ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328

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The role of genre in language syllabus design:

The case of Bahrain
Stephen Bax
Department of Language Studies, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK

Abstract

This article examines the role of genre in English language syllabus design, with reference to a project in Bahrain
secondary schools. It attempts to show how, through a carefully devised and conducted qualitative study in ethnographic
mode, a syllabus was developed which placed genre at its centre. It also attempts to illuminate how issues relating to the
sequencing and choice of genre can be determined ecologically, and how a focus on genres in this way could usefully
impact on other central areas of pedagogy including the teaching of skills, and assessment.
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Keywords: Genre; Syllabus design; English language teaching; Ethnography; Bahrain

1. Introduction taking into account the social and cultural

In recent years genre has become an increasingly
significant concept in language education. The value
of focussing on genres in various areas of the
profession has been convincingly demonstrated by,
for example, Swales (1990), and more recently by
contributors to Johns’ edited collection (Johns,
2002), and elsewhere in the educational literature
(e.g. Christie, 1987; Cope and Kalantzis, 1993).
Paltridge (2001), citing Swales (1990) and Bhatia
(1993), and drawing on Dudley-Evans (1989)
reminds us of the benefits of giving genre a more
central classroom role when we teach language:
a genre-based perspective focuses on language at
the level of the whole text while at the same time
E-mail address: s.bax@canterbury.ac.uk.
context in which it is used (Paltridge, 2001,
p. 4, citing Dudley-Evans, 1989).
In addition to such arguments for using genre-based
approaches in daily classroom practice (see also
McCarthy and Carter, 1994), attempts have been
made to place genre more centrally in the develop-
ment of language curricula and syllabus design,
particularly in English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) (Swales,
1990). The reason for this is that a focus on genre
enables curriculum designers to group together
texts that are similar in terms of purpose,
organization, and audience (Paltridge, 2001,
p. 4).
Paltridge goes on to summarise the arguments for
adopting a genre-based approach not only in these

