Physiology Lab Reviewer
stethoscope placed over the brachial artery
LAB MANUAL
Exercise 5: Physiology of the Circulatory
System
A. Blood Pressure in Humans
• Circulatory System
= Responsible for the circulation and
transportation of nutrients to and from the cells
of the body
= Supplies the body with proper nourishment
and aid in stabilizing temperature and pH, fight
diseases, and maintain homeostasis.
= Comprises of two systems:
– Cardiovascular system
– Lymphatic system
= Functions of the Circulatory System:
– to transport nutrients to the tissues
– to remove their metabolic end products
– to transfer hormones from one part of the
body to another
– to provide a suitable environment in all the
tissue fluids of the body for optimal survival
and function of the cells
• Blood Pressure
= Pressure which the circulating blood exerts
against the walls of the blood vessels in the
course of circulation.
= Measured in mmHg
= Two types of measurement:
– Direct
~Direct connection to artery to a transductor
via catheter
–Indirect
~Using a sphygmomanometer
-Auscultatory method (hear)
-Palpatory (feel)
• Auscultatory Method
= Use of a stethoscope (placed facing the arrow
on the cuff)
= The standard for clinical blood pressure
measurement
= Involves listening to Korotkoff sounds using a
= There are many variables that can affect the
accuracy of this method
= Advantages
– Similarity with the usual clinical
measurement of blood pressure
= Disadvantages
– Inaccuracy due to movement of the subject
– Difficulties in hearing the Korotkoff sound
due to its physiological variations in sound
patterns or poor signals
– The cuff may not be the right size
– Center of the cuff bladder is not positioned
on the brachial artery
– The cuff may be inflated slowly or re-
inflated immediately after
• Palpatory Method
= Fingers placed on skin to feel the artery
= Not as accurate as auscultatory
• Factors that affect BP
= Smoking
= Weight
= Lack of physical activity
= Stress
= Old age
= Family history of high blood pressure
• A low BP reading is not always attributed to
errors
• Methodology
1. Sphygmomanometer was attached to
upper arm at heart level
2. Pumped pressure higher than 200 mmHg
3. Slowly lowered the pressure and recorded
pressure level when sound was heard
4. Procedure was done in three trials
• Pumping the pressure higher than 200 mmHg is
actually too much, but it is the standard protocol
• Systolic
 = first sound heard = connects to kidneys
= Systole – contraction • Mesenteric Veins
– heart contracts –> pressure increases within = connects to intestine
chambers of the heart, forcing blood out of
circulation • Blood Circulation
= pumped via pulmonary circulation, from the
• Diastolic right ventricle, through the lungs for exchange
= sound disappears of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and then to the
= Diastole – relaxation left atrium
– heart relaxes –> pressure decreases within
the chambers of the heart, allowing blood to Effects of Tension on Heartbeat Amplitude
enter • Starling's Law
= Invoked in response to changes in the resting
• BP Ranges length of the myocardial fibers
= States that the greater the distention
(expansion) of the ventricle, the greater the
force produced
= More recent evidence indicates that the
principal mechanism involves a stretch- induced
change in the sensitivity of the cardiac
myofilaments to calcium. An optimal fiber
length exists, however. Excessively high filling
pressures that over-stretch the myocardial fibers
may depress rather than enhance the pumping
capacity of the ventricles.
• Force Transducer & LabTutor

Effects of Temperature on Heart Rate

• Temperatures used: (Frog Ringer's Solution)
• Optimal BP: 120/80
= 4ºC
= 27ºC
B. Kymograph Experiments
= 37ºC
• Heart
• Frog Ringer's Solution
= key organ in the circulatory system
= preserves excised tissue
= hollow, muscular pump that propels blood
= was introduced by the physiologist Sidney
throughout the body
Ringer in 1882 for the frog heart
• Pulmonary Arteries
= solution contains sodium chloride, potassium
= transport blood to lungs
chloride, calcium chloride, and sodium
• Pulmonary Veins
bicarbonate in the concentrations in which they
= transport oxygenated blood to hear
occur in body fluids
• Aortic Arch and Trunk
• Vagus Nerve
= main arteries from heart
= pneumogastric nerve
• Common Carotid Artery
= 10th cranial nerve (CN X)
= carries blood to brain
• Renal Vein and Artery
 = interfaces with parasympathetic control of the
heart, lungs, and digestive tract
• Vagal Stimulation
= After transmission excitation through
parasympathetic ganglia, ACh is released in the
SA node of the heart
= Slowing or stoppage of the heart ensues, The
response is mediated by muscarinic receptors
that activate potassium channels in the
supraventricular cells of the heart
= In the SA node, activation of potassium efflux
causes hyperpolarization and/or decreases the
rate of diastolic depolarizationà heart rate is
slowed
• When the frog’s body temperature is lowered =
the cardiac vagus nerve becomes more effective
at slowing the heart
• Decline in cholinesterase activity allows a
greater build-up of Acetylcholine—causing a
more pronounced effect of the nerve at the
pacemaker
Effects of Drugs on Heart Rate
• Acetylcholine (0.1 mg/mL)
= released by the parasympathetic nervous
system
= produces parasympathetic effects by
binding to muscarinic cholinergic receptors
– which activates G-proteins and open
potassium channels (closing the sodium and
calcium channels) which results in
hyperpolarization
~hyperpolarization inhibits the action
potential, thus decreasing the heart rate
• Atropine (5% solution; 1 mg/mL)
= plant alkaloid that blocks acetylcholine
receptors in the heart
= a muscarinic receptor antagonist which binds
to muscarinic receptors, preventing the ACh
from binding into the receptor which inactivates
the receptor
– muscarinic antagonists are effective in
blocking the effects of vagal nerve activity on
the heart which increases heart rate.
= increases the heart rate since it is an ACh
antagonist
• Epinephrine (1% solution; 1 mg/mL)
= released by postganglionic sympathetic nerves
= AKA adrenaline
= increases the heart rate
• Pilocarpine (2.5% solution; 0.2 mg/mL)
= stimulates muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
in the heart
= a muscarinic receptor agonist that increases
the activity of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor
–> increases the effects of acetylcholine in the
body
– slows down the heart rate
• There is a direct relationship between
temperature and heart rate as when temperature
is increased, heart rate also increases.
• Through drug administration, epinephrine and
the combination of atropine and acetylcholine
increase the heart rate.
• Furthermore, epinephrine operates through the
endocrine mechanisms, while atropine and
acetylcholine operate through the neural
mechanisms.
• Acetylcholine and pilocarpine decrease the heart
rate which can also be supported by the fact that
these two drugs are agonists to one another.
• Lastly, increase in contraction force was
observed as expanded stretch in the ventricle of
the heart is given. This is further explained in the
Starling’s Law of the Heart.
• Direct relationship between contraction force and
heart rate
= when strength of contraction decreases, heart
rate decreases
PHYSIO EX ● Vasoconstriction – contraction of
Exercise 5: Cardiovascular Dynamics smooth muscles of the BV; results in a
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM decrease in BV radius
● Lipid deposits: cause radius of an
- pump (heart) + blood vessels
artery to decrease = prevent blood
- principle of the flow of liquid through a system
from reaching coronary tissue = heart
of pipes
attack
● Vasodilation – relaxation of smooth
Blood Flow Rate is:
muscle of the BV; increase in the BV
- directly proportional: pressure gradient
radius
(difference in pressures at the two ends of the
pipe)
- inversely proportional: resistance of the pipe (a 2. Length: ↑ BV length = ↑ resistance;
measure of the degree to which the pipe hinders because of friction bet. blood and vessel
the flow) walls; generally remains constant but
changes as a person grows

3. Viscosity: ↑ hematocrit = ↑ viscosity;

Where:
Pressure gradient = difference bet. the pressure in
arteries and the pressure in veins when blood is
pumped into arteries
“blood thickness”; determined by
hematocrit (fractional contribution of red
blood cells to total blood volume);
hematocrit does not vary much and blood
viscosity remains more or less constant

- Effect of Blood Pressure and Vessel Resistance

on Blood Flow -
liquid = blood
pipes = blood vessels
Blood flow is directly proportional to blood
pressure because of pressure difference (change in
BLOOD FLOW
P) = driving force for blood flow
- amount of blood moving through a body area or
the entire cardiovascular system in a given amount
Peripheral resistance – friction that opposes
of time
blood flow through blood vessel
- total blood flow: determined by cardiac output
(amount of blood pumped/minute)
- vary in different body areas, organs and time
period Factors that contribute to peripheral resistance:
- blood vessels vary in diameter depending on the - blood viscosity (η), BV length (L), and BV
tissue’s immediate needs radius (r)

RESISTANCE
- measure of the degree to w/c the blood vessel
(BV) hinders, or resists, the flow of blood
- main factors: BV radius, BV length and blood
viscosity
The above equation shows that the viscosity of the
blood and the length of the blood are proportional
to peripheral resistance. The resistance is also
inversely prop. to the fourth power of the radius.

1. Radius: ↓ BV radius = ↑ resistance; Combining the above two yields:

because of frictional drag bet. blood and
Poiseuille’s Law
vessel walls; single most important factor
in determining blood flow resistance
Where blood flow is directly proportional to the
fourth power of the radius.
- Small changes in vessel radius results in
changes in blood flow
10. After a heavy meal, when we are relatively
inactive, we might expect blood vessels in the
skeletal muscles to be somewhat __________ and
the blood vessels in the digestive organs to be
somewhat __________.
constricted, dilated

11. When you increase the flow tube radius, the

Activity 1 fluid flow rate
increases
Laminar Flow
- free flowing blood in the middle of the vessel REVIEW
- constricted BV: more blood is in contact with the 1. Explain how the body establishes a pressure
vessel wall; less laminar flow gradient for fluid flow.
- The body establishes a pressure gradient for fluid
Diameter of Blood vessel: two times the radius of flow due to the pressure difference between the
the blood vessel two ends of the vessel.

