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FLOW IN PIPES AND CLOSED CONDUITS

A pipe may be defined as a closed conduit through which liquids or gases flow. In hydraulics, pipes are commonly understood to be of conduits
of circular cross section which flow full (Fig. 2.1). Conduits flowing partially are considered to be open channels (Fig. 2.2).

Cross Section of Pipe Cross Section of Pipe

Full Flowing Partially Full Flowing

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2

I. Reynolds Classic Experiment

Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912)

Reynolds experiment involved setting up a glass tube through which he could pass water at different velocities. A thin jet of coloured dye
was injected into the flow so that the flow patterns were visible (Figure 2.3a). When the water moved slowly the dye remained in a thin line
as it followed the flow path of the water down the pipe. This was described as laminar flow (Fig. 2.3b). It was as though the water was moving
as a series of very thin layers – like a pack of cards – each one sliding over the other, and the dye had been injected between two of the
layers. The second and more common type of flow he identified was turbulent flow (Fig. 2.3b). This occurred when water was moving faster.
The dye was broken up as the water whirled around in a random manner and was dissipated throughout the flow. Turbulence was a word
introduced by Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) to describe this kind of flow behaviour.

Fig. 2.3

Three distinct patterns of flow were revealed:

 Laminar (Re < 2000) – in which the fluid may be considered to flow in discrete layers with no mixing. (Fig.2.3a)
 Transitional (2000 < Re < 4000) – in which some degree of unsteadiness becomes apparent (the wavy filament).
 Turbulent (Re > 4000) – in which the flow incorporates an eddying or mixing action. (Fig. 2.3b)

Reynolds Number, Re

A. For circular pipes flowing full

Vd
Re  2.1


Vd V 2r 
Re   2.2
 
where:

V = mean velocity of flow

d = diameter of pipe
ro = radius of pipe
 = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
 = mass density of fluid
= absolute viscosity
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B. For non-circular cross-section, the ratio of cross-sectional area to wetted perimeter, called hydraulic radius R, is used in the
Reynolds Number.

V 4R 
Re  2.3


CRITICAL VELOCITY  the velocity below which all turbulences is damped out by the viscosity of the fluid. It is found that the upper limit flow
of practical interest is represented by a Reynold’s Number of about 2000.

The velocity at which the change from laminar to turbulent flow occur was found to be higher than that which caused the change from
turbulent to laminar flow. Reynolds called these velocities respectively the higher and the lower critical velocities.

II. Shearing Stress at a Pipe Wall (Full Flowing)

fV 2  hL   P   P  P2 
O   r   r   1 r 2.4
8  2L   2L   2L 
2.4.a 2.4.b 2.4.c 2.4.d

o
V*  2.5


where:

O = shearing stress at pipe wall (N/m2, lb/ft2, lb/in2)

f =dimensionless frictional factor
ρ = mass density of the fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
V = velocity of flow (m/s, ft/s)
 = unit weight of the fluid (kN/m3, lb/ft3)
hL = head loss in the pipe (m, ft)
r = radius of pipe (m, ft)
L = length of pipe (m, ft)
P = (P1 – P2) = change in pressure between two points in the pipe (Pa, kPa, psf, psi)
V* = shear velocity

Pipe wall
τpipe wall

d d

Shear Stress Distribution at a Cross- Velocity Distribution at a Cross-

Section (Linear) Section (Parabolic)

Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5

III. Evaluation of Lost Head

Darcy-Weisbach Formula
Julius Weisbach (1806–1871) and Henry Darcy (1803–1858)

 L  V 2 
h L  f   2.6
 d  2g 

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Where:

hL = head loss due to friction (m, ft)

f = pipe friction factor
L = length of pipe (m, ft)
d = diameter of pipe (m, ft)
V = velocity of flow (m/s, ft/s)
g = gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)

IV. Friction Factor

for laminar flow in all pipes for all fluids

64
f 2.7
Re

Where:

F = friction factor
Re = Reynolds number

V. Loss of Head for Laminar Flow

Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen(1797–1884) and Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille (1799–1869)

32LV
hL  2.8
d 2

in terms of kinematic viscosity,

32LV
hL  2.9
gd 2

Where:

hL = head loss due to friction (m, ft)

µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid
L = length of pipe (m, ft)
d = diameter of pipe (m, ft)
V = velocity of flow (m/s, ft/s)
g = gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)

VI. Minor Head Losses/Local Head Losses

V2
hL  K 2.10
2g
where:

K = a constant for a fitting

Minor Head Losses

1) Entrance losses (reservoir to pipe, Fig. 2.6)

2) Exit losses (pipe to reservoir, Fig. 2.7)
3) Sudden expansion losses (from smaller to larger dimension, Fig. 2.8)
4) Sudden contraction losses (from larger to smaller dimension, Fig. 2.9)
5) Gradual expansion losses (from smaller to gradually increasing dimension, Fig. 2.10)
6) Gradual contraction losses (from larger to gradually decreasing dimension, Fig. 2.11)

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Figures for Minor Losses (The arrow represents the direction of flow)

Fig. 2.8
Fig. 2.6

Fig. 2.9

Fig. 2.10

Fig. 2.7
Fig. 2.11

VII. Equations for Velocity of Flow

a. Hazen-Williams formula
Allen Hazen (1869–1930)and Gardner Stewart Williams (1866-1931)

V  1.318CR 0.63S 0.54 (fps units) 2.11

V  0.8492CR 0.63S 0.54 (SI units) 2.12

where:

V = velocity (m/s, ft/s)

R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)
C = Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient (Table 1, page 5)
S = slope of the energy grade line (head loss per unit length of conduit, m/m, ft/ft)

b. Manning formula
Robert Manning (1816-1897)

2 1
1.486 3 2
V R S (fps units) 2.13
n

2 1
1
V  R 3S 2 (SI units) 2.14
n
where:

V = velocity (m/s, ft/s)

R = hydraulic radius (m,ft)
n = Manning roughness coefficient (Table 2, page 5)
S = slope of the energy grade line (head loss per unit length of conduit, m/m, ft/ft)

VIII. Pipe Systems

1) Pipes in Series (Fig. 2.12)

2) Parallel Pipes (Fig. 2.13)
3) Branching Pipes (Fig. 2.14)
4) Pipe Networks (Fig. 2.15)

1 2 3
Fig. 2.12

Fig. 2.13 2

1 4

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Fig. 2.14

2 C
1

1 B 2 C
A

5
Fig. 2.15 Loop 1
3 Loop 2
4
E

F 6 7

D 10
Loop 4
8 Loop 3 9

I
12
11
G
H

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Table 1. Values of Hazen-Williams Coefficient, C

TYPE OF PIPE C
Extremely smooth, fibrous cement 140
New or smooth cast iron; concrete 130
Newly welded steel 120
Average cast iron; newly riveted steel; vitrified clay 110
Cast iron or riveted steel after some years of use 95 – 100
Deteriorated old pipes 60 – 80

Table 2. Values of Manning’s coefficient, n (Prepared by R. E. Horton et.al)

n
NATURE OF SURFACE
Min Max
Neat cement surface 0.010 0.013
Wood-stave pipe 0.010 0.013
Plank flumes, planed 0.010 0.014
Vitrified sewer pipe 0.010 0.017
Metal flumes, smooth 0.011 0.015
Concrete, precast 0.011 0.013
Cement mortar surfaces 0.011 0.015
Plank flumes, unplaned 0.011 0.015
Common-clay drainage tile 0.011 0.017
Concrete, monolithic 0.012 0.016
Brick with cement mortar 0.012 0.017
Cast iron - new 0.013 0.017
Cement rubble surfaces 0.017 0.020
Riveted steel 0.017 0.020
Corrugated metal pipe 0.021 0.025
Canals and ditches, smooth earth 0.017 0.025
Metal flumes, corrugated 0.022 0.030
Canals:
Dredged in earth, smooth 0.025 0.033
In rock cuts, smooth 0.025 0.035
Rough beds and weeds on sides 0.025 0.040
Rock cuts, jagged and irregular 0.035 0.045
Natural streams:
Smoothest 0.025 0.033
Roughest 0.045 0.060
Very weedy 0.075 0.150

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS FLOW IN PIPES AND CLOSED CONDUITS

1. The Reynolds number for a fluid in a pipe of 10 in. diameter is 1800. What will be the Reynolds number in the 6-in.-diameter pipe
forming an extension of the 10-in.-pipe. Take the flow as incompressible.

2. Compute the critical velocity (lower) for a 4-in. pipe carrying heavy fuel oil at 110F (( = 48 x 10-5 ft2/s).

3. If the shear stress at the wall of a 12”-diameter pipe is 1 psf and f = 0.040, what is the average velocity if a fluid with specific gravity
of 0.70 is flowing? What is the shear velocity?