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316 S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
specialist contexts but also in syllabus design in
general language education. These arguments sug-
gest that even though the term itself and the role of
genre in education are to some extent contested
(Johns, 2002), the case for attempting genre-based
approaches in general language education, as well as
in ESP/EAP, has proved to be convincing in
principle.
For these reasons the literature on using various
aspects of genre in the classroom is growing.
It is not the aim of this article to review these in
detail, but one could cite numerous authors who
have worked in recent years to develop genre
approaches in education—among them Henry and
Roseberry (1998), Hyon (1996), Feez (1998),
Martin (2001) and others. However, attempts to
focus on genre in general English language
syllabus design are relatively rare in the literature.
One reason for this may be the difference between
specific needs and general ones; much of the
research and practice in ESP/EAP contexts is
based on our knowing relatively clearly the kinds
of texts which students will need to deal with when
they finish. In Bhatia’s terms ESP teaching ‘‘has a
much narrower focus on the specificity of genres’’
(Bhatia, 2002, p. 283). By contrast, curricula such as
those followed in most primary and secondary
schools around the world do not share this
specificity, since they have ‘‘a clear focus on the
generality of genres’’ (Bhatia Idem, my italics). As a
result, procedures deriving from Special Purpose
contexts such as that offered by Burns and Joyce
(1997) and recommended by Paltridge (2001) are
not easily applicable in general language teaching
situations.
How then are we to develop a genre-based
approach when designing language programmes
in non-ESP English language educational contexts,
for example in primary and secondary schools
in developing countries around the world? Is it
useful to do so? Clearly a good starting point
when addressing these questions would be to gather
more evidence, preferably based on empirical
research, as to how precisely genre might guide
the construction of English language syllabuses in
the developing world and elsewhere. Such research
could assist us with such issues as whether a
genre-based syllabus is appropriate in such contexts,
how exactly to select and sequence the genres on
which such language programmes could be based,
and how to manage the issues of face-validity and
context-sensitivity (Bax, 1997), which includes
taking account of the ways in which a genre-
based approach might mesh with the expectations
of teachers, learners, governments, parents and
other stakeholders in these environments.
In short, the language education profession
would benefit from more examples of research-
based empirical investigations into the ways in
which genre-based approaches to syllabus design
have been devised and developed in General English
language education settings, and how the kinds of
obstacles outlined above have in practice been
tackled in such contexts.
Such thinking underlies the current article. It
describes and discusses a project carried out in
secondary schools in Bahrain, which resulted in a
draft syllabus based in various ways on genre. One
of my aims in presenting this research, and
describing it in some detail, is to facilitate the
efforts of practitioners in other contexts around
the world to research, and then attempt to imple-
ment, their own genre-based syllabuses in
general English language education settings, possi-
bly avoiding some of the pitfalls identified in the
project under discussion, and perhaps benefiting
from some of the solutions which emerged. In
addition, this project consisted of an unusually
interesting example (in my view) of a small-
scale quasi-ethnographic syllabus evaluation, and
since the professional English language education
literature contains few detailed accounts of such
ethnographic approaches to evaluation, it is hoped
that this aspect of the project will also be of
value.
The article follows this structure:
Part 1: I begin by describing the background to
the project, its research design and research
methods, in order to demonstrate how the syllabus
design derived from a researched study of the
particular needs of the context. This description is
necessarily rather detailed, as my aim is to discuss
the process of researching and developing the
syllabus as much as the product, namely the draft
syllabus itself;
Part 2: I then go on to explain how and why genre
came to occupy an important place in the design of
the Bahraini secondary syllabus;
Part 3: Finally, I address issues of defining genre
for use in this syllabus. In addition, the relevant
parts of the syllabus itself are presented and
discussed, along with consideration of how some
of the obstacles in the design and design process
were overcome.
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S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
2. Part 1: The Bahrain research project
2.1. Research context, research design and research
methodology
In order to understand the research described
here, it is important to understand its social,
cultural and educational setting. The secondary
level in Bahrain, in which the research took place,
consists of the last two years of schooling before
school-leaving age. Each year has two semesters,
and each semester includes 60 hours of English.
Each semester is assessed by means of examinations
of listening, reading and writing. Speaking is
assessed in continuous mode. In addition, students
can take more English courses as specialisms, as
part of the literature stream, if they choose to do so.
The syllabus development project under discus-
sion was instigated by the Directorate of Curricula
at the Bahrain Ministry of Education. It aimed to
assist the Ministry in Bahrain with the revision of
their secondary level syllabus, and to this end I was
requested to carry out a detailed review of the
current state of secondary level English Language
teaching in Bahrain, and then to produce recom-
mendations and a draft syllabus, in co-operation
with the Ministry.
Drawing on my experience of a similar project in
Jordan (Bax, 2001a) the initial research into the