Lumen – opening of the BV where blood flows 2. Explain the effect that the flow tube radius
change had on flow rate. How well did the results
Questions compare with your prediction?
1. Blood flow is measured in - I predicted that the flow rate would increase if
ml/min. the radius was increased. It is true since the flow
2. Which of the following has the greatest effect rate is directly proportional with the flow tube
on blood flow? radius meaning the bigger the radius of the flow
blood vessel radius tube the faster the flow rate and vice versa. It is
also evident during the experiment since the flow
3. Which of the following would not result in a rate increased each time that we increased the
decrease in the blood vessel radius? radius.
vasodilation
3. Describe the effect that radius changes have on
4. The diameter of the blood vessel is the same as the laminar flow of a fluid.
two times the radius of the blood vessel. - The radius of the flow tube affects the laminar
flow of a fluid since the wider the radius the more
5. The opening of the blood vessel where the freely the fluid flows and the less fluid rubs
blood flows is called the against the wall of the tube thus increasing laminar
Lumen. flow, and vice versa

6. What is the driving force for blood flow? 4. Why do you think the plot was not linear?
pressure gradient (Hint: look at the relationship of the variables in
the equation). How well did the results compare
7. How does the body increase the blood vessel with your prediction?
radius? - The graph did not make a straight line even if the
smooth muscle relaxation flow is directly proportional with the flow tube
radius because there are additional factors that
8. The variable that you altered in this activity was affect the flow such as pressure gradient and
vessel radius. peripheral resistance

9. Vessel radius and fluid flow

are directly proportional.
Activity 2

Viscosity
- thickness or stickiness of a fluid
- ↑ viscous = ↑ resistance to flow
- slow flow rate = more viscous solution
- in blood, it is due to the presence of plasma
proteins and formed elements, w/c include white
blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells
(erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes), that
slide past one another and increasing the resistance
to flow
- blood is more viscous than water; viscosity of 3-
5 (blood), 1 for water
- dehydration and altered blood cell numbers alter
blood viscosity
Polycythemia
- excess red blood cells are present
Anemia
- few red blood cells
↑ red blood cells = ↑ blood viscosity
Questions
1. Which of the following is not a formed
element?
plasma protein
2. Thrombocytopenia is a reduction in platelets.
What effect do you think this could have on blood
decrease blood viscosity
3. Which of the following does not contribute to
the viscosity of the blood?
oxygen level in the blood
4. Viscosity most directly affects
peripheral resistance.
5. What is the relationship between fluid flow and
viscosity?
They are inversely proportional to each other.
6. What effect do you think aplastic anemia
(reduced red blood cells) would have on blood
flow?
increased blood flow due to decreased viscosity
7. The variable that you altered in this activity was
Viscosity.
8. Increasing viscosity resulted in
decreased flow rate.
9. What effect would a decreased hematocrit have
on blood flow?
decreased viscosity, increased flow
10. What do you predict would be the overall
affect on viscosity during dehydration?
increased viscosity, decreased flow
REVIEW
1. Describe the components in the blood that affect
viscosity.
- The components of the blood that affect
viscosity are the white blood cells, red
blood cells, plasma proteins, and platelets.
2. Explain the effect that viscosity had on flow
rate. How well did the results compare with your
prediction?
- The higher the viscosity the lower the flow = an
inverse relationship.
3. Describe the graph of flow versus viscosity.
- Viscosity has a lower effect than radius on fluid
flow because flow is directly proportional to the
radius to the fourth power
4. Discuss the effect that polcythemia would have
on viscosity and blood flow.
- Polycythemia is caused by an increase in
red blood cells (RBC). Thus, if the RBC
increases, the viscosity also increases
resulting in a decrease in blood flow rate.
Activity 3
↑ BV length = ↑ resistance to blood flow
through BV
- there is a larger surface area in contact with
blood cells
↑ BV length = ↑ friction
Length is usually constant unless we:
gain weight = ↑ BV length
lose weight = ↓ BV length
Questions
1. When the length of the blood vessel increases,
which of the following also increases?
both friction and surface area
2. Blood vessel length decreases
when we lose weight.
3. Blood flow is
directly proportional to vessel radius to the
fourth power.
4. Which of the following correctly describes
resistance to flow?
Resistance to flow increases with increased
vessel length.
5. What is the relationship between fluid flow and
flow tube length?
They are inversely proportional to each other.
6. Which is more likely to occur on a daily basis?
changes in blood vessel diameter
7. Increasing the flow tube length is analogous to
increasing blood vessel length. How did this affect
the flow rate?
The flow rate decreased.
8. Which of the following correctly describes the
relationships between blood vessel length,
resistance, and blood flow?
Blood vessel length is directly proportional to
resistance and inversely proportional to blood
flow.
9. Which of the following correctly describes the
relationships between blood vessel radius,
resistance, and blood flow?
Blood vessel radius is inversely proportional to
resistance and directly proportional to blood
flow.
10. Which of the following describes why the
body might require an increase in vessel radius?
to provide more blood flow and, therefore,
nutrients to a particular body part
REVIEW
1. Which is more likely to occur, a change in
blood vessel radius or a change in blood vessel
length? Explain why.
- Blood vessel radius. Because of contraction or
relaxation, foreign matter in blood vessel while
length is fixed after growth.
2. Explain the effect that the change in blood
vessel length had on flow length. How well did
the results compare with your prediction?
- As the blood vessel length increases, the
blood flow rate decreased which is the
same as what I predicted.
3. Explain why you think blood vessel radius can
have a larger effect on the body than changes in
blood vessel length (use the blood flow equation).
- While the flow rate is proportional to the
length, the flow rate is proportional to the
fourth power of the radius.
4. Describe the effect that obesity would have on
blood flow and why.
- Obesity will cause a decrease in blood
flow rate because the length of the blood
vessel increases when we gain weight.
Activity 4
Pressure Gradient
- force of contraction of the heart provides the
initial pressure and vascular resistance contributes
to the pressure gradient
- drives the blood flow in the circulatory system
- any change in the heart’s force of contraction
must be met by the blood vessels’ ability to
respond to the change in force
- Arteries close to the heart have elastic tissue in
their tunics to accommodate for these changes.
Layers of blood vessels
Tunica Intima - endothelial layer, innermost
Tunica Media - smooth muscles and elastic fiber,
middle
Tunica Externa - collagen fibers, outermost

Questions
1. Pressure changes in the cardiovascular system
primarily result from
changes in the force of contraction of the heart.
2. What is the driving force for blood flow?
pressure gradient
3. Which of the following is directly proportional
to blood flow?
blood vessel radius and pressure gradient
4. Arteries close to the heart need to be able to
compensate for
pressure changes.
5. This experiment uses pressure changes to model
changes in the force of contraction of the heart.
6. The effect of increasing pressure was to
increase flow rate.
7. Blood pressure is measured in
mm Hg.
8. Which of the following variables has the
greatest effect on blood flow?
vessel radius
9. Blood flow is measured in
ml/min.
REVIEW
1. Explain the effect that pressure changes had on
flow rate. How well did the results compare with
your prediction?
- With increased pressure, flow rate
increases.
2. How does the plot differ from the plots for tube
radius, viscosity, and tube length? How well did
the results compare with your prediction?
3. Explain why pressure changes are not the best
way to control blood flow.
- Diameter changes are easier for the body
to make. Pressure changes require the
heart to be able to respond to force.
4. Use your data to calculate the increase in flow
rate in ml/min/mm Hg.
- Study
Activity 5
Human Heart
- 4 chambers
- 70 strokes/min
- 2 pumps on left and right side
Right Side of Heart: pumps blood through the
lungs into the left side of the heart; where blood
returns
Left Side of Heart: delivers blood to the systems
of the body then returns to the right side of the
heart
Each heartbeat consists of:
Filling Interval – blood moves into the chambers
of the heart
Ejection Period – blood is actively pumped into
the aorta and the pulmonary trunk
Cardiac cycle phases:
Diastole
- relaxation of the heart; heart chambers fill
Systole
- contraction of the heart; heart chambers pump
out blood
- length of time the heart is relaxed is one
factor that determines the amount of blood
w/in the heart at the end of the filling
interval
↑ ventricular filling time = ↑ ventricular volume
End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
- volume in the ventricle at the end of diastole, just
before cardiac contraction
 8. If the left flow tube represents the pulmonary
Stroke Volume veins, what does the left source beaker represent?
- volume ejected by a single ventricular blood coming from the lungs
contraction
9. The pump piston in the simulation is up during
End Systolic Volume (ESV) Diastole.
- volume remaining in the ventricle after
contraction 10.. The pump in the simulation represents the
left ventricle.
Cardiac Output (CO)
- equal to blood flow 11. The amount of blood flowing into the
destination beaker (right beaker) with a single
𝐶𝐶 pump is called the
= ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝐶𝐶) 𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝐶𝐶)
stroke volume.

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝐶𝐶) 12. In this experiment, the increase in right flow
= 𝐶𝐶 𝐶 𝐶𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 tube radius resulted in
an increase in flow rate, which increased the
In total the cardiovascular system maintains blood pump rate.
pressure by altering: heart rate, stroke volume
and resistance 13. Which chamber should be present in the flow
pattern of the experiment, given that the vessels
Questions and valves surrounding it are present (are present
(the chamber was omitted from the experiment for
1. The heart is resting during simplicity)?
ventricular diastole. Left atrium
REVIEW
2. The right side of the heart pumps blood
to the lungs. 1. Explain the effect of increasing the right flow
tube radius on the flow rate, resistance, and pump
3. The layer of the blood vessel that is stimulated rate.
by the autonomic nervous system is - increase right flow tube, increases blood
smooth muscle. flow rate.
- increase right flow tube, decreases
4. In the experiment, the pump simulates resistance
the left ventricle of the heart. - increase right flow tube, increases pump
rate
5. If the right beaker simulates the flow of blood to
the systemic circuit of the body, what do the right 2. Describe what left and right beakers in the
valve and flow tube represent? experiment correspond to in the human heart.
aortic valve and aorta - Left beaker: blood coming from the
lungs
6. When the piston of the pump reaches its lowest - Right beaker: blood traveling to
point, the volume remaining in the pump is the systemic circuit
end systolic volume.
3. Briefly describe how the human heart could
7. If you increase the right flow tube radius, what compensate for flow rate changes to maintain
will happen to resistance and flow rate? blood pressure.
Flow rate will increase and resistance will - Increased flow rate, heart pumps faster
decrease to maintain blood pressure
.

