Fatigue and Creep Fatigue and Creep Fatigue and Creep Fatigue and Creep of Materials of Materials

1/16/2010
Fatigue and Creep

of Materials
Prof. A.K.M.B. Rashid

Department of MME
BUET, Dhaka
z Fatigue failure
Laboratory fatigue test
The S
S-N
N curve
Fractography of fractured surface
Factors improving fatigue life
z Creep failure
Strain-time curve
Effect of temperature and applied stress
Factors reducing creep rate
High-temperature alloys
Reference:
1. W. D. Callister, Jr. “Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction,”
5th Edition, Jon Wiley & Sons, 2001, Ch. 7, pp. 209-240.
© Rashid, DMME, BUET . 2009 MME 291, Lec 14: Fatigue and creep of metals P 02
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Failure under Fluctuating Load

¤ Failure occurs at prolonged application of dynamic and
fluctuation stress, the value of which is much lower than
tensile or yield stress of material (for a static load)
bridges, aircrafts, machine components
¤ Single largest cause of material failure

(≈90% of all material failure)
¤ It is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and
without warning
Brittle-like failure, even in ductile materials
¤ Failure process occurs by the initiation and propagation of

surface-initiated crack, and the fractured surface is usually
perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress.
Laboratory fatigue test

rotating bend test
periodic and symmetrical about zero axis
LOAD
Result is commonly plotted as:

periodic and asymmetrical about zero axis S (stress) vs.
vs N (# of cycles to failure) graph
Low cycle fatigue

high loads, plastic and elastic deformation
High cycle fatigue
low loads, elastic deformation (N > 105)
random stress fluctuation
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The S-N Curve

Example: Steel
Fatigue limit, or endurance limit, Sfat
stress below which fatigue failure
would not occur
for steels, Sfat ≈ 35-60% of TS
Most nonferrous materials do not Example: Aluminium

show any fatigue limit (i.e.,
(i e Sfat
f t = 0 !!)
Fatigue strength, Sf Sf
stress to cause fracture after specific # of cycles
Fatigue life, Nf Nf
number of cycles to cause failure at a specific stress
The S-N Curve: An Example
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Constant Probability Curve

z There always exist a considerable degree of scatter in fatigue data,
which may lead to significant design uncertainties.
S-N curves are typically

best fit curves, drawn
through average-value
data points.
Statistical technique
used to specify fatigue
life and fatigue limit in
terms of probability.
Example: At a stress of 200 MPa,

1% samples fails at ~2x106 cycles,
50% fails at ~5x107 cycles, etc. S-N probability failure curve for 7075-T6 aluminium alloys.
P denotes probability of failure.
Crack Initiation and Propagation

3 distinct steps of fatigue failure:
1 Crack initiation
1.
Small cracks form at the surface at some point of high
stress concentration (microcracks, scratches, indents,
interior corners, dislocation slip steps, etc.). Quality of
surface is important.
2. Crack propagation
Crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle
Stage I – initially slow, involving few grains
Stage II – faster propagation perpendicular to the applied stress by
repetitive blunting and sharpening of process of crack tip
3. Final failure
occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has reached
a critical value
The fatigue life: Nf = Ni + Np Nf : No. of cycles to failure

contribution of the final step to total fatigue life is Ni : No. of cycles for crack initiation
insignificant since it occurs so rapidly Np: No. of cycles for crack propagation
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Fractograph of Fractured Surface
crack origin
smooth circular
“beachmark”
dull, fibrous final

brittle failure rupture
direction
of rotation
practical example of fatigue failure
Transmission electron fractograph

showing fatigue striations.
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Factors Improving Fatigue Life
X Reducing working stress

(magnitude, amplitude)
Y Imposing compressive surface

stress (by shot peening, case hardening, etc.)
(to suppress crack growing)
p Improving quality of surface

(
(removingg defects e.g.,
g , sharpp edge,
g , notch,,
groove, etc.; applying surface treatments)
q Removing environmental effects