state of secondary English in Bahrain was planned
to take place in two stages, starting with a
preliminary visit of 10 days in November 2001 (for
initial classroom observations, interviews with
teachers, students and other stakeholders) leading
into a period of analysis and reporting, then
followed a few months later by a second ten-day
visit, in April–May 2002 (aiming to extend the
observations, gather other data and complete the
final reports and draft syllabus).
The research approach adopted was qualitative
and broadly ethnographic in style, though a full-
blown ethnography was impossible owing to the
short time frame and the impossibility of my acting
as a full participant in that context. In that sense it
adopts a position similar to that argued by Holliday
(1997), in that whilst this was not an ethnography,
principally because of its duration, it is nonetheless
ethnographic in orientation since it adheres to the
following two criteria:
 it is conducted in an interpretive, qualitative
manner ‘‘where significant features of the
317
culture are allowed to emerge’’ (Holliday, 1997,
p. 213);
 there is no claim to objectivity. ‘‘The scientific
rigour and system are in the discipline of
researcher procedure which comprises tight rules
concerning how the researcher relates to and
writes about the research environment’’ (Holli-
day 1997, p. 213).
The research was therefore ethnographic, since it set
out initially to elicit ‘emic’ perspectives (Holliday,
2001), meaning perspectives deriving from the
participants themselves rather than from me as
outsider. As will be considered below, this approach
was revisited and challenged during the project in
some important ways, but this did not alter its
fundamentally ethnographic approach.
2.2. Research methodology and instruments
The research drew on six major research instru-
ments and sources of data. These are listed below
with some supporting details so as to illustrate the
extent of the research and the kinds of instruments
adopted. (Figures refer to totals over the two visits.)
1. Observation of a sample of 23 lessons in 11
schools throughout the island. In each lesson I took
extensive field notes on all aspects of the experience,
including timing of lesson stages, teacher activities,
pupil activities, language used, coursebook use, and
other aspects as they emerged. I was allowed free
access to classes and was able to visit classes at short
notice. For this and other reasons it was apparent
that lessons observed were relatively natural and
typical. I took extensive field notes.
In terms of my precise research role during
observations, in class and in the schools in general,
I was what Adler and Adler (1987) term a
‘peripheral member’, characterised by Robson as
‘‘where you observe and interact closely enough
with members to establish an insider’s perspective
(so far as that is possible, see below) but do not take
part in their activities’’ (Robson, 2000, p. 96, words
in brackets added). My approach in observation
was as ecological as possible, in line with van Lier’s
recommendations (van Lier, 1997).
2. Examination of a wide range of documentary
evidence, including reports in Arabic and English.
In particular, examination of the current syllabus
(see below).
3. Interviews with key stakeholders, including a
range of curriculum specialists at the Ministry, and
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318 S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
37 male and female students from all levels and a
range of schools.
4. Interviews with and questionnaires from 21
senior teachers, and 39 male and female teachers
from the whole range of schools.
5. Structured analysis of the full range of course-
books.
6. Analysis of a sample of 360 completed
examination papers at various levels.
2.3. Data collection
Data collection procedures were planned in
advance, but the procedure was designed to be
fundamentally adaptive or ‘emergent’ (Robson,
2000, p. 102), in the sense that there was extensive
flexibility in timetabling visits and interviews. This
meant that if a particular issue arose which seemed
to merit more investigation among particular
stakeholders or sources, visits and interviews were
adjusted accordingly.
2.4. Reflexivity
From the start it was important (as in all
ethnographic studies, see Brewer, 2000; Holliday,
2001) that I be reflexive in my approach, i.e. that my
own role and position in the investigation be taken
into account. As a researcher into this particular
context, I brought elements which could be seen as
advantageous in allowing me insight into the
setting—I have lived and worked in numerous
Arabic countries, I speak and read Arabic, I have
conducted similar research studies into school
settings in other countries such as UAE and Jordan.
Nonetheless, I am still an outsider, a foreigner and
an intruder. I might be seen as an inspector who
could affect stakeholders’ future careers; I could be
seen as the tool of a Western, neo-imperialist
agenda.
These aspects of my position were taken as
inevitable from the outset. Qualitative research in
an ethnographic frame does not attempt to deny
such elements, but to include an enhanced aware-
ness of them in the process of gathering data and
analysing it, and to be open about them and their
influence—which is being ‘reflexive’ (Holliday,
2001). This was a central part of the research
approach. In practice, I attempted as far as possible
to reassure stakeholders at every opportunity, by
means as varied as telling them clearly what the
aims of the research were (and were not), and
attempting at every stage to appear relaxed, friendly
and unthreatening in all settings. Nonetheless, the
findings and recommendations are to be interpreted
in the light of my own position as foreigner/
outsider.
2.5. Limitations
Other areas of the project had potential limita-
tions which should be enumerated here. Firstly, it
was not possible, owing to logistical difficulties, to
test students in order to benchmark their level
against international standards, as would be ideal
(and as was done for example in the UAE project
described by Loughrey et al. (1999)). However, as
mentioned above, it was possible to examine 360
completed test papers from a variety of levels and
