eσA(Th4 – Tc4)

Radiation Heat Transfer depends on :

 Available Surface Area of the tubes
 Presence of more tri-atomic gases like CO2 and H2O
 Fly ash
 Gas temperature

Convection Heat Transfer q = hc A dT

Convection Heat Transfer depends on :

 Available Surface Area of the tubes
 Available heat load (gas temperature)
 Mass velocity of flue gas

Sensible heat

Heat in Water & Steam

Latent heat

Sensible heat: H = m C Δt

Latent heat: From Steam Table

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Enthalpy vs Temperature Diagram

BC >> EF >> HI >> KL M

J
Pabs = 220.9 bar
G
Tsat 374.14oC
K
L
D
Temperature

H
I

E
F

B
C

A Enthalpy

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Enthalpy vs Temperature for a Power Boiler

Tsup 540oC

Tsat 350oC

Eco out 310oC

HPH out 260oC

DA out 173oC
LPH out 140oC

CEP out 46oC

46 kcal 33 kcal 50 kcal 254 kcal 95 kcal

94 kcal 87 kcal

Diagnosis of Performance from

Boiler Parameters

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Diagnosis of High Boiler Exit Temperature

Let us assume it is a case of high exit

temperature in a 210 MW Pulverized Coal
fired boiler
Let us also assume the exit temperature has
increased at the base load during the last
couple of months

There is no significant change in fuel

characteristics during this period

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Pulverized Coal Fired 210 MW Boiler:

First take a close look at the Gas side

temperature profile of your system across
each heat exchanging element
Also refer the water and steam temperature
across each heat exchanger

One should have a clear idea about the mode

of heat transfer from the flue gas to the tube
at various boiler section

Check Attemperator spray quantity

Check exit O2

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Typ. Flue Gas Temp. Profile in 210 MW PF Boiler:

~ 800 - 850oC

FSH
~ 650 - 700oC
SH 2 CRH HRH
~ 900 - 950oC

SH 1

~ 450 - 480oC
~ 1100 - 1200oC

ECO ~ 350 - 380oC

APH

~ 130 - 140oC

~ 800 - 850oC

~ 650 - 700oC
~ 900 - 950oC

~ 450 - 480oC
~ 1100 - 1200oC

~ 350 - 380oC
√

~ 130 - 140oC

Check Eco outlet temperature (APH inlet)

Check:
If Eco outlet temperature is unchanged; then the problem lies in
 heat transfer
Passing across APH
of CAD
 Fouling of APH

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~ 800 - 850oC

~ 650 - 700oC
~ 900 - 950oC

~ 450 - 480oC
√
~ 1100 - 1200oC

~ 350 - 380oC

~ 130 - 140oC

If Eco outlet temperature has increased; then check Eco inlet temp.

If temperature has not changed, then the problem could be across

Check:
 Economizer heat
Economizer transfer
fouling

~ 800 - 850oC

~ 650 - 700oC
√
~ 900 - 950oC

~ 450 - 480oC
√
~ 1100 - 1200oC

~ 350 - 380oC

~ 130 - 140oC

If Eco inlet temperature has increased; then check LTSH inlet temp.

If temperature has not changed, then the problem could be across

Check:
 LTSH
LTSHheat transfer
fouling

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~ 800 - 850oC

√ ~ 650 - 700oC
√
~ 900 - 950oC

~ 450 - 480oC
~ 1100 - 1200oC

~ 350 - 380oC

~ 130 - 140oC

If LTSH inlet temperature has also increased; then the problem is in

the radiant SH/ RH.
Check:
If PSH inlet temperature is unchanged, it could be the time to
 operate LRSBs inspray
Attemperation that region.
decrease
 PSH inlet temperature

~ 800 - 850oC

√ ~ 650 - 700oC
~ 900 - 950oC

~ 450 - 480oC
~ 1100 - 1200oC

~ 350 - 380oC

~ 130 - 140oC

If LTSH inlet temperature has also increased; then the problem is in

the radiant SH/ RH.
If PSH
PSH inlet
inlettemperature
temperaturehas
is decreased,
unchanged, then
it could
it could
bebethe
because
time to
of
operate dilution;
furnace LRSBs in optimize
that region.
air/ fuel ratio