(thermal fluctuations, corrosive environment)
Failure under Constant Load

At High Temperature
z Creep is a time-dependent and permanent deformation

of materials when subjected to prolonged constant load
at a high temperature (T > 0.4 Tm).
z Objects commonly failed under creep:

turbine blades, steam generators, etc.
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Obtaining creep (ε-t) curve

in laboratory experiment
1 Instantaneous deformation
mainly elastic.
2 Primary creep
decreasing creep strain with time due to work-
Constant load
hardening
3 Secondary (steady-state) creep
Steady state
Steady-state rate of straining is constant: balance of
creep rate, ∆ε/∆t hardening and recovery
(longest stage in duration)
4 Tertiary creep
rapidly accelerating strain rate up to failure due
Time of to microstructural changes
rupture, tr (formation of internal cracks, voids, cavities,
grain boundary separation, necking, etc.)
Fractured surface
showing oxide films
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Effect of Temperature and Applied Stress
Dependency of steady-state
creep rate on σ and T:
.
εs = K1 σn
. - Qc
εs = K2 σn RT
K1, K2 and n = materials constant
Qc = activation energy for creep
With increasing stress or temperature:

z The instantaneous strain increases
z The steady-state creep rate increases
z The time to rupture decreases
Factors reducing creep rate/failure

X High-melting point of material
Y Increased Young
Young’ss modulus
Z Coarse-grained structure
(reduces grain boundary sliding) (Opposite effect to strength !!)
Materials resilient to creep (high temperature alloys)

X Stainless steels
Steels containingg Cr and/or Ni.
Y Refractory metals
High melting point elements, like Nb, Mo, W, Ta.
Z “Superalloys”
Co, Ni based alloys: solid solution hardening and secondary phases.
Directional solidification producing highly elongated grains or single crystals.
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Failure Type Description Characteristic Property
Generalized Dislocation motion at: σy , TS

Yielding σ ≥ σy
Fracture Crack growth to rupture at: Kc

σ < TS (ductile)
σ < σy (brittle)
Fatigue Cyclic crack growth at: S – Nf Curve

σ < σfracture
Kmax < Kc
Creep High temperature (T > 0.4 Tm) Qc , n

deformation by diffusion at:
σ < σy
Next Class
Surface Treatments
of Steels

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1/16/2010

Fatigue and Creep

Prof. A.K.M.B. Rashid

Failure under Fluctuating Load

¤ Single largest cause of material failure

¤ Failure process occurs by the initiation and propagation of

Laboratory fatigue test

periodic and symmetrical about zero axis

Result is commonly plotted as:

Low cycle fatigue

The S-N Curve

Most nonferrous materials do not Example: Aluminium

The S-N Curve: An Example

Constant Probability Curve

S-N curves are typically

Example: At a stress of 200 MPa,

Crack Initiation and Propagation

 The fatigue life: Nf = Ni + Np Nf : No. of cycles to failure

Fractograph of Fractured Surface

dull, fibrous final

Fractograph of Fractured Surface

Transmission electron fractograph

Factors Improving Fatigue Life

X Reducing working stress

Y Imposing compressive surface

p Improving quality of surface

q Removing environmental effects

Failure under Constant Load

z Creep is a time-dependent and permanent deformation

z Objects commonly failed under creep:

Obtaining creep (ε-t) curve

Fractograph of Fractured Surface

Effect of Temperature and Applied Stress

With increasing stress or temperature:

Factors reducing creep rate/failure

Materials resilient to creep (high temperature alloys)

Failure Type Description Characteristic Property

Generalized Dislocation motion at: σy , TS

Fracture Crack growth to rupture at: Kc

Fatigue Cyclic crack growth at: S – Nf Curve

Creep High temperature (T > 0.4 Tm) Qc , n

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The fatigue life: Nf = Ni + Np Nf : No. of cycles to failure