schools, and this allowed at least a partial percep-
tion of student performance under test conditions.
Other limitations included the lack of opportunities
to interview certain stakeholders such as parents
and possible future employers. However, these were
felt to be relatively minor limitations which did not
affect the overall validity of the picture obtained.
Another limitation which should be noted was the
short time frame of the research. It is argued,
however, that since the research framework was
devised carefully, with particular care taken at all
stages to be responsive and adaptive and to ensure
the collection of representative samples of data from
different sources, as described above, with a
continuous openness to all relevant ‘voices’, that
therefore the shortness of the visits need not
mitigate the value of the overall picture obtained
(cf. Holliday, 1997; Robson, 2000).
2.6. A cyclical approach to evidence
One important mechanism for overcoming some
of these limitations, and also for ensuring that my
conclusions were as representative of the views of
the stakeholders as possible despite my position as
outsider, was the systematic presentation of findings
and viewpoints back to other stakeholders for their
views (though it was not possible to have fully
‘participatory evaluation’ as outlined in Robson
(2000, p.18)).
For example, if a group of teachers made a claim
or statement, this point of view would then system-
atically be presented (as tactfully and anonymously
as possible) to other stakeholders in schools, the
Ministry and so on for their responses. They were
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S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
told that these were views derived from other
stakeholders or from classroom observation and
invited to comment. This was a key element of the
data gathering—a ‘cyclical’ approach—and it meant
that at each stage of the research each finding was
not simply accepted as ‘true’ but was returned to the
stakeholders for corroboration. If they disagreed,
the finding might be modified or, if it turned out to
be idiosyncratic, excluded. If it was corroborated it
would be given more weight before being put back
to other stakeholders.
This cyclical approach was a key element in the
attempt to gain a collective view of what was
happening as opposed to imposing an ‘outsider’
view—in other words an attempt to be as ‘ecologi-
cal’ as possible (Tudor, 2003).
2.7. A collaborative picture
I suggested above that the research approach was
broadly ethnographic, since, following Holliday
(1997) it was carried out in an interpretive,
qualitative manner ‘‘where significant features of
the culture are allowed to emerge’’ (Holliday, 1997,
p. 213). However, it will now be apparent from my
description of the actual procedure adopted that
features were not simply ‘emerging’ in the sense
implied by Holliday, unaffected and in some
pristine, natural form. In ethnographic research in
general (such as Holliday’s) such a claim sits
uneasily with the fact that the researcher inevitably
affects outcomes at all stages, as we noted above
when discussing reflexivity. (Holliday in fact notes
this about his own research (Holliday, 1997).) It is
surely mistaken, then, and a misrepresentation, to
imply (as the word ‘emerging’ does) that in such
research the resulting picture could ever in fact be a
pure ‘insider’ or ‘emic’ one.
For this reason, the picture which resulted from
the research in Bahrain is not claimed to be a purely
‘insider’ view, but a collaborative one, since it
included my own input and perspectives as well as
those of the stakeholders. The result is a collabora-
tively constructed picture of the social/educational
setting.
2.8. Analysis and outcomes
A feature of ethnographic research (cf. Brewer,
2000; Holliday, 2001), is that it does not separate
data gathering and analysis in the same way as more
traditional quantitative research, since the analysis,
319
being ongoing and cumulative, affects the data
gathering at each stage. This can be seen above in
the approach to this project; it is now part of
established procedures for small-scale qualitative
evaluation (Clarke, 1999; Robson, 2000; Kushner,
2000). By adopting this approach, the picture of
Bahrain secondary English language education
which emerged from the research was, I suggest,
as reliable and valid as possible given the limitations
outlined above.
The data analysis was therefore carried out
cumulatively as the project proceeded. For example,
if an issue arose in a classroom observation, a note
was taken; if it then seemed to recur in other
observed lessons, then this was highlighted, and was
followed up in the other data sources (e.g. in the
coursebook analysis, or in interviews with teachers).
Issues could emerge initially from any of the data
sources listed above, and would then be followed up
(in a form of triangulation) across other data
sources, and then discussed in a ‘cyclical’ pattern
with different stakeholders (as noted above). The
result was a set of findings all of which had been
corroborated (or triangulated) by reference to more
than one of the data sources.
In order to give a clearer idea of how the analysis
proceeded, and also to foreshadow an issue which
will be considered in part 2 below, let us consider by
way of example the teaching of language skills.
Analysis of the coursebooks revealed that:
The books are essentially designed around
grammatical progression, and skills seem to take
second place. This results in some texts which are
very artificial and unnecessarily complicated, so
as to fit in as many examples of the target
structure as possible. It would be better if the
books were skills-based, with careful progression
of sub-skills (Bax, 2001b, p. 12).
The coursebook analysis also suggested that listen-
ing texts appeared to be too long and needlessly
complicated, that writing activities in the books
were not closely related to the topics of the unit, and
that in general there was no system behind the
choice of texts, genres and topics. These findings
were then corroborated in the interviews with
teachers—for example several teachers also stated
that they saw no rationale behind the choices of