Activity 6
In normal individuals 60% of the blood in the
heart is ejected during ventricular systole, 40% is
thus left behind.
Stroke Volume = EDV - ESV
- difference bet. the end diastolic volume and the
end systolic volume
- it is the blood ejected by the heart
Factors that affect stroke volume
- preload, contractility, and afterload
Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
- when more blood than the normal volume of is
returned to the heart by the venous system, the
heart muscle will be stretched, resulting in a more
forceful contraction of the ventricles. The effect is
that more blood is ejected, or the stroke volume
increases
Preload
- degree to w/c the ventricles are stretched by the
EDV
- results from the amount of ventricular filling bet.
strokes or the magnitude of the EDV.
- factors such as severe blood loss and dehydration
venous return and EDV
Ventricular filling may increase when the heart
rate is slow (more time to fill)
Contractility
- strength of the cardiac muscle contraction
(usually the ventricles) and its ability to generate
force
- extrinsic factors like the nervous system and
hormones control the force of cardiac contractility
Focus however are INTRINSIC FACTORS
(within the heart)
↑ EDV = cardiac muscle fibers of the ventricles
stretch and lengthen = ↑ force of contraction
Cardiac muscle exhibit length-tension
relationship like skeletal muscles
At rest, cardiac muscles are at less than
optimum overlap length for maximum tension.
- This means that when the heart
experiences an increase in stretch with an
increase in venous return and EDV - the
response is an increase in contraction
force and stroke volume
Afterload
- the back pressure generated by the blood in the
aorta and the pulmonary trunk
- the threshold that must be overcome for the
aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves to open
- referred to as afterload because load is placed
after the contraction of the ventricle starts
High Blood individuals suffer contractions against
greater pressures and thus have less stroke volume
Cardiac Output
- total blood flow is proportional to cardiac output
(amount of blood the heart is able to pump per
minute)
↓ stroke volume = must ↑ heart rate to maintain
cardiac output
↑ stroke volume = must ↓ heart rate to maintain
cardiac output
Questions
1. Which of the following variables directly
contributes to preload?
venous return
2. Which of the following would not increase end
diastolic volume?
Dehydration
3. Increased contractility of the heart results in all
but which of the following?
increased end systolic volume
4. Which of the following does not affect stroke
volume?
All of these affect stroke volume.
5. Which of the following is not equivalent to the
others?
end diastolic volume
6. Why did changing the ending pump volume
(ESV) automatically change the stroke volume?
The heart intrinsically alters stroke volume to Activity 7
accommodate changes in preload.
Aortic Valve Stenosis
7. The flow has stayed constant with each trial - a partial blockage of the aortic semilunar valve,
because increasing resistance to blood flow and left
cardiac output is equivalent to blood flow. ventricular afterload

8. How does the heart provide for an increase in - The heart compensates by increasing
stroke volume? contractility thus increasing cardiac output
by increasing contractility and stroke volume
- To do this, the heart myocardium becomes
9. What do you think would happen when stroke thicker (cardiovascular conditioning) both
volume is decreased? in athletes and diseased hearts
Pump rate would increase. - The difference is that diseased heart
chamber volumes DECREASE while that
10. Why might an athlete's resting heart rate be of healthy athletes increase
lower than that of the average person?
Stroke volume and contractility have increased. Valves in the heart are important because they
make sure blood flows in one direction only
11. In this activity, which of the following stayed
constant? Artherosclerosis pertains to a complication where
flow rate there are plaques in the arteries, decreasing the
flow rate.
12. Which of the following is true?
ESV = EDV - SV It is a type of ARTERIOSCLEROSIS in which
the arteries have lost elasticity
REVIEW
1. Describe the Frank-Starling law in the heart. Questions
1. Which of the following could cause an increase
2. Explain what happened to the pump rate when in peripheral resistance in the blood vessel?
you increase the stroke volume. Why do you think Atherosclerosis
this occurred? How well did the results compare
with your prediction? 2. Which structures in the heart ensure that one-
way flow occurs?
- increased stroke volume, decreases pump valves
rate 3. Which of the following might be seen in both
- to maintain blood flow: decreased heart the diseased heart and the athlete's heart?
rate, increases stroke volume thicker myocardium
- constant rate: increased cardiac output,
increases stroke volume 4. The type of resistance increased in aortic valve
stenosis is
3. Describe how the heart alters stroke volume. increased left-ventricular afterload
- increased stroke volume alters .
contractibility 5. Narrowing of the right flow tube radius
simulates
4. Describe the intrinsic factors that control stroke aortic valve stenosis.
volume
- preload, contractibility 6. What does increasing the pump pressure
correspond to in the human heart?
increasing the force of contraction
7. What does decreasing the right (destination)
beaker correspond to in the human heart?
decreasing afterload
8. Which of the following compensatory
mechanisms was not tested?
decreasing the pressure in the left (source)
beaker
9. In an actual heart, what is the most logical way
to compensate for a decrease in flow tube radius?
adjust the force of contraction of the heart
10. Without a difference in pressure between the
pump and the destination beaker
the valve will not open.
11. Athletes experience an overall __________ in
peripheral resistance, so the heart generates
__________ pressure to deliver the same amount
of blood. An athlete's arterial pressure would
likely be __________ than that in a non-athlete.
decrease, less, lower
REVIEW
1. Explain how the heart could compensate for
changes in peripheral resistance.
- increase contractility
2. Which mechanism has the greatest
compensatory effect? How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
- decreased pressure, decreases afterload
3. Explain what happened when the pump pressure
and the beaker pressure were the same. How well
did the results compare with your prediction?
- flow stopped
4. Explain whether it would be better to adjust
heart rate or blood vessel diameter to achieve
blood flow changes at a local level (for example,
in just the digestive system).
blood vessel diameter
PHYSIO EX
Exercise 6: Cardiovascular Physiology
• Cardiac muscles contract spontaneously -
Autorhythmicity
- It occurs because pacemaker cell
membranes have reduced permeability to
potassium, but allow calcium and sodium
ions to leak into them (f-channels)
- This leakage creates a slow creep to
depolarization, followed by the opening of
L-type calcium channels and a subsequent
influx of extracellular Ca.
The continuous depolarization-repolarization
rhythm creates cardiac action potentials
There are 5 phases of membrane polarization in a
cardiac action potential
Phase 0
- Depolarization, opening of Na channels,
membrane potential increases
Phase 1
- Na channels begin to deactivate,
membrane potential falls slightly, voltage
gated Ca channels open, voltage gated K
channels close
- The increase in Ca and decrease in K
removal compensates for the inactivation
of Na channels
Phase 2
- Plateau phase, membrane remains in
depolarized state
- K channels remain closed, L-type Ca
channels remain open (0.2 seconds/200
milliseconds)
Phase 3
- Membrane potential falls to negative
values due to another batch of K channels
opening during the phase 1 and 2. K
moves out of the cell, Ca channels close
and the membrane REPOLARIZES to
 resting potential 1. The cardiac muscle is capable of which of
the following?
Phase 4 Autorhythmicity
- Resting membrane potential
2. Phase 2 of the cardiac action potential, when the
An entire cardiac action potential lasts for 250-300 calcium channels remain open and potassium
milliseconds channels are closed, is called the
plateau phase.

3. Which of the following is true of the cardiac

Activity 1
- Wave summation occurs when a skeletal
muscle is stimulated in such a frequency
that causes muscle twitches to overlap and
result in a stronger contraction than a
single twitch.
- Further increasing the frequency results to
Tetanus because skeletal muscle absoulte
refractory periods are short
- By comparison, cardiac muscles have long
refractory periods making them
invulnerable to wave summation.
- The period is so long that the cardiac
muscle is incapable of responding to ANY
stimulus until the middle of phase 3 =
ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD
- Cardiac muscle is also incapable of
responding to even normal cardiac stimuli
before Phase 4
- Relative refractory period (period
between the absolute and phase 4)
action potential?
The cardiac action potential is longer than the
skeletal muscle action potential.
4. The main anatomical difference between the
frog heart and the human heart is that the frog
heart has
a single, fused ventricle.
5. Which of the following statements about the
contractile activity is true?
The smaller waves represent the contraction of
the atria.
6. During which portion of the cardiac muscle
contraction is it possible to induce an extrasystole?
during relaxation
7. The amplitude of the ventricular systole did not
change with the more frequent stimulation because
new contraction could not begin until the
relaxation phase
8. Which of the following do you think contribute
to the inability of cardiac muscle to be tetanized?
the long refractory period of the cardiac action
potential

In total the refractory period of a cardiac 9. Given the function of the heart, why is it
muscle is 200-250 milliseconds (almost the important that cardiac muscle cannot reach
same as a contraction) tetanus?
The ventricles must contract and relax fully
Questions with each beat to pump blood.
10. An extrasystole corresponds to Parasympathetic decreases rate w/out changing
an extra ventricular contraction. contraction force

REVIEW - Impulses are sent via the Vagus Nerve

1. Explain why the larger waves seen on the
oscilloscope represent the ventricular contraction.
- the ventricle contraction is of greater force
than the atrial contraction, this is due to
the fact that ventricles function is to send
blood throughout the body
2. Explain why the amplitude of the wave did not
change when you increase the frequency of the
stimulation. (Hint: relate your response to the
refractory period of the cardiac action potential.)
- amplitude does not change because the
cardiacs long refractory period prevents
summation
3. Why is it only possible to induce an extrasystole
during relaxation?
- the extrasystole cannot occur until
relaxation so we cannot achieve wave
summation tetanus
(cranial nerve X)
- If vagal stimulation is excessive,the heart
will stop beating for a while, then the
ventricles will continue beating again
- The resumption of beating is known as
Vagal Escape (caused by Purkinje fibers
or sympathetic stimulation)
Sinoatrial node (SA) is a cluster of autorhythmic
cells found in the RIGHT ATRIAL wall
- Fastest depolarization rate and
determines the heart’s rhythm
- Known as the “Pacemaker”
- Even w/out stimulation and hormones, the
SA fires Action potentials 100 times/min.
Questions
1. The effect of the parasympathetic nervous
system on the heart is to
decrease the heart rate.