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Boiler
In
Power Plant Cycle

VAPOUR POWER CYCLE

RANKINE CYCLE

T 4
3
2

g
1 5
S

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VAPOUR POWER CYCLE : RANKINE CYCLE

boiler
T1
1
Q1

P
turbine Wt
Q2

T2 2

Q1= m (h1-h4) condenser

Q2= m (h2-h3) Wnet = Wt-Wp
Wt= m (h1-h2)
Wp=m (h4-h3) 3
η = P/Q1
4 pump Wp

Power Cycle

Effect Turbine Exit Pressure

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W = Qin – Qout
1 = W/Qin
Boiler
Qout = Condenser heat duty
Qin
and other losses.
Suppose at the same load if Qout
W
Turbine increases by  then Qin is also
increases by  so that W is the
Qout same. Hence W = (Qin-+ ) -
(Qout + )
Condenser
2 = W/(Qin + )

Thus if the losses are increased

by  then the input also increases
by the same amount.

Power Cycle

Effect of Super Heat

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Power Cycle

Effect Boiler Pressure

Re-Heating

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Regenerative Heating

Let x is the bleed steam per

kg of the main steam from 1
the extraction point 7 and
T
this steam is used to
increase the condensate •7
5
temperature from 3 to 5. 
Then 4 x
3
2

(h1-h2) S
=
(h1 – h3)
As x increases  also
increases. Therefore
 increases with
(h1-h2) - x (h7-h2) bleed steam
=
(h1 – h3) - x (h7 – h3)

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For a 210 MW Plant with 95% PLF, considering

cost of coal as Rs.2300/- per MT, with CV of
3300 kcal/ kg, effect of deviation in heat rate
by 1 kcal/ kWh for YEARLY generation of 1 unit
= Rs. 12.35 lacs

Benchmark

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Impact of parameters on Heat Rate

Loss due to equipment

Performance

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LP / HP Heaters Performance

LP / HP heater performance is monitored by

monitoring following performances indices:

• Terminal temp difference ( TTD)

TTD= Ts-FW outlet temp

• Drain Cooler Approach ( DCA)

DCA = Drip Temp - FW inlet temp

• Temp Rise = (FW outlet temp- FW inlet temp )

LP / HP Heaters Performance

 TTD High:

• Fouling in side tube

• Scale outside of tube

• Air blanketing

• Mixing of water through parting plane of Water

Box ( Short Circuiting)

• One or more previous heater/s out of service

• High level of heater i.e. Poor cascading system

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LP / HP Heaters Performance

 High DCA:
Heater level too low due to poor cascading
system

 Low Temp Rise:

• Low extraction steam pressure
– Isolating valve not fully open
• Fouling in side tube
• Scale outside of tube
• Air blanketing
• Mixing of water through parting plane of Water
Box ( Short Circuiting)
• One or more previous heater/s out of service
• High level of heater ie Poor cascading system

APH Performance:
Performance Indicators
 Air-in-Leakage
 Gas Side Efficiency
 X - ratio
 Gas & Air side pressure drops

AH Performance Monitoring
 O2 & CO2 in FG at AH Inlet
 O2 & CO2 in FG at AH Outlet
 Temperature of gas entering / leaving air
heater
 Temperature of air entering / leaving air heater
 Diff. Pressure across AH on air & gas side

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Air Heater Leakage – Calculation

Empirical relationship using the change in

concentration of O2 in the flue gas

AL % = O2out - O2in x 0.9 x 100

(21 - O2Out)

APH Performance:
Gas Side Efficiency:

Ratio of Gas Temperature drop across the air

heater, corrected for no leakage, to the
temperature head.
= (Temp drop / Temperature head) x 100

Where Temp drop = Tgas in - Tgas out (no leakage)

Temp head = Tgas in - T air in

Tgas out (no leakage)

= Tgas out + AL x Cpa x (Tgas out - Tair in)/ Cpg x 100

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APH Performance:
X – Ratio:
Ratio of heat capacity of air passing through the
air heater to the heat capacity of flue gas passing
through the air heater.
= Wair out x Cpa/ (Wgas in x Cpg)

= Tgas in - Tgas out (no leakage)/ (Tair out - Tair in)

APH Performance:
X-Ratio depends on:
Air infiltration, air & gas mass flow rates
X-ratio does not provide a measure of thermal
performance of the air heater, but is a measure
of the operating conditions.