texts in the book, that writing was taught in
isolation, and so on. A third data source, the
questionnaires, also revealed similar views; with
regard to speaking for example, one senior teacher
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320 S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
wrote that ‘‘spoken language is somehow ignored in
the current syllabus’’. The data from classroom
observations threw up similar issues, and other
related matters regarding the teaching of skills, for
example:
In teaching reading and listening teachers’
methodology is often patchy. For example they
sometimes start students reading or listening with
no real motivation or purpose. They need
training and development in this area (Bax,
2001a, p. 17).
This illustrates the way in which an issue could
emerge in one data source, and could then be
corroborated and/or reframed in other sources of
data so as to give a fine-grained picture of how the
issue was being dealt with across the educational
setting.
The result of the study was therefore a carefully
constructed set of findings presented in two final
reports (Bax, 2001b, 2002a), whose main outcomes
were:
(a) a set of general recommendations for curricu-
lum and pedagogical development;
(b) a set of specific recommendations for classroom
practice;
(c) a set of criteria for new course books;
(d) a draft syllabus for the whole of the secondary
level (Bax, 2002b).
The research therefore produced wide ranging
recommendations regarding methodology, course-
books, syllabus, examinations and testing, teacher
training and so on. However, for our purposes in
this article, we will now focus specifically on the
syllabus and describe how and why genre came to
play a central part in its design.
3. Part 2: The role of genre in syllabus design
3.1. Designing the syllabus—the role of genres
At the time of this research project the English
syllabus for secondary level in Bahrain was some
years old. A central aim of the project was to
develop a new one. This proposed new syllabus was
to act as a kind of template by which to evaluate
and commission new textbooks. In other words,
once the syllabus was ready, the new coursebooks
would be expected to conform to its contents and
sequencing as far as possible. These textbooks
would be commissioned from publishers with
experience in the Middle East, and would be
expected to be adapted closely to suit the Bahraini
context.
3.1.1. Genres
The coursebook analysis—as suggested in the
data presented in the previous section—revealed
that the old syllabus did not draw on genre or
genres in any meaningful or systematic way, so that,
for example, texts seemed to be chosen relatively
randomly. This was perhaps not surprising since it
was written before significant interest in genre was
common in the language teaching profession. In
itself, this gave a prima facie reason for aiming for a
more systematic approach to genre in the new
syllabus, but other reasons also came out of the
research study. The two main ones, which we can
now discuss in more detail, were:
(a) the realisation that a more systematic approach
to genre could support the more systematic
teaching of language skills (as was suggested in
the examples of data given above);
(b) the realisation that a more systematic approach
to genre could assist and support the assessment
of learners’ progress.
We can now discuss each in turn.
3.1.2. Genre in support of skills teaching
As discussed in the previous section, several issues
emerged from various of the data sources relating to
the teaching of skills. As a result of this, one of the
central recommendations of the final report in the
area of teaching methodology focussed on develop-
ing students’ language skills, especially listening and
reading. In the research report, this was expressed as
follows:
Recommendation 2: The main focus of develop-
ment work in the near future should be on
developing the teaching and learning of skills,
especially of listening and reading. This needs to
be manifested in the revised syllabus, in exam-
inations, in teacher training and throughout the
system (Bax, 2002a).
The data showed that Bahraini English language
education, in contrast to English language educa-
tion in some other Gulf States in the recent past (e.g.
the UAE, see Loughrey et al., 1999), had already
developed a focus on skills teaching instead of a
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S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
more traditional stress on grammar and lexis. In
observed classes, in interviews and in other areas of
practice, the research revealed that teachers and
senior teachers emphasised the development of
language skills and frequently attempted to develop
students’ communicative ability. This progress
towards a skills-based pedagogy was by no means
complete, but was nonetheless considered a valuable
development, since a stated aim of English language
education in Bahrain is to produce students who can
use the language in communicative situations. It
was therefore decided to support this development
as far as possible.
But how could this focus on skills teaching be
supported? Teacher training could assist, of course,
but it was apparent that the new syllabus could also
be a powerful tool in developing skills-based
teaching and learning. The research report ex-
pressed it as follows:
Recommendation 11: The revised syllabus should
take account of the key issues discussed in this
report, especially the importance of skills and the
importance of practice. It could also include a
systematic approach to the teaching of genres
(Bax, 2002a).
The reason why genre was invoked at this point is
that it became apparent from the data that a more
systematic approach to the teaching of skills could
benefit from a more systematic approach to the
kinds of texts included in the syllabus. The old
syllabus and old coursebooks had no systematic
approach to texts, and as a result teachers were
faced with an apparently random assortment of
texts to teach, with apparently random genres and
of varied lengths.
This meant that when they came to teach a skills
lesson (e.g. a reading lesson) they had so many
issues to deal with concerning the idiosyncrasies of
each new text that their methodology for teaching