4. Explain why wave summation and tetanus are 2. The branch of the autonomic nervous system
not possible in cardiac muscle tissue. How well that dominates during exercise is
did the results compare with your prediction? the sympathetic branch.
- Because they’re action potentials, twitches
and refractory periods are longer 3. Parasympathetic stimulation reaches the heart
through
vagus nerves, which are cranial nerves.

Activity 2 4. The usual pacemaker of the heart

- ANS has two branches: sympathetic is the sinoatrial node.
(fight/flight) and parasympathetic (rest/digest).
Even at rest, both are at work with the para being 5. The vagus nerve carries
dominant. signals that decrease the heart rate.
- Both branches supply impulses to the
heart: 6. Extreme vagus nerve stimulation affects the
heart by
Sympathetic causes increase in rate and stopping the heart completely.
contraction force
7. Vagal escape probably involves
sympathetic reflexes.
35.8-38.2
8. Research shows that, in the absence of neural
and hormonal influences, the SA node generates
action potentials at a frequency of approximately
100 times per minute. However, the resting heart
rate is approximately 70 beats per minute, which
suggests that:
the parasympathetic nervous system has more
control over heart rate.
Humans are homeothermic (normal body temp
C)
- When external temperatures rise, the
hypothalamus is signaled to activate to
maintain temperature (sweating &
vasodilation)
- Hyperthermia and Hypothermia may
occur if the body cannot maintain
temperature

REVIEW Frogs are poikilothermic it lacks any homeostatic

1. Explain the effect that extreme vagus nerve mechanisms to maintain temperature, its internal
stimulation had on the heart. temp. follows the external temp.
- Extreme vagus nerve stimulation
decreased the heart rate and made the Ringer’s solution (ringer’s irrigation) contains
heart stopped, electrolytes like Na, Cl, K, Mg, Ca and is used to
keep an isolated heart viable
2. Explain two ways that the heart can overcome
excessive vagal stimulation. Experiment focuses on applying different
- One way is through vagal escape due to temperatures of ringer’s solution
sympathetic reflexes or second, by
initiation of the rhythm by the Purkinje Questions
fibers. 1. Organisms that usually maintain the same
internal body temperature in spite of
3. Describe how the sympathetic and environmental temperature changes are
parasympathetic nervous systems work together to Homeothermic.
regulate heart rate.
- The sympathetic nervous system increases 2. The general name for the process that maintains
heart rate and parasympathetic decreases the internal body temperature in humans is
heart rate. Homeostasis.

4. What do you think would happen to the heart 3. The electrolytes in a Ringer's solution are
rate if the vagus nerve was cut? required to
- It would allow only the sympathetic provide for autorhythmicity.
system to regulate heart rate, and so heart
rate will increase. 4. An internal body temperature that is above the
normal range is
Hyperthermic.

Activity 3 5. What effect do you think a fever of 104°F

would have on heart rate?
increase in heart rate
6. In the 5°C Ringer’s solution, the frog heart
beat slower than baseline.
7. In the 32°C Ringer’s solution, the frog heart
beat faster than baseline.
8. If the human heart were experiencing
hypothermia, what do you think would be the
effect on heart rate?
a decrease in heart rate
9. Without the Ringer's solution
spontaneous cardiac action potentials would
not occur.
REVIEW
1. Explain the effect that decreasing the
temperature had on the frog heart. How do you
think the human heart would respond? How well
did the results compare with your prediction?
- Decreased temperature of Ringer's
solution resulted in decreased frog heart
rate. In humans, however, heat-generating
center will be triggered in the brain that
would also cause a decrease in heart rate.
2. Describe why Ringer's solution is required to
maintain heart contractions.
- The Ringer’s solution consists of essential
electrolytes, that provide the necessary
environment for the frog’s heart so that
spontaneous cardiac action potentials can
occur.
3. Explain the effect that increasing the
temperature had on the frog heart. How do you
think the human heart would respond? How well
did the results compare with your prediction?
- Increasing the temperature of the Ringer’s
solution caused the frog's heart rate to
increase. In humans, however, heat-loss
center will be triggered in the brain that
would also cause an increase in heart rate.
Activity 4
The heart does not need any stimulation to beat,
however it can be influenced by extrinsic factors
- An example would be the Autonomic
Nervous System’s Sympathetic branch
- Its nerve fibers release norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) & epinephrine
(adrenaline) at the cardiac synapses
Both act to increase the heart rate by binding to β1
adrenergic receptors in the membrane of the SA
node
- It initiates a cAMP messenger system that
effectively opens more Ca and Na
channels to increase depolarization rates
The parasympathetic nerve fibers also release
Acetylcholine that decreases the frequency of
action potentials by binding to muscarinic
cholinergic receptors in the plasma membrane of
the SA node, causing K channels to open, and Ca
and Na channels to close.
Chemical Modifiers
- Any one of its kind that mimics the action
of Acetylcholine are dubbed as
CHOLINERGIC
- Conversely, if the mimic Epinephrine they
are known as ADRENERGIC
- If it is the same as Norepinephrine or
Acetylcholine it is known as AGONIST
- If it works in opposite to any
neurotransmitter - it is called an
ANTAGONIST
Epinephrine
= POSITIVE chronotropy and inotropy
= Adrenergic agonist
Pilocarpine
= NEGATIVE chronotropy and inotropy
= cholinergic agonist
Atropine
= POSITIVE chronotropy and inotropy
= Cholinergic antagonist
Digitalis
= NEGATIVE chronotropy and POSITIVE
inotropy
Questions
1. The parasympathetic nervous system releases
__________ to affect heart rate.
Acetylcholine
2. A cholinergic drug that worked the same as
acetylcholine would
be an agonist and decrease heart rate.
3. Norepinephrine affects the heart rate by
increasing the rate of depolarization and
increasing the frequency of action potentials.
4. The __________ receptor binds norepinephrine
and epinephrine.
ß-1 adrenergic
5. Which of the following is true of epinephrine?
It increases the heart rate and mimics the
sympathetic nervous system.
6. The final chemical modifier we will look at is
digitalis (also known as digoxin and digitoxin and
derived from the foxglove plant). Individuals with
weakened hearts need to allow maximum time for
venous return and increased stroke volume and
would therefore most likely benefit from
increased force of contraction and decreased
heart rate
7. Pilocarpine decreased the heart rate. Typical of
cholinergic agonists, it
decreased the frequency of action potentials.
8. The effect of atropine was to
mimic the sympathetic nervous system.
9. The modifiers tested that decrease the heart rate
were
digitalis and pilocarpine.
10. To increase the heart rate, the best choices
would be
epinephrine and atropine
REVIEW
1. Describe the effect that pilocarpine had on the
heart and why it had this effect. How well did the
results compare with your prediction?
- Pilocarpine acted as a cholinergic
modifier and heart rate was decreased,
as predicted.
2. Atropine is an acetylcholine antagonist. Does
atropine inhibit or enhance the effects of
acetylcholine?
- It inhibits the effect of Ach as it increased
the heart rate
3. Describe the benefits of administering digitalis.
- Digitalis are helpful in bolstering weak
heart in congestive heart failure. People
with such condition need to have
maximum time for the venous return and
increased stroke volume When digitalis is
administered, it will increase force of
contraction and decrease heart rate.
4. Distinguish between cholinergic and adrenergic
chemical modifiers. Include examples of each in
your discussion.
Cholinergics
- Pilocarpine (Agonist) and Atropine
(Antagonist)
Adrenergics
- Epinephrine itself (mimics sympathetic
nervous system)
Activity 5 LAB MANUAL
Exercise 6: Physiology of the Respiratory
- AP’s in cardiac muscles are caused by ion System
channel permeability changes • Gas exchange
- Na and Ca are high at the OUTSIDE of = important metabolic process
the cell, K is high in the INSIDE = ensures that the diff. parts of the body are able
to receive the proper amount of O2 and eliminate
Resting membrane potential favors K channels and CO2
is thus the ratio of extracellular and intracellular = gas exchange between air and blood occur in
potassium the alveolar air sacs
= efficiency of gas exchange is dependent on
High blood pressure and abnormal heart rates are ventilation
treated using Ca channel blockers
- This causes depolarization rates and • Respiration
contraction force to reduce = cylindrical breathing pattern known as
Modifiers ventilation
= consists of repeating cycles of inspiration
Chonotropic - affect heart rate (Positive if they followed by expiration
increase; Negative if they decrease) = inspiration –> gas exchange in alveoli –>
Inotropic - affect force of contraction (same as expiration
above)
• Spirometry
2+
Addition of Ca = physiological test that measures how much air
= POSITIVE chronotropy and inotropy an individual inhales or exhales
= increase Ca2+ influs = GREATER contractility = Measurements taken:
= accelerated depolarization = INCREASED heart – Volume
rate – Time
– Flow
Addition of Na+ = allows many components of pulmonary
= NEGATIVE chronotropy and inotropy function to be visualized, measured, and
= increase in Na+ influx = decrease in Ca2+ influx calculated
= DECREASED cardiac contractility
= increased peak of depolarization due to Na+ =
decreased heart rate