4. Water flows through 61 m of 150-mm pipe, and the shear stress at the walls is 44 Pa. Determine the lost head.

5. What pipe size will maintain a shear stress at the wall of 0.624 psf when water flows through 300 ft of pipe causing a lost head of
20 ft?

6. An oil with  = 900 kg/m3 and  = 0.0002 m2/s flows through an inclined pipe (40 from the horizontal axis). Assuming steady
laminar flow, determine the direction of flow (upward or downward). Is the flow really laminar?
dpipe = 6 cm, P1 = 350 kPa, P2 = 250 kPa.
2

10 m

7. Find the head loss per unit length when oil (SG = 0.9) of kinematic viscosity 0.007 ft 2/s flows in a 3-in.-diameter pipe at a rate of
5 gpm.

8. Oil of specific gravity 0.82 and kinematic viscosity 0.000186 m2/s flows from tank A to tank B through 305 m of new pipe at the rate
of 0.089 m3/s. The available head is 0.161 m. What size of pipe should be used? Assume laminar flow.

9. Water at 40C flows in a 100-mm-diameter new cast iron pipe with a velocity of 5 m/s. Determine the pressure drop in kPa per
100 m of pipe and the power lost (in kW) to friction.  = 1.02 x 10-3 N-s/m2, and  = 998 kg/m3. Use f = 0.025.

10. Water flows from A to B through 244 m of average 300-mm-ID cast iron pipe ( = 0.00061 m). Point B is 9.1 m above A, and the
pressure at B must be maintained at 139 kPa. If 0.222 m3/s is to flow through the pipe, what must be the pressure at A?

11. When first installed between two reservoirs, a 4-in-diameter metal pipe of length 6000 ft conveyed 0.20 cfs of water.
(a) If after 17 years a chemical deposit had reduced the effective diameter of the pipe to 3.0 in, what then would be the flow rate?
Assume f remains constant. Assume no change in reservoir levels.
(b) What would be the flow rate if in addition to the diameter change, f had doubled in value?

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EQUIVALENT PIPE

A pipe is equivalent to another one or to a piping system when, for a given head loss, the same flow rate is produced in the equivalent pipe
as occurred in the original.

OR

A pipe is equivalent (to another pipe or to a piping system) when, for a specific flow rate, the same head loss is produced in the equivalent
pipe as occurred in the original.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 1
Given a 4000-m-long, 100-mm-diameter concrete pipe, determine the diameter of a 1000-m-long equivalent pipe.

PROBLEM 2
For a lost head of 5 ft/1000 ft, and using C = 100 for all pipes, how many 8-in.-diameter pipes are equivalent to a 16-in.-diameter pipe?

PROBLEM 3
Convert the piping system shown below to an equivalent length of 6-in. pipe. The values of factors K are:

Strainer B = 8.0
12” bends C, F = 0.5 each
12” tee D = 0.7
12” valve E = 1.0
12” x 6” cross G = 0.7 (multiply by velocity head in the 6” opening)
6” meter H = 6.0
Bends J, K = 0.5 each
6” valve L = 3.0
From pipe to tank M = 1.0 (multiply by velocity head of pipe)

h
B C
M

K
E L
D F
A

H
150’ – 12”, f = 0.025 J
G

100’ – 6”, f = 0.02

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PIPES IN SERIES

Pipes are in series if they are connected end to end so that a fluid flows in a continuous line without any branching. The volume rate of flow
through pipes in series is constant throughout.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 4
A 225-m-long, 300-mm-diameter concrete pipe and a 400-m-long, 500-mm-diameter concrete pipe are in series. Find the diameter of a 625-
m-long equivalent pipe.

PROBLEM 5
Water from a large reservoir flows through a pipeline, 1.8 km long and discharges into service tank. The first 600 m of pipe is 300 mm in
diameter and the remainder is 150 mm in diameter. Calculate the discharge when the difference in water level between the two reservoirs
is 25 m and f = 0.04 for both pipes.

PROBLEM 6
Given is a three-pipe series system. The total pressure drop is PA - PB = 150,000 Pa, and the elevation drop is ZA – ZB = 5 m. The pipe data are

pipe L (m) d (cm) f

1 100 8 0.0288
2 150 6 0.0260
3 80 4 0.0314

The fluid is water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3. Calculate the flow rate Q in m3/h through the system.