was often affected adversely. This also impacted on
efforts at teacher training—it was not easy to
develop a systematic approach to training teachers
if the texts they were to use in class were an
unsystematic assortment.
For these reasons, it was concluded that a genre-
based approach in the new syllabus could not only
allow in principle for the more systematic choice of
texts, but could thereby potentially support more
systematic approaches to teaching methodology and
consequently, to teacher training.
321
3.2. The role of examinations and testing
A further—and highly compelling—reason for
attempting a more systematic approach to genres in
the new syllabus came from the area of assessment
and examination. Bahrain had already instituted a
skills-based examination system at secondary level.
The backwash effect of this was undoubtedly part of
the reason why teachers focussed on skills in their
teaching rather than—as in some other neighbour-
ing countries—on aspects of system such as
grammar. This examination system offers unseen
passages of reading and unseen listening texts at the
end of every semester. The written exam asks
students to write an example of a particular genre,
such as a personal letter.
This focus on skills is far more ‘communicative’
than the exams used in other educational systems in
the region, particularly in its use of unseen texts for
testing reading and listening. In other countries (cf.
Loughrey et al., 1999, on UAE, Bax, 2000 on Qatar,
Bax, 2001a on Jordan) there is often a reluctance to
use unseen texts, with the justification that students
are too weak or nervous to cope. However, the
Ministry in Bahrain has already accepted the
argument (correctly in my view, and in line with
the testing literature, e.g. Weir, 1993) that a test of
skills requires the use of unseen passages if it is not
to be reduced to a test of memory.
Given the fact that in Bahrain the issue of
assessment is critical to the success of the pro-
gramme (as in many Arab countries—cf. Loughrey
et al., 1999; Bax, 2000; Bax, 2001a)—because
teachers, learners and other stakeholders tend to
focus on the final examinations in much of their
work—the effect of having a skills-based exam with
unseen passages in Bahrain was already beneficial in
encouraging teachers and learners to develop
language skills rather than memorisation skills.
The research evidence regarding student and teacher
attitudes made this clear:
the backwash effect is positive—teachers and
students realise that they must develop their skills
to do well in the exams (Bax, 2002a).
This was accepted by stakeholders—for example, at
meetings with senior teachers it was appreciated
that skills-based exams were valuable. However, at
the same time a cultural problem was reported by
many stakeholders, including students, teachers and
Ministry staff, namely that because Bahraini stu-
dents (and parents and teachers) had previously
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322 S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
been accustomed to traditional modes of revising/
memorising, the use of unseen texts, for which
memorisation could not be useful, caused them
considerable stress.
After some discussion, some stakeholders came
up with the idea that if a genre-based syllabus were
adopted in future, this would allow the Ministry and
teaching staff to increase their support for students
in this tense pre-exam phase by informing students
of the genres of the texts which would come in each
semester examination, as well as the topics. For
example, they could be told that in the semester 1
exam they would be given a narrative which might
be either an adventure, or an accident, or a ghost
story. If these were part of the coursebook material
for that semester (in other words if the genres were
systematically embedded throughout the syllabus
and the coursebooks, as well as the examinations)
then students would see a clear link between their
English lessons and the tests; in other words a
systematic genre-based approach could improve the
face validity of the exams and have a positive
washback effect.
It was further noted by local stakeholders that
this use of genres as a guiding element already
existed elsewhere in the Bahraini English language
education examination system. For the writing
exams students are told in advance that they will
be asked to write within particular genres—a short
story for example, or a personal letter about an
accident, and so on. Not only has this system been
operational in Bahrain for some few years, but it is
also seen by stakeholders to be working effectively.
This meant that if the new syllabus adopted a
similar system, based on genres, for reading and
listening exams, there might be a higher level of
cultural acceptance of the innovation, since it builds
on developments already operational in the Bahrai-
ni context itself, and would as a consequence have
more ‘ecological validity’ (Tudor, 2003), rather than
constituting an imposed technology more likely to
suffer ‘tissue rejection’ (Holliday, 1992).
In summary, these were the three main factors
which led to the belief that the new syllabus could be
enhanced by a genre-based approach:
(a) Towards greater coherence: The apparently
random, unstructured approach to text selection
in the current syllabus, and the desire for more
coherence;
(b) Support for teaching methodology, particularly in
the area of skills teaching: The view that a more
systematic approach to text selection and
sequencing, with reference to genre, might help
in the wider attempt to make the skills teaching
programme more systematic;
(c) Support for testing and assessment: The view that
a more systematic approach to text selection and
sequencing would assist in the development of
valid and reliable tests and examinations, and in
the preparation of students for those examina-
tions, taking the lead from the appeal to genre
already used in the writing exams.
It should be noted again that these views derived
from intensive discussion and debate among share-
holders, and were constantly refined and developed
up to the final report, resulting in as collaborative a
view as possible.
4. Part 3: The syllabus
As noted above, the function of the new syllabus
