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36. Directional antennas with two or more elements are caIled arrays. There
are two types of arrays:parasitic and driven.
37. Parasitic elements called reflectors and directors when spaced parallel to a
half wave dipole driven element help focus the signal into a narrow beam.
38. The measure of the directivity of an antenna is the beam width or beam
angle measured in degrees.
39. A parasitic array made up of a driven element, reflector, and one or more
directors is known as a Yagi or beam antenna and has a gain of 10 to 20
dB with a beam width of 40° to 20°.
40. Driven arrays consist of two or more half wavelength elements, each
receiving power from the transmission line.
41. The three most popular driven arrays are the collinear, end-fire, and
broadside.
42. A widely used driven array is the log periodic antenna which exhibits gain,
directivity, and a wide operating frequency range.
43. A radio wave propagates through space in one of three ways: ground
wave, sky waves, or direct waves.
44. The ground or surface wave leaves the antenna and follows the curvature
of the earth. The ground wave is only effective on frequencies below 3 MHz.
45. The skywave propagates from the antenna upward where it is bent back
to earth by the ionosphere.
46. The ionosphere is a portion of the earth’s atmosphere 30 to 250 mi above
the earth that has been ionized by the sun.
47. The ionosphere is made up of three layers of different ionization density:
the D, E, and F layers. The F layer is the most highly ionized and causes
refraction or bending of radio waves back to earth.
48. The refraction of the ionosphere causes a radio signal to be bent back to
earth with little or no attenuation long distances from the transmitter. This is
known as a skip or hop.
49. Multiple skips or hops between the ionosphere and earth permit very long
distances, even worldwide, communications. This effect is useful over the 3 –
to 30-MHz range.
50. At frequencies above 30 MHz, propagation is primarily by the direct or space
wave which travels in a straight line between transmitting and receiving
antennas. This is known as line-of-sight communications.
51. Radio waves ate easily blocked or reflected by large objects. This is
particularly true of VHF, UHF, and microwave signals.
53. The line-of-sight distance (D) is limited by the curvature of the earth and is
dependent upon the heights ht, and hr, of the transmitting and receiving
antennas, respectively.