PARALLEL PIPES

Pipes are in parallels if they are connected in such a way that flow branches into two or more separate pipes and then comes together again
downstream. The total flow entering each joint must equal the total flow leaving that joint. The head loss between two joints is the same for
each branch connecting these joints.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 7
Assume that the same three pipes in Problem 6 are now in parallel with the same total head loss Compute the total flow rate Q, neglecting
minor losses.

PROBLEM 8
Determine the total discharge and the individual flows in the four parallel pipes shown. The hydraulic grade line difference between A and B
is HA - HB = 60 m. The following data apply:

1 pipe L (m) d (mm) f ΣK

1 650 850 0.02 1
2 2 1000 1000 0.025 3
3 500 750 0.015 0
A B 4 750 1000 0.03 2

PROBLEM 9
A pipe system connects two reservoirs whose difference in elevation is 15 m. The pipe system consists of 300 m of 60-cm concrete pipe (Pipe
1), branching into 600 m of 30-cm (Pipe 2) and 45-cm (Pipe 3) in parallel, which join again to a single 60-cm line 1500 m long (Pipe 4). What
would be the flow in each pipe? Assume f = 0.030 for all pipes.

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BRANCHING PIPES (RESERVOIR PROBLEMS)

Branching pipes consist of one or more pipes that separate into two or more pipes (or combine to a single one) and do not come together
again downstream.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 10
How much water must the pump supply when the flow through the 900-mm pipe is 1.40 m3/s, and what is the pressure head at A?

Pipe Length (m) Diameter (mm) C

1 1800 500 120
2 1200 400 120
3 2400 600 130
4 2400 900 110

B
El 25 m

C
El 12 m

2
D
4
El 6.5 m

3 E

A
P El 0 m

PROBLEM 11
The turbine shown is located in the 350-mm-diameter line. If the turbine efficiency is 90%, determine its output power in kilowatts. The flow
rate in line 3 is 0.23 m3/s.

Line Length (m) Diameter (mm) f

1 1220 350 0.018
2 610 150 0.024
3 2440 300 0.02

El 400 m

A
El 330 m
B

2
1

El 280 m
D 3
C

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PIPE NETWORKS (Hardy Cross Method)

1. Assume flows for each individual pipe in the network. The total flow entering each joint must equal the flow leaving that joint.

2. Using the assumed flow rate for each pipe, calculate the head loss through each pipe.

3. Find the algebraic sum of the head losses in each loop in the pipe network. Clockwise flows in a loop may be considered positive,
producing positive head losses; counter clockwise ones are then negative and produce negative head losses. The algebraic sum of
the head losses in each loop must equal zero in order for the flow rates within pipes in the loop to be correct. Hence if the computed
head loss sum for every loop in the network is zero, the initially assumed flow rates are correct and the problem is solved.

4. However, the probability of initially guessing all flow rates correctly is virtually zero. Hence, the next step is to compute a flow rate
correction for each loop in the network using the equation


h L 2.15
h L 
n  
Q 0 

where

 = flow rate correction for a loop

hL = algebraic sum of head losses for all pipes in the loop
n = a value that depends on which formula is being used to compute flow rates.
(n = 1.85 for Hazen-Williams Formula, and n = 2 for Darcy-Weisbach Formula and Manning Formula)
(hL/Q0) = summation of head loss divided by flow rate for each pipe in the loop

5. The final step is to use the flow rate corrections (one in each loop) to adjust the initially assumed flow rates for all pipes and then
repeat the entire process for the adjusted flow rates.

6. The procedure is repeated until all corrections (values of ) become zero or negligible.

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PROBLEM 12

Compute the flow rate of water in each pipe in the network. Assume C = 120 for all pipes.

0.5 m3/s
1000 m, 500 mm
0.1 m3/s
A B
1200 m, 600 mm

1200 m, 400 mm

E 1000 m, 300 mm D 1000 m, 400 mm C

0.05 m3/s

0.1 m3/s
1200 m, 400 mm

1200 m, 300 mm

1200 m, 300 mm

F 1000 m, 400 mm G 1000 m, 300 mm H

0.1 m3/s 0.05 m3/s 0.1 m3/s

Diam Length Qassumed Velocity Head loss, Qnew

Line hL/Q 
(m) (m) (m3/s) (m/s) hL (m) (m3/s)

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WATER HAMMER (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5WTVQtvavmY)

 Water hammer is the term used to express the resulting shock caused by the sudden decrease in the motion (velocity) of a fluid.
 It is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change
direction suddenly (momentum change). A water hammer commonly occurs when a valve (point B, Fig. 2.9) closes suddenly at an
end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe. It is also called hydraulic shock.