in Bahrain was to act as a reference point by which
to plan and implement the English teaching
programme. To help planners and teachers to see
the importance of genre within this new syllabus,
the preface to the draft syllabus included the
following ‘manifesto’ concerning the value of
focussing on genre:
‘‘Focussing on genres has the following advan-
tages:
 it ensures that students are exposed to the
appropriate kinds of texts for their needs;
 it ensures that they are exposed to an appropriate
variety of texts;
 it allows teachers to teach what is common in
genres, rather than just teaching individual texts
one by one;
 it encourages students to see texts not as
individual items but as members of families with
recurring characteristics;
 it equips students with tools for decoding unseen
texts of the same genre as they have studied in
class;
 it allows test designers to choose genres which
students are familiar with’’ (Bax, 2002b, p. 6).
This related mainly to the classroom use of genres.
However, for the syllabus itself it was then
important to select and sequence the genres to be
taught over the four semester, 2-year timeframe.
This raised issues about how exactly to define and
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
organise genres. The very definition of genre is a
contentious one in the literature (see e.g. Trosbor,
1997 and Lee, 2001 for extensive discussion) and
much energy has gone into organising and categor-
ising genres into typologies and topologies (e.g.
Biber, 1989; Lemke, 1999). However, it is clear that
organising and sequencing genres cannot be done in
a vacuum, but must relate to the purposes for which
it is being done. So Lee (2001) for example, working
in corpus linguistics, adopts a particular approach
to selecting and categorising which is suited to his
purposes.
In the Bahrain setting it became clear that we
needed to adopt what Tudor terms an ‘ecological’
position as opposed to a ‘technical’ one (Tudor,
2003). This means that the key element in our
decision-making with regards to how genres were to
be identified and sequenced in a syllabus should
ultimately be the social and educational needs of the
context in question. This is a central aspect of this
research considered in this article—the belief that
syllabus design decisions should derive from re-
search into the context in question (again, in line
with the Context Approach to pedagogy, Bax,
2003); likewise, pedagogical decisions as to how
genre will be treated should derive, in the final
analysis, from the researched needs of the Bahraini
stakeholders.
In order to conceptualise how these decisions as
to selection and sequencing were made in the
Bahrain syllabus, as well as clarifying how ‘genre’
was understood in this project, Bhatia’s recent
discussion of ‘applied genre analysis’ (Bhatia,
2002) offers a useful framework. Bhatia posits three
levels of conceptualisation. At the top are what he
terms generic values, such as ‘persuasion’, ‘indepen-
dent of any grounded contextual constraints’
(Bhatia, 2002, p. 281). Below that he refers to genre
colonies (e.g. promotional genres), and below that
he refers to genres themselves, such as advertise-
ments.
As the draft syllabus was being devised and
discussed, it used generic values (such as informa-
tion, explanation, procedure) as the basis for its
organisation (see Fig. 1, column 2), then offered
examples at the bottom level, genres themselves,
as illustrations of how coursebooks and teachers
could realise these generic values in practice
(see Fig. 1, column 4). This appeared to be a
useful way of structuring the syllabus, and seemed
to be clear to most stakeholders who were
consulted.
323
4.1. Choice of generic values
It will be clear from the previous paragraph that a
significant reason for choosing which generic values
to make use of was the evidence from stakeholders.
In other words, it was important that the structure
of the draft syllabus should fit well with the Bahrain
context, and indeed its development was the result
of the collaborative approach discussed earlier in
this case. In particular, there was discussion among
the development team as to which generic values
seemed to be most relevant to the Bahraini learners,
and the ones identified in Fig. 1 resulted from this
discussion.
However, these categories were not simply
‘emergent’, since they drew on similar work else-
where. As part of the discussion with stakeholders,
other syllabuses which use generic values (though
they do not name them as such) were consulted. For
example, the Australian New South Wales K6
syllabus distinguishes literary from factual texts
(without using the term ‘genre’) and offers these
categories, which are essentially the same as
Bhatia’s ‘generic values’ (Fig. 2):
This Australian syllabus offered us a useful point
of comparison, but given the fact that it is designed
primarily for native speakers, is at primary level and
that all students at all levels will be exposed to all of
these types—in other words, that there is no attempt
to sequence them in terms of difficulty or to
prioritise one over another—it could not be repli-
cated completely in Bahrain. Macken-Horarik’s
(2002) scheme, this time for secondary level writing,
proved more directly useful, and for this reason the
draft syllabus drew on her eight genres, though for
reasons of clarity and economy the Bahrain syllabus
organised them into six, conflating her categories of
Recount, News Story and Narrative into the single
category of Recount (see Fig. 1).
In essence, then, the choice of generic values used
in the syllabus derived from both the researched
needs of the context, as expressed by the stake-
holders in the collaborative and cyclical discussion,
and also from the research literature and from other
syllabuses. It was therefore relatively ‘ecological’,
since it derived from the context, but it was also
collaborative; it was not driven completely by the
context but was shaped also by outside influences.
This reflects my discussion of the relation between
context and pedagogy elsewhere (Bax, 2003), in
which context is given priority but not total control
over pedagogical decisions.
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324 S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328