Addition of K+
= NEGATIVE chronotropy and inotropy
= increase extracellular K= slow impulse
conduction = decreased heart rate
= slow impulse conduction = shortened action
potential = decreased cardiac contractility
• Flow
= commonly measured by breathing into a bell
spirometer
= F = dV
dt
= more conveniently measured using a
pneumotachometer
– also with the use of PowerLab
– flow head contains a fine mesh
~air breathed through it gives rise to a small
pressure difference proportional to flow rate
- 2 plastic tubes transmit the pressure diff.
to the Spirometer Pod –> transducer
converts pressure signal into a changing
voltage recorded by PowerLab and
displayed via LabChart
– V = ∫ F dt
~this integration represents a summation
over time
~the integral ( ∫ ) is initialized to 0 every
time a recording is started
– complications in the volume measurement is
caused by the difference in air temp between
the Spirometer Pod (at ambient temp) and the
air exhaled from the lungs (at body temp)
– the volume of gas expands with warming
~therefore the air volume expired from the
lungs will be slightly greater than that
inspired
– a volume trace (as calculated by integration
of flow) drifts in the expiratory direction
~to reduce the drift, the flow has to be
integrated separately during inspiration and
expiration
- the inspiratory volume being corrected
by a factor related to the BTPS factor
(body temp, atmospheric pressure,
saturated with water vapor)
• Tidal Volume (VT)
= volume of air that is drawn into and then
expired out of the lungs
• In normal ventilation, the breathing frequency (f
) is approximately 15 respiratory cycles per minute
= the value varies with the level of activity
• Expired Minute Volume (VE)
= product of f and VT
= also changes according to the level of activity
• Vital Capacity (VC)
= amount of air that the lungs can release after
having been filled up completely
= essential in spirometry, as it can tell the extent
to which a person can change the volume of
their lunds
= can be used to determine one's Residual
Volume (RV) and Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
RV = VC x 0.25
TLC = RV + VC
• Inspiratory Pressure
= The pressure generated when an individual
inhales or breathes in air
= During inhalation, inspiratory muscles
(diaphragm and external intercostals) contract
pulling downwards and forwards
= The effect is an increase in the size of the
thoracic cavity and the expansion of the lungs
= The volume of air that enters increases
accompanied by a decrease intrapulmonary
pressure compared to that of the atmospheric or
ambient pressure

• Expiratory Pressure
= Pressure generated during exhalation and is
the opposite of inspiratory pressure
= Muscles relax and the thoracic cavity
compresses
= The lungs collapse and the volume of air
decreases while the intrapulmonary pressure
increases above the atmospheric pressure
= Inverse effects in inspiratory and expiratory
pressures are governed by Boyle’s Law
• Expected compliance of lung-chest wall system
= The blue line shows the relationship between
the transmural pressure across the lung
compared with the organ's volume.
= Transmural pressure is the relative pressure
between the alveoli compared to the pressure in
the intrapleural space. This curve indicates lung
expansion during inspiration.
= The first plot does not start at zero volume
– because of the residual volume which is the
air still remaining in the lungs even after
expiration
= At low lung volume, the lung is most most
compliant /easiest to expand compared to larger
volumes where greater changes in transmural
pressure are required to achieve the same value
of expansion
= However as lungs expand, their compliance
/ability to expand progressively decreases
– due to the progressive stretching of elastin
fibers to their physical limits as well as
increasing surface tension as alveoli expand
= Chest wall tends to fall outward, it will put the
lung in the negative pressure and that’s when we
inspire and draw air inward and is the reason
why chest wall should not have a negative
pressure
= When the alveolar pressure, which is always
positive, and the negative chest wall pressure
completely balance each other, the value is zero
and it is called Functional Residual Capacity
(FRC).
– At FCR, the pressure in the airway and the
lungs is equal to atmospheric pressure, it will
neither draw air in or out.
– EXPANSION ABOVE FRC:
~Results of the change into the individual
compliances of the lung and chest wall.
~As lung volume expands above FRC,
elastic recoil of the lungs generates
progressively greater recoiling forces.
 ~As chest wall volume expands about FRC,
outward springing force of the chest wall
declines and at a very high volumes inverts
to a recoiling force.
– CONTRACTION BELOW FRC:
~The lung volume contracts below FRC
when elastic recoil of the lungs declines and
thus generates smaller collapsing forces.
~As the chest wall volume contracts below
the FRC, outward springing force of the
chest wall rapidly increases, generating
progressively greater expanding forces.
• During inspiration, the volume of the thoracic
cavity increases, causing intrapulmonary pressure
to fall below atmospheric pressure.
= since air moves from areas of high to low air
pressure, air flows into the lungs
= airflow stops when the intrapulmonary
pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
• In expiration, the volume of the thoracic
decreases, causing the intrapulmonary pressure to
rise above atmospheric pressure
= following its pressure gradient, air flows out
of the lungs, until the intrapulmonary pressure
again equals atmospheric pressure
• Pulmonary function tests are an important tool in
the assessment of patients with suspected or
known respiratory disease
= also important in the evaluation of patients
prior to surgery or medication.
PHYSIO EX
Exercise 7: Respiratory System Mechanics
Respiration
- include ventilation or the movement of air into
and out of the lungs, and the transport (via blood)
of oxygen and carbon dioxide bet. the lungs and
body cells
- heart pumps deoxygenated blood to pulmonary
capillaries , where gas exchange occurs bet. the
blood and alveoli (air sacs in the lungs) =
oxygenating the blood -> body tissues (oxygen is
used for cell metabolism; carbon dioxide diffuses
into the blood) -> returns to the heart
Ventilation
- result of skeletal muscle contraction
- must be regulated at all times to maintain oxygen
in arterial blood and carbon dioxide in venous
blood in normal levels (normal partial pressures)
Partial Pressure -
the proportion of pressure that the gas exerts in a
mixture
*Diaphragm – dome shaped muscle that divides
the thoracic and abdominal cavities
*External Intercostal Muscles
*contract = volume in the thoracic cavity increases
= reduces the pressure in the thoracic cavity =
inspiration
*relax = pressure in the thoracic cavity increases
as volume decreases = expiration
Inspiration – active process; requires the use of
ATP
Expiration – passive process; running : active
process, contraction of internal intercostal muscles
and abdominal muscles
IF RUNNING
- Both become active processes; expiration results
from internal intercostal contraction and
abdominal muscles
Minute Ventilation/Volume - amount of air that
flows into and out of the lungs in 1 minute -
Taken by multiplying the frequency of breathing
by the volume of each breath ( Tidal Volume)
- Ve = Vt x f (L/min)
Partial Pressure
- Proportion of pressure that the gas exerts in a
mixture.
- Atm pressure is 760 mm Hg, Oxygen makes up
21% and is 160 mm Hg (760 x 0.21)
Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse down their
partial pressure gradients, from high to low.
Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli of the lungs into
the blood, where it can dissolve in plasma and
attach to hemoglobin, and then diffuses from the Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) -
blood into the tissues. amount of air that can be forcefully expired after a
normal tidal volume expiration
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues onto the Male: 1200mL
blood and then diffuses from the blood into the Female: 700mL
alveoli for export from the body.
Residual Volume (RV) -
amount of air remaining in the lungs after forceful
and complete expiration
Activity 1 - RV = predicted VC x 0.25 (L)
Two phases of ventilation (breathing): Male: 1200mL
Ventilation – measured as the frequency of Female: 1100mL
breathing multiplied by the tidal volume
* Respiratory capacities are calculated from the
● Inspiration – air is taken into the lungs respiratory volumes.
o external intercostal muscles and diaphragm
contract Total Lung Capacity (TLC) -
o diaphragm flattens as it moves inferiorly while maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a
the external intercostal muscles lift the rib cage maximum inspiratory effort
o increases the thoracic volume = air rushes TLC = TV+IRV+ERV+RV or TLC= VC+RV
into the lungs because this increase thoracic Male: 6000mL
volume creates a partial vacuum Female: 4200mL

● Expiration – air is expelled from the lungs; Vital Capacity (VC)

passive process
o inspiratory muscles relax, diaphragm rise
superiorly and chest wall to move inward
o thorax returns to its normal shape = elastic
properties of the lung and thoracic wall
o the pressure in the lungs rises, forcing air out
of the lungs and airways
o abdominal-wall muscles and the internal
intercostal muscles contract during
expiration to force additional air from the
lungs (exercising, sneezing etc)
- maximum amount of air that can be inspired and
then expired with maximal effort
VC = Vt+IRV+ERV
Male: 4800mL
Female: 3100mL
Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
- amount of air that can be expelled when the
subject takes the deepest possible inspiration and
forcefully expires as completely and rapidly as
possible

Tidal volume - Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1)

the amount of air inspired and then expires with
each breath under resting conditions (quiet
breathing) - quiet breathing: 500mL (0.5L) of air
into and out of the lungs with each breath
- vary due to a person’s size, sex, age, physical
condition, and immediate respiratory needs
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
amount of air that can be forcefully inspired after a
normal tidal volume inspiration
Male: 3100mL
Female: 1900mL
- measures the amount of the vital capacity that is
expired during the first second of the FVC test
(normally 75%-85% of the vital capacity)
Functional Residual Capacity (FRV)
- volume of gas remaining in the lungs at the end
of a normal tidal expiration
- FRC= ERV+RV
Obstructive Lung Disease
- affects airflow - FEV1 decreases
Restrictive Lung Disease
- usually reduces volumes and capacities