A
B
Fig. 2.9

Fig. 2.10

Water hammer occurs when flowing water is suddenly stopped. If water was not compressible then it would behave like a long solid rod and
would crash into the valve with such enormous force (momentum change) that it would probably destroy the valve. Fortunately, water is
compressible. Think of the flow being made up of small ‘parcels’ of water (Fig. 2.10). The first parcel hits the valve and compresses; the second
crashes into the first and compresses and so on until all the water is stopped. This does not happen instantly but takes several seconds before
all the water feels the impact and stops. The result is a sudden, large pressure rise at the valve and a pressure wave which travels rapidly
along the pipe. This is referred to as a shock wave because of its suddenness. The pressure wave is not just one way. Once it reaches the end
of the pipeline it reflects back towards the valve again. It is like a coiled spring that moves back and forth and gradually stops. This oscillating
motion can go on for several minutes in a pipe until friction slowly reduces the pressure back to the normal operating level. The extent of the
pressure rise depends on how fast the water was travelling (velocity) and how quickly the valve was closed. It does not depend on the initial
pipeline pressure as is often thought. It can be calculated using a formula developed by Nicholai Joukowsky (1847–1921) who carried out the
first successful analysis of this problem:

𝐜𝐕
∆𝐡 = 2.16
𝐠

where h is rise in pressure (m); c is velocity of the pressure wave (shock wave) (m/s); V is water velocity (m/s);
g is gravity constant (9.81 m/s2).

The shock wave travels at very high velocity between 1200 and 1400 m/s. It depends on the diameter of the pipe and the material from which
the pipe is made as some materials absorb the energy of compression of the water better than others.

Magnitude of Water Hammer Pressure

a) Instantaneous Closure t c  0
𝚫𝐏 = 𝛒𝐜𝐕
2.17
 2L 
b) Rapid Closure  t c  
 c 
𝚫𝐏 = 𝛒𝐜𝐕
2.18
 2L 
c) Slow Closure  tc  
 c 

𝟐𝐋𝐕𝛒 2.19
𝚫𝐏 =
𝐭𝐜

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Where:

P = magnitude of water hammer pressure

ρ = mass density of the fluid
tC = time of closure of valve
2𝐿
= critical time of closure
𝑐

Speed of Pressure Wave

a) For rigid pipes

𝐄𝐁
𝐜=√ 2.20
𝛒

b) For non-rigid pipes

𝐄𝐁 2.21
𝐜=√
𝐄 𝐝
𝛒 (𝟏 + 𝐁 )
𝐄𝐏 𝐭

Where:

c = celerity of pressure wave

EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid
EP = modulus of elasticity of the pie wall
t = thickness of the pipe wall
d = internal diameter of the pipe
L = length of the pipe
V = velocity of fluid flow

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 13
A rigid pipe from a reservoir is 3000 ft long and water is flowing through it with a velocity of 4 ft/s. If the initial pressure at the downstream
end is 40 psig, what maximum pressure will develop at the downstream end when a rapid-acting valve at the end is closed in 1 second?
EB = 320,000 lbf/in2 and  = 1.94 slugs/ft3.

PROBLEM 14
(a) Assuming a 24-in. steel pipe to be rigid, what pressure occurs when a flow of 20 cfs of oil (SG = 0.85) and E B = 250,000 psi, is stopped
suddenly?
(b) If the pipeline is 8000 ft long, how much time should be allowed for closing a valve to avoid water hammer?

PROBLEM 15
If a 24-in. steel pipe 8000 ft long is designed for a stress of 15,000 psi under a maximum static head of 1085 ft of water, how much will the
stress in the walls of the pipe increase when a quick-closing valve stops a flow of 30 cfs?
EB = 300,000 psi, EP = 30 x 106 psi.

PROBLEM 16
Water is flowing through a 30-cm-diameter welded steel pipe of length 2000 m that drains a reservoir under a head of 40 m.

a) If a valve at the end of the pipe is closed in 10 seconds, approximately what water hammer pressure will be developed?

b) If the steady state flow is instantaneously reduced to one-half its original value, what water hammer pressure would you expect?

The pipe has a thickness of 8 mm. EB = 2 GPa, ES = 200 GPa. F = 0.013

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