Genre type / Purpose Examples may be found in:

Generic value

1 Information report Describes things as they are Brochures, leaflets

around us, including

activities which people do.

2 Recount/narrative Retells events for Histories, personal letters about

(includes news entertainment or events, news stories

stories) information

3 Explanation Tells how or why things are Textbooks, nature programmes,

as they are books for children

4 Procedure Instructs how to do Leaflets, cookery books,

something through a gardening books, scientific

sequence of steps. books

5 Opinion Argues for a particular School essays, newspaper

point of view, with reasons. editorials, political debates

6 Discussion Discusses an issue, giving Essays, editorials, debates

more than one point of

view

Fig. 1. Genre types/generic values used in the Bahrain draft syllabus (Bax, 2002b).

TEXT TYPES

(ORAL AND WRITTEN)

Literary texts Factual texts

Narrative Factual description

Literary recount Information report

Observation Procedure

Literary description Procedural recount

Personal response Factual recount

Review Explanation

Exposition

Discussion

Fig. 2. NSW K6 text types http://www.bosnsw-k6.nsw.edu.au/english/pdf_doc/k6eng_syl.pdf.

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S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
4.2. Sequencing of generic values
In terms of sequencing, it was decided from
analysis of students’ classroom performance, exam
papers and other data from stakeholders, as well as
from the ongoing cyclical discussions, that the last
two categories in Fig. 1 represented for these
learners a slightly higher level of difficulty than
the first four. For this reason the two semesters in
the first year included the first four generic values
only, while the two semesters in the second year
included all six.
4.3. The draft syllabus
The consequence of this analysis was the produc-
tion of a draft syllabus to be used as the basis for
consultation before the final syllabus is drawn
up. Although space prevents detailed discussion
of the syllabus itself, Appendix A illustrates the
aspects of the syllabus from the first semester
relating to genre, and shows how genre was in
practice made a fundamental part of the syllabus,
and also how it was integrated into the work on
language skills.
It can be seen from those excerpts that the
syllabus starts by listing the genres which are to be
central to each semester, and the later semester
included the two more ‘advanced’ areas of ‘Opinion’
and ‘Discussion’. For each semester we can then see
how the teaching each of the four language skills is
planned so as to cover the generic values identified.
4.4. Conclusion
This article has attempted to show how, through
a carefully devised and conducted qualitative study
in ethnographic mode, a syllabus was developed
which placed genre at its centre. The aim of the
article was therefore to consider the process leading
towards the syllabus design rather than the product
itself—and in any case it will not be possible to
evaluate the product until the syllabus has been fully
implemented for some years. Furthermore, its
success will depend in large part on the extent to
which teachers are prepared for the new ap-
proaches, since the syllabus alone cannot be fully
effective in isolation.
For this reason it is hoped that the procedures
carried out in this project, in particular the attempt
to ground the study firmly in the context itself,
though referring also to outside influences in a
325
collaborative way, might offer a useful example for
other researchers and syllabus designers of these
areas:
(a) how such an ethnographic investigation can be
conducted;
(b) how precisely genre can influence the construc-
tion of general English syllabuses;
(c) how issues relating to the sequencing and choice
of genre can be determined ecologically, follow-
ing Tudor (2003);
(d) how a focus on genre in this way could use-
fully impact on other central areas of
pedagogy including the teaching of skills, and
assessment;
(e) how the whole process can be carried out so as
to ensure a context sensitivity, meshing with
local expectations and realities while at the same
time proposing innovations from outside
sources.
This approach to researching individual contexts
and then deriving pedagogical recommendations
from that research is congruent with what I have
elsewhere called a Context Approach (Bax, 2003)
which places the social and educational context at
the heart of language teaching. It is hoped that such
a macro-level approach, in combination with micro-
level research of the kind exemplified in this article,
might lead to more relevant and therefore more
motivating and effective language education for
learners in Bahrain and, by extension, for learners in
other contexts around the world.
Appendix A
Semester One, Year One (from a total of four
semesters over two years). Excerpt from Draft
Syllabus relating to Genre and to Skills work.
60 h.
A.1. Genres to be covered in this semester
Information report:
Short descriptive passages
Examples: a passage about a person,
place or object
description of a book or film
personal letters - description
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326 S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328

Short informational dialogues A.3. Speaking

Examples: a conversation at first
meeting
 Initiate, continue and end a conversation (e.g.
giving information).
a telephone conversation
between friends
 Information:
o Describe people, places, pictures, events etc.
o Give key information in conversation in an
Other forms of giving information: appropriate way.
clocks, calendars and so on o Respond with appropriate information to a
wide variety of Yes/No and ‘WH’ questions.
o Ask questions to obtain information.
 Recount:
Recount/narrative: o Describe simple sequences of events such as a
Short narratives story or past event (recount genre).
Examples: a story about a personal o Ask questions to clarify recount (e.g. a story).
incident  Explanation:
personal letters - recounting o Give simple explanations with reasons.
events o Ask questions to clarify explanation.
 Procedure:
o Sequence directions, instructions, ideas etc.
o Ask questions to clarify procedure.
Explanation:
Short explanatory texts
 Use stress, intonation, and clear pronunciation
appropriate to each genre.
Examples: a short, simple scientific
explanation
a short explanation about A.4. Reading
an aspect of society/nature/
culture Texts will typically be of around 180 words

 Predict genre and topic (before and during

Procedure:
Short procedural texts:
Examples: a short description of how to
do something
an illustration or diagram
to explain a procedure
A.2. Listening
Texts will typically be of around 180 words
 Predict genre and topic (before and during
listening).
 Identify key aspects of the genre (i.e. what makes
it different from other genres).
 Identify the following:
o key information (in information genre),
o key events (in recount genre),
o key reasons (in explanation genre),
o key steps (in procedure genre).
reading).
 Identify key aspects of the genre (i.e. what makes
it different from other genres).
 Identify the following:
o key information (in information genre),
o key events (in recount genre),
o key reasons (in explanation genre),
o key steps (in procedure genre).
 Identify the topic sentence in a content para-
graph.
 Obtain the main idea of a content paragraph
which has no topic sentence.
 Deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words from
context.
 Adapt reading speed and techniques to reading
purpose.
 Take notes.
A.5. Writing
 Brainstorm ideas for writing.
 Present initial plan for writing.
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S. Bax / International Journal of Educational Development 26 (2006) 315–328
 Information:
o Describe people, places, pictures, events etc.
o Give key information in written form in an
appropriate way.
 Recount:
o Describe simple sequences of events such as a
story or past event (recount genre).
 Explanation:
o Give simple explanations with reasons and
diagrams where appropriate.
 Procedure:
o Sequence directions, instructions, ideas etc. in
writing with diagrams where appropriate.
 Use the correct structure, register and layout for
each main genre.
 Use the appropriate describing and action
words, compound sentences, correct time
and tense reference for the genre in question.
[etcetera]
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