Questions
1. Which of the following statements describing
the mechanics of breathing is false?
Ventilation relies exclusively on contracting
skeletal muscles.
2. The contraction of which of the following
muscles will increase the thoracic cavity volume
during inspiration?
the external intercostals
3. At the beginning of inspiration, the
thoracic cavity volume increases.
4. At the beginning of expiration, the
pressure in the thoracic cavity increases
5. A tidal volume refers to the
amount of air inspired and then expired with
each breath under resting conditions.
6. Which muscles contract during quiet
expiration?
None of these muscles contract during quiet
expiration.
7. To calculate a person's vital capacity, you need
to know the TV, ERV, and
IRV.
8. Measuring a person's FVC means that you are
measuring
the amount of air that can be expelled when the
subject takes the deepest possible inspiration
and then forcefully expires as completely and
rapidly as possible.
9. Measuring a person's FEV1 means that you are
measuring
the amount of the VC that is expired during the
first second of the FVC test.
10. For a person suffering an asthma attack,
inhaler medications are expected to
reduce the airway resistance.
11. Which of the following values does not
include the ERV?
Vt
REVIEW:
1.What would be an example of an everyday
respiratory event the ERV button simulates?
- The ERV button simulates a forced expiration.
2. What additional skeletal muscles are utilized in
an ERV activity?
- In forced expiration, abdominal-wall muscles
and the internal intercostal muscles contract.
3. What was the FEV1 (%) at the initial radius of
5.00 mm?
- The FEV1 (%) at a radius of 5 mm is 73.9%
(3541/4791 100%).
4. What happened to the FEV1 (%) as the radius
of the airways decreased? How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
- The FEV1 (%) decreased proportionally as the
radius decreased.
5. Explain why the results from the experiment
suggest that there is an obstructive, rather than a
restrictive, pulmonary problem.
- The FEV1 (%) decreased proportionally as the
radius decreased which is characteristic of an
obstructive pulmonary problem.
Activity 2
Spirometer
- device that measures the volume of air inspired
and expired by the lungs over a specified period of
time
Emphysema Breathing
- there is a significant loss of elastic recoil in the
lung tissue
- FVC and FEV1 decreases
- occurs as the disease destroys the wall of the
alveoli
- airways is increased as the lung tissue in general
becomes flimsy and exerts less anchoring on the
surrounding airways = the lung becomes overly
compliant and expands easily
- great effort is required to expire because the
lungs can no longer passively recoil and deflate
- each respiration requires a noticeable and
exhausting muscular effort – a person with
emphysema expires slowly
Acute Asthma Attack Breathing
- bronchiole smooth muscle spasms, and thus the
airways become constricted (that is, reduced in
diameter)
- FVC and FEV1 decreases
- they become clogged with thick mucus secretion
= lead to significantly increased airway resistance
- airway inflammatory response brought on by
triggers such as allergens, extreme temperatures
changes, and even exercise
- like emphysema, the airways collapse and pinch
closed before a forced expiration is completed =
volumes and peak flow rates are significantly
reduced during an asthma attack; unlike
emphysema, the elastic recoil is not diminished in
an acute asthma attack
- during acute asthma attack: many people seek to
relieve symptoms with an inhaler that atomizes the
medication and allows for direct application onto
the afflicted airways; medication includes a
smooth muscle relaxant (β2 agonist or
acetylcholine antagonist) that relieves the
bronchospasms and induces bronchiole dilation; it
also includes an anti-inflammatory agents, such as
corticosteroid, that suppresses the inflammatory
response
- the use of inhaler reduces airway resistance
using inhaler:
- all values except IRV, RV, FVC and FEV1 have
returned to normal
Breathing During Exercise
● moderate aerobic exercise: rate of breathing
and the tidal volume increases but do not
increase by the same amount; increase in the
tidal volume is greater than the increase in the
rate of breathing; tidal volume increases more
than normal
● heavy exercise: rate of breathing and the tidal
volume increases to their maximum tolerable
limits
Questions
1. A normal resting tidal volume is expected to be
around
500 mL
2. Which respiratory process is impaired the most
by emphysema?
Expiration
3. During an asthma attack
inspiration and expiration are impaired.
4. During moderate aerobic exercise,
which respiratory variable increases the
most?
tidal volume
5. Inhaler medications for an asthma
patient are designed to
dilate the patient's bronchioles.
6. When obstructive lung disease
develops, what happens to the FEV1 (%)?
It decreases.
7. Compared with the normal patient, what
happened to the FVC in this patient?
It decreased.
8. Compared with the normal patient, what
happened to the FEV1 in this patient?
It decreased.
9. Compared with the normal patient, what
happened to the FVC in this patient?
It decreased.
10. Compared with the normal patient, what
happened to the FEV1 in this patient?
It decreased.
11. Which values in this spirogram have not
returned to those of the normal patient (select all
that apply)?
IRV d. RV e. FVC g. FEV1
12. For both types of exercise, the tidal volumes
and breathing rates were increased. Compared
with normal values, did tidal volume or breathing
rate increase more during moderate exercise?
(Determine the percentage by which each value
changed.)
tidal volume
13. Which of the following respiratory values
represents a decreased flow rate during the
obstructive lung disease(s)?
FEV1
14. Calculate the ERV of an individual with the
following respiratory volumes: TLC = 6000 ml,
FVC = 4800 ml, RV = 1200ml, IRV = 2900 ml,
TV = 500 ml.
1400 ml
15. Calculate the FVC of an individual with the
following respiratory volumes: RV = 1000 ml,
IRV = 3000 ml, TV = 500 ml, ERV = 1500 ml.
5000 ml
16. What is the largest volume for the normal
patient?
IRV
17. What happened to the RV for the emphysema
patient and the asthmatic patient?
It increased for both patients.
Review Questions:
1. What lung values changed (from those of the
normal patient) in the spirogram when the patient
with emphysema was selected? Why did these
values change as they did? How well did the
results compare with your prediction?
- The values that change for the patient with
emphysema are ERV, IRV, RV, FVC, FEV1 and
the FEV1 (%). These changes are due to the loss
of elastic recoil.
2. Which of these two parameters changed more
for the patient with emphysema, the FVC or the
FEV1?
- The FEV1 decreased significantly more than the
FVC for the patient with emphysema.
3. What lung values changed (from those of the
normal patient) in the spirogram when the patient
experiencing an acute asthma attack was selected?
Why did these values change as they did? How
well did the results compare with your prediction?
- The values that changed for the patient with the
acute asthma attack are TV, ERV, IRV, RV, FVC,
FEV1 and the FEV1 (%). These changes are due
to the restriction of the airways.
4. How is having an acute asthma attack similar to
having emphysema? How is it different?
- Both are similar because they are obstructive
diseases characterized by increased airway
resistance. It is more difficult to exhale with
emphysema than with asthma.
5. Describe the effect that the inhaler medication
had on the asthmatic patient. Did all the spirogram
values return to “normal”? Why do you think
some values did not return all the way to normal?
How well did the results compare with your
prediction?
- The values that returned to normal were TV,
ERV, FEV1 (%). The smooth muscles in the
bronchioles didn’t return to normal plus mucus
still blocks the airway.
6. How much of an increase in FEV1 do you think
is required for it to be considered significantly
improved by the medication?
- A significant improvement would be at least 10–
15% improvement. Student answers will vary on
this response.
7. With moderate aerobic exercise, which changed
more from normal breathing, the ERV or the IRV?
How well did the results compare with your
prediction?
- The lung value that changed more with moderate
exercise was IRV.
8. Compare the breathing rates during normal
breathing, moderate exercise, and heavy exercise.
- The breathing rate increased with moderate and
heavy exercise. A greater increase in breathing
rate was seen with heavy exercise.
Activity 3
Surface Tension
- resists any force that tends to increase surface are
of the gas-liquid boundary;
- acts to decrease the size of hollow spaces, such
as the alveoli, or microscopic air spaces within the
lungs
Surfactant
- a detergent-like mixture of lipids and proteins
that decreases surface tension by reducing the
attraction of water molecules to each other
- reduces the amount of work required to inflate
the lung
- the sequential additions of surfactant decreases
the surface tension
- premature infants have low surfactant in their
lungs = difficulty in breathing
Intrapleural Pressure
- the pressure in the pleural cavity
- less than the pressure in the alveoli between
breaths
Two forces cause this negative condition:
1. The tendency of the lung to recoil because of its
elastic properties and the surface tension of the
alveolar fluid.
2. The tendency of the compressed chest wall to
recoil and expand outward
= These two forces pull the lungs away from the
thoracic wall, creating a partial vacuum in the
pleural cavity.
*Because the pressure in the intrapleural space is
lower than atmospheric pressure, any opening
created in the pleural membranes equalizes the
intrapleural pressure with atmospheric pressure by
allowing air to enter the pleural cavity, a condition
called pneumothorax.
Atelectasis
- lung collapse resulting from a pneumothorax
Best way to rapidly reinflate a person’s collapsed
lung
= pump air out of the intrapleural space to recreate
negative pressure
Questions
1. Which of the following statements about surface
tension is false?
Surface tension acts to increase the size of the
alveoli within the lungs.
2. Which of the following statements about
surfactant is false?
Surfactant works by increasing the attraction
of water molecules to each other.
3. Just before an inspiration begins, the pressure
within the intrapleural cavity
is less than the pressure within the alveoli.
4. The respiratory condition of pneumothorax
refers to
any opening that equalizes the intrapleural
pressure with the atmospheric pressure.
5. A pneumothorax can lead to
Atelectasis.
6. The addition of surfactant to the lung interior
increased airflow.
7. Opening the valve in the side of the glass bell
jar
simulated pneumothorax.
8. In this activity a pneumothorax is automatically
followed by
Atelectasis.
9. The best way to rapidly reinflate a person's
collapsed lung is to
pump air out of the intrapleural space to
recreate negative pressure.
10. Why did the sequential additions of surfactant
change this lung system?
Surface tension was sequentially decreased.
11. Premature infants often have difficulty
breathing because the amount of surfactant in their
lungs is
too low.
REVIEW:
1. What effect does the addition of surfactant have
on the airflow? How well did the results compare
with your prediction?
- The surfactant addition further increased airflow
because the surface tension in the alveoli
decreased allowing the alveoli to expand more.
2. Why does surfactant affect airflow in this
manner?
- Surfactant serves to decrease the surface tension.
3. What effect did opening the valve have on the
left lung? Why does this happen?
- It caused the lung to collapse because the
pressure in the pleural cavity is less than the
intrapulmonary pressure. Air flows from the lungs
causing the collapse of the lung.
4. What effect on the collapsed lung in the left side
of the glass bell jar did you observe when you
closed the valve? How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
- The lung did remain collapsed and did not
reinflate after the valve was closed.
5. What emergency medical condition does
opening the left valve simulate?
- Opening the left valve simulates a
pneumothorax.
6. In the last part of this activity, you clicked the
Reset button to draw the air out of the intrapleural
space and return the lung to its normal resting
condition. What emergency procedure would be
used to achieve this result if these were the lungs