A low X-ratio indicates either excessive gas

weight through the air heater or that air flow is
by-passing the air heater.

A lower than design X-ratio leads to a higher than

design gas outlet temperature & can be used as
an indication of excessive temp

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Losses in Steam Utilization

Insulation Loss :

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Insulation Loss :

Insulation Loss :

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Insulation Loss :

Equivalent lengths of pipe for valves and fittings can be

taken as:
Pair of mating flanges - 0.5 m
Line size valve - 1.0 m

As per CP – EE guideline:
S = [10 + (Ts – Ta) / 20] x (Ts – Ta)
Where, S = Surface heat loss (kcal/hr/m2)
Ts = Hot surface temperature (°C)
Ta = Ambient temperature (°C)
Total heat loss/hr (Hs) = S x A

Heat Loss through leaky traps

A Periodic inspection of the steam traps will reveal

when one or more steam traps is operating in failure
mode.

The trap can fail in

Open Mode

Close Mode

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When traps are working

Flush Steam

When trap fails in open mode

Live Steam

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The steam that escapes is wasted energy that cannot

be recovered

Steam loss through an orifice can be estimated using a

variant of the Napier formula.

Steam Flow (kg/hr) W = 11x Pa x D²

Where: Pa = Pguage + Patmospheric

Pa = Absolute Pressure, kg/cm2
Patmospheric = Atm Pressure = 1.033 kg/cm2
D = Diameter of Orifice in cm

Blow Down Losses

Money down the drain =

Bw x (hf – h) x 24 x C/ (BE x CV)

Where,
Bw = Blow down quantity per hour
hg = Enthalpy of 1 kg of saturated steam
produced under working pressure,
h = Enthalpy of 1 kg of feed water entering the
boiler.

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Latest Measurement Technologies

Furnace Temperature Mapping

~ 800 -
850oC

~ 650 -
~ 900 - 700
950oC oC

~ 450 -
~ 1100 -
480oC
1200o
C ~ 350 -
380oC

~ 130 -
140oC

Combustion optimization
Fire ball centering
FEGT Control during start-up
NOx Control
Slag Control

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Furnace Temperature Mapping

HVT Probe
Long response time
Blockage from ash
Only retractable type practically viable

Furnace Temperature Mapping

IR Pyrometer
Could be erratic due to different
emissivity characteristics of varied gas
constituents
both the emissivity and penetration depth
will vary with changing furnace
temperature and CO2 concentration

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Furnace Temperature Mapping

Acousticc = (γRT)1/2 Pyrometer

speed of sound varies directly with the
temperature of the medium through
which it travels; c = (γRT)1/2

Advantages:
provides real-time measurements
provides an integral measurement across
the entire line of flight
accuracy is not affected by uncertainty in
emissivity

Furnace Temperature Mapping

Limitations:
Generating sound loud enough to
overcome background noise
The sound generator producing a high-
energy sound wave (over 170 dB) using a
unique patented pneumatic device has
solved the problem
This sound wave produced by the
pyrometer has a sharp leading edge that
is propagated concentrically from the
generator. This enables the pyrometer to
accurately measure temperatures to
within + 1% over a range of 0 to 3,500F,
even in the presence of considerable
noise.

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Furnace Temperature Mapping

The high-energy sound wave also enables

the use of smaller and more sophisticated
receivers that can be readily installed
through boiler tube webbing using ½”
slots.

Furnace Temperature Mapping

For many installations,

a simple arrangement
consisting of one sound
generator and three
receivers can provide
sufficient information to
monitor FEGT during
start-up and during
furnace operation

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Furnace O2 and CO Measurement

Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy

(TDLAS)

THANK YOU

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