in a living person?
- Emergency professionals will insert a chest tube
to pull a partial vacuum out of the intrapleural
space to return it to a value below atmospheric
pressure.
7. What do you think would happen when the
valve is opened if the two lungs were in a single
large cavity rather than separate cavities?
- Both lungs would collapse if the lungs were not
separated. Breathing would stop and the person
would die.
PHYSIO EX
Exercise 8: Chemical and Physical Processes of
Digestion
Digestive System
- also called the gastrointestinal system
- consists of the digestive tract and accessory
glands that secrete enzymes and fluids needed for
digestion
Digestive tract: mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, colon,
rectum, anus
- ingest food, break down food, extract nutrients
from the broken down components, eliminates
wastes
Digestion
- process of breaking down food molecules into
smaller molecules with the aid of enzymes in the
digestive tract
Enzymes
– large protein molecules produced by body cell
- biological catalysts that increase the rate of a
chemical reaction w/o becoming part of the
product
Hydrolases
- digestive enzymes; hydrolytic enzymes
- break downorganic food molecules or substrates
by adding water to the molecular bonds, thus
cleaving the bond bet. the subunits or monomers
- specific in its action
- function outside the body cells in the digestive
tract lumen
Activity 1
Substrate – substance that the enzymes acts on
Salivary Amylase
- enzyme produced by the salivary glands and
secreted into the mouth
- starch to maltose
- substrate for amylase: starch and carbohydrate
- most active in the mouth because pH 7 is where
its peak activity is
Starch digestion = maltose and glucose
starch + water → x maltose
Enzyme Assay
- chemical method of detecting the presence of
digested substances
● IKI Assay – detect the presence of starch
 o caramel-colored -> blue-black
(presence of starch)
● Benedict’s Assay –presence of reducing
sugars, such as glucose or maltose which
are digestion products of starch
o bright blue -> green -> orange ->
reddish brown (increasing amount
of maltose)
Deionized water - utilized to adjust the volume so
that its the same in all reactions
Questions
1. The substrate for amylase is
starch and carbohydrate.
2. Which of the following is true of enzymes?
Their activity can be affected by temperature
and pH.
3. The reagent IKI tests for the presence of
Starch.
4. Which of the following is not true of controls?
A negative result with a positive control is
required to validate the test
5. Which of the following is an end product of
starch digestion?
maltose and glucose
6. Hydrolases are enzymes that break down large
molecules into smaller subunits through the
addition of _____________.
Water
7. Tube 2 appears to have the same amount of
starch digested as tube 3 because
freezing had no effect on the enzyme.
8. Tubes 3, 7, and 8 reveal that
amylase activity was highest at pH 7.
9. This activity includes a number of negative
controls. Which tube indicates that the amylase
solution was not contaminated with maltose?
tube 4
10.. Which tubes indicate that the deionized water
did not contain contaminating starch or maltose?
tubes 4, 5, and 6
11. Explain where and why salivary amylase
would be most active.
Salivary amylase would be most active in the
mouth because pH 7 is where its peak activity
is.
Review Questions:
1. List the substrate and the subunit product of
amylase.
- starch & maltose respectively
2. What effect did boiling and freezing have on
enzyme activity? Why? How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
- Boiling caused amylase to be denatured, thus
inactivating the enzyme. Freezing has no effect.
The function of an enzyme is directly related to its
environment, like temperature.
3. At what pH was the amylase most active?
Describe the significance of this result.
- pH 7.0. Amylase is most active in neutral areas,
such as the mouth and the small intestine
(duodenum).
4. Briefly describe the need for controls and give
an example used in this activity.
- Controls are needed to validate the results of the
experiment. One example is testing for sugar using
Benedict's test on Amylase The negative control
was used to detect if amylase was contaminated
with maltose or not.
5. Describe the significance of using a 37°C
incubation temperature to test salivary amylase
activity.
- 37°C simulates an environment of normal body
temperature.
Activity 2
Active Site
– pocket of an enzyme
- where the substrate must fit into temporarily for
catalysis to occur
- substrate held in active site by noncovalent bonds
such as ionic and hydrogen bonds
starch + water → maltose + maltotriose + starch
*Starch
- polysaccharide found in plants; used to store
energy
*Cellulose
- polysaccharide found in plants; provides rigidity
to cell walls
*both polymers of glucose linked differently
Peptidase
- pancreatic enzyme that digests peptides
Questions
1. Which of the following is true of enzymes and
substrates?
Enzymes are specific about the substrates they
can act upon.
2. Which of the following is/are reducing sugars?
both glucose and maltose
3. Cellulose and starch are both
polymers of glucose and polysaccharides.
4. Proteins and peptides are formed by joining
amino acids with a special type of covalent bond
called a
peptide bond.
5. Which of the following enzymes do you think
would be specific for a peptide bond?
Peptidase
6. The Benedict's assay tests for the presence of
reducing sugar .
7. You included tube 2 to
see what a positive Benedict's test should look
like.
8. Which tube is included to detect contaminating
amylase in the buffer or in cellulose?
tube 4
9. What is the usual substrate for the pancreatic
enzyme peptidase?
Peptides
10. The substrate(s) for amylase is/are
Starch.
11. The results of tube 5 demonstrated that
peptidase does not digest starch.
12. Why was the cellulose in tube 6 hydrolyzed to
glucose?
The bacterial suspension contained the enzyme
cellulase, which digested the cellulose.
13. Can you detect the presence of contaminating
amylase from your experiments?
It is not possible to determine whether
contaminating amylase is present because
amylase doesn't digest cellulose.
Review Questions:
1. Describe why the results in tube 1 and tube 2
are the same.
- In tube #1 the amylase is hydrolyzing the starch
to glucose, & in tube #2 the glucose is already
present in the hydrolyzed form.
2. Describe the result in tube 3. How well did the
results compare with your prediction?
- Amylase cannot digest cellulose, so tube #3 is
not positive for Benedict’s test.
3. Describe the usual substrate for peptidase.
- A protein (BAPNA in this experiment).
4. Explain how bacteria can aid in digestion.
- Bacteria can aid in digestion by breaking down
cellulose with the enzyme cellulase, humans do
not produce this enzyme.
Activity 3
Peptides
- two or more amino acids linked together by a
peptide bond
● Polypeptide – peptide chain containing 10
to 100 amino acids
● Proteins – large peptide chain (more than
100 amino acids) or multiple peptide
chains
Chief Cells
- secrete a protein-digesting enzyme called pepsin
that hydrolyzes peptide bonds
BAPNA
- substrate; synthetic “peptide” that releases a
yellow dye product when hydrolyzed
- turn yellow in the presence of an active peptidase
such as pepsin, but otherwise remain colorless
Spectrophotometer
- measure the amount of yellow dye produced
- shines light through the sample and then measure
how much light is absorbed
● Optical Density – fraction of light
absorbed from a sample; yellow solutions
will have optical densities greater than 0;
> optical density = more hydrolysis
occurred; colorless solutions = optical
density near 0
When a positive result is produced but a negative
result is expected, one or more contamination
substances are present to cause the change.
Pepsin
- most active in the stomach
- when digesting actual protein substrate =
peptides and amino acids
Questions
1. Where in the body does protein digestion begin?
the stomach
2. The substrate for pepsin is
protein and peptides.
3. In this activity the substrate you will be using to
detect protein digestion is
BAPNA.
4. Negative results with the negative controls
are expected and validate the experiment.
5. A spectrophotometer measures
optical density.
6. Pepsin would be most active
in the stomach.
7. Which two tubes validated the results of the
experiment?
tubes 3 and 4
8. With more enzyme activity the optical density
Increased.
9. If pepsin were digesting an actual protein
substrate, the product would be
peptides and amino acids.
Review Questions:
1. Describe the effect that boiling had on pepsin
and how you could tell that it had that effect.
- Boiling denatured the enzyme. You can tell
because the protein was not digested in tube #1.
There was no color change & a density of 0.
2. Was your prediction correct about the optimal
pH for pepsin activity? Discuss the physiological
correlation behind your results.
- Yes. The optimum pH matches the pH secreted
by gastric glands. Gastric juice is also close to pH
2.
3. What do you think would happen if you reduced
the incubation time to 30 minutes for tube 5?
- This would reduce digestion in tube 5.
Activity 4
Triglycerides
- lipid; make up both fats and oils
- the insolubility of triglycerides presents a
challenge during digestion because they tend to
clump together = leaving only surface molecules
exposed to lipase enzymes
Bile Salts
- secreted into the small intestine during digestion
to physically emulsify lipids
- act like detergent; separating the lipid clumps
and increasing the surface area accessible to lipase
enzymes
- Bile: works by a physical process
triglyceride clumps → minute triglyceride
droplets
triglyceride → monoglyceride + two fatty acids
Lipase
- hydrolyzes each triglyceride to a monoglyceride 1. Explain why you can’t fully test the lipase
and two fatty acids activity in tube 5.
- activity may be monitored using the solution’s - Measurement of lipase activity uses a decrease in
pH pH. Because the pH in Tube #5 is already very
- low pH: sol’n containing fatty acids liberated by low, it is hard to tell if fatty acids are released.
lipase activity
- pH measures: both lipase activity and fatty acid 2. Which tube had the highest lipase activity? How
release well did the results compare with your prediction?
● Pancreatic Lipase – secreted in the small Discuss possible reasons why it may or may not
intestine; active in the mouth and pancreas have matched.
● Lingual Lipase and Gastric Lipase – - Test tube #1 should have the highest activity
secreted in the small intestine because the pH is closest to that of the small
intestine.
Questions
1. Which of the following is/are true of bile? 3. Explain why pancreatic lipase would be active
It works by a physical process. in both the mouth and the intestine.
2. - Pancreatic lipase is most active at pH 7.0 The pH
The substrate used in this simulation is vegetable of the mouth is 7.0 & the pH of the small intestine
oil . is close to 8.0 so the enzyme would function in
3. both places.
When fatty acids are liberated by lipase, the pH
Decreases. 4. Describe the process of bile emulsification of
4. lipids and how it improves lipase activity.
One of the products of the chemical digestion of - Fat globules are separated into droplets by bile
lipids is salts through an emulsification process which is
fatty acids. physical not chemical, which promote lipase
activity.
5.What does the pH measure?
both lipase activity and fatty acid release
6. PHYSIO EX
Why is it difficult to detect whether lipase is active
Exercise 9: Renal System Physiology
in tube 5?
The pH is already very low, so a decrease in pH • Kidney
might be difficult to detect. - both an excretory and regulatory organ
7. - filter water and solutes in the blood (afferent →
What is the product of lipase hydrolysis? glomerular capillary → Bowman’s capsule)
fatty acids - regulate plasma osmolarity (the concentration of
8. a solution expressed as osmoles of solute per liter
From your results, which pH is ideal for pancreatic of solvent), plasma volume, the body’s acid-base
lipase digestion? balance, and the body’s electrolyte balance
pH 7.0 - right kidney is slightly lower than the left
9.
Which tube confirms that there is no lipase in bile • Nephrons
salts or vegetable oil? - functional unit of the kidney
tube 4
10. From your results, where (in theory) would • Renal Corpuscle – consists of a ball of
pancreatic lipase be active? capillaries called glomerulus enclosed by
mouth and pancreas Bowman’s capsule

• Afferent Arteriole – supplies blood to the

Review Questions: glomerulus

• Glomerular Filtration – protein free filters into
the Bowman’s capsule as blood flows through the
glomerular capillaries
• Efferent Arteriole – drains the glomerulus of
the remaining blood; diameter is smaller
Afferent and efferent arterioles are
responsible for blood flow through the glomerulus
• Function of the Nephron
1. Glomerular Filtration
- passive process in which fluid passes from the
lumen of the glomerular capillary into the
glomerular capsule of the renal tubule
2. Tubular Reabsorption
- moves most of the filtrate back into the blood,
leaving mainly saltwater and the wastes in the
lumen of the tubule
3. Tubular Secretion
- essentially the reverse of tubular reabsorption
and is a process by w/c the kidney can rid of the
blood of additional unwanted substances, such as
creatinine and ammonia
• Renal Tubule
● Proximal Convoluted Tubule – start of the
renal tubule
● Loop of Henle – U-shaped hairpin loop
● Distal Convoluted Tubule
● Collecting Duct
• Peritubular Capillaries
- surrounding the renal tubule
- reclaim the reabsorbed substance and return them
to general circulation
- arise from the efferent arteriole exiting the
glomerulus and empty into the renal veins leaving
the kidney
• Renal Reabsorption: renal tubule → peritubular
capillaries
Activity 1
Nephron – 1x106 in healthy human kidney
● Renal Tubule – tubular component;
processes the filtrate; reabsorbs all the beneficial
substances from its lumen and allow the wastes
to travel down the tubule for elimination
● Renal Corpuscle – vascular component
*Glomerulus – tangles capillary know that filters
fluid from the blood into the lumen of the renal
tubule
*Bowman’s Capsule
– beginning of the renal tubule
– surrounds the glomerulus and serves to funnel
the filtrate into the rest of the renal tubule
– connected to the beginning of the proximal
convoluted tubule
*together called the Renal Corpuscle
Two arterioles are associated with each
glomerulus: an afferent arteriole (feeds the
glomerular capillary bed) and an efferent
arteriole (drains it)
These arterioles are responsible for blood flow
through the glomerulus, the diameter of the
efferent is
SMALLER, restricting blood flow out
the glomerulus
*Everything in the blood except for blood
cells (red and white) and plasma proteins is
filtered through the glomerular wall.
Glomerular Filtration Rate
- index of kidney function
- humans: 80 to 140 mL/min
- can be altered by changing arteriole resistance or
arteriole hydrostatic pressure
Questions
1. There are approximately __________ nephrons
in a healthy human kidney.
1 × 106
2. Which of the following lists the anatomical
structures in the correct order as they are
encountered by the blood and filtered fluid during
the process of filtration?
afferent arteriole, glomerular capillary,
Bowman's capsule
3. Bowman's capsule is connected to the beginning
of the proximal convoluted tubule .
4. The functional unit of the kidney is the
Nephron.
5. During the process of renal reabsorption, fluid
and solutes move from the
renal tubule into the peritubular capillaries.
6. Caffeine consumption leads to increased urine
formation. From the results in this experiment thus
far, you might propose that
caffeine dilates the afferent arteriole.
7. When you are in the desert and dehydrating,
which of the following arteriole combinations
would benefit you the most?
afferent constriction and efferent dilation
8. If you increase the afferent arteriole radius and
keep all other variables constant, the glomerular
filtration rate would
Increase.
9. If you decrease the efferent arteriole radius and
keep all other variables constant, the volume of
urine flowing into the urinary bladder would
Increase.
10. If you increase the efferent arteriole radius and
keep all other variables constant, the decrease.
11. If you decrease the afferent arteriole radius and
keep all other variables constant, the volume of
urine flowing into the urinary bladder would
__________.
decrease.
REVIEW
1. What are two primary functions of the kidney?
The kidney functions by filtrating the blood, and
by retention and excretion of fluid (urine).
2. What are the components of the renal
corpuscle?
The components of renal corpuscle are: afferent
arteriole, bowman's capsule, and efferent arteriole.
3. Starting with the renal corpuscle, list the
components of the renal tubule as they are
encountered by filtrate.
afferent arteriole > bowman's capsule > efferent
arteriole > peritubular capillaries > renal vein >
bowman's capsule > proximal convoluted tubule >
loop of henle > distal convoluted tubule >
collecting duct > urinary bladder
4. Describe the effect of decreasing the afferent
arteriole radius on glomerular capillary pressure
and filtration rate. How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
Based on the experiment, it showed that
decreasing the afferent arteriole radius decreases
the glomerular pressure and filtration rate.
5. Describe the effect of increasing the afferent
arteriole radius on glomerular capillary pressure
and filtration rate.
As we see in the experiment, both pressure and
filtration rate increases. As we increase the
afferent arteriole radius more blood is allowed in
to the Bowman's capsule and therefore more blood
is filtered in a higher pressure.
6. Describe the effect of decreasing the efferent
arteriole radius on glomerular capillary pressure
and filtration rate. How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
The experiment showed that the pressure and the
filtration rate increases the efferent arteriole radius
decreases. This is because, if we have normal size
of afferent arteriole, blood is allowed into the
Bowman's capsule and filtered, but as we
decreased the radius of efferent arteriole, the blood
is not flowing out fast. The accumulation of blood
in the capsule leads to increased pressure and
filtration rate.
7. Describe the effect of increasing the efferent
radius on glomerular capillary pressure and
filtration rate. If we increase the efferent radius the
capillary pressure and filtration rate will decrease.
As the efferent radius is increased there is more
time and less pressure for the blood to be filtered
hence is the change that both values decrease
Activity 2
Kidneys function to remove metabolic wastes,
their nephrons function to carry out three
important processes;
Glomerular Filtration, Tubular reabsorption
and Tubular Secretion
- Glomerular filtration rate can be affected by
the pressure in the glomerular capillaries and the
filtrate pressure in the renal tubules
During the glomerular filtration, blood enters the
glomerulus from the afferent arteriole
Starling forces (hydrostatic and osmotic pressure
gradients) drive the protein free fluid between the
blood in the glomerular capillaries and Bowman’s
Capsule
Human filtration rate ranges from 80 to 140
ml/min, in 24 hrs as much as 180 L has been
produced by the glomerular capillaries
The filtrate is free from blood cells, protein and
contains salts and organic molecules
20% of the blood that enters glomerular capillaries
is normally filtered into the Bowman’s capsule -
This is promoted by the high hydrostatic pressure
in the glomerular capillaries
Questions
1. Which of the following forces promotes
filtration?
blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries
2. The glomerular filtration rate can be altered by
changing the afferent arteriole resistance.
3. In 24 hours human glomerular capillaries can
filter as much as __________ liters of filtrate.
180
4. Which of the following statements about the
filtrate in the renal corpuscle is false?
Normally, more than 40% of the blood that
enters the glomerular capillaries becomes
filtrate.
5. What is the important relation that underlies the
observed increase in glomerular filtration rate
when the blood pressure is increased?
pressure and flow are directly proportional.
6. What medical condition is analogous to the
closed valve?
a tumor obstructing the renal tubule
7. In humans, the glomerular filtration rate
normally ranges from
80 to 140 ml/min.
8. Which of the following does not have a
significant impact on the glomerular filtration
rate?
renal tubule length
9. In the absence of any regulatory mechanisms,
what do you think would happen to the glomerular
filtration rate of a person who experiences an
increase in blood pressure?
The glomerular filtration rate would increase.
10. What would happen to the glomerular filtration
rate of a person who experiences a large
hemorrhage?
The glomerular filtration rate would decrease.
REVIEW
1. As blood pressure increased, what happened to
the glomerular capillary pressure and the
glomerular filtration rate? How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
As blood pressure was increased, the
glomerular capillary pressure and the
glomerular filtration rate was both increased,
as per the prediction indicated. When there is
an increase in blood pressure, then more blood
enters the capillary beds of the Bowman's
capsule per unit time, which leads to an
increase in glomerular capillary pressure, and
the filtration rate is also increased due to higher
pressure in the glomerular capillary beds,
which allows for more products to diffuse into
the renal corpuscle, which is an important
aspect of the kidneys, to filtrate the blood.
2. Compare the urine volume in your baseline data
with the urine volume as you increase the blood
pressure. How did theurine volume change?
As the blood pressure increased, the urine
volume increased as well. This increase in urine
volume can be described as an effect of the
increased blood pressure which lead to an
increase in the glomerular capillary pressure,
which leads to an increased diffusion into the
renal corpuscle of the waste products. When
there is a higher presence of waste products in
the renal corpuscle, then the waste products are
removed more frequently by increasing the
urine passage.
3. How could the change in urine volume with the
increase in blood pressure be viewed as being
beneficial to the body?
An increase in blood pressure causes an
increase in urine volume, which could be
beneficial for the body, because more waste
products are removed faster from the body
than they are normally supposed to. However
an increase in blood pressure may lead to
hypertension, which is a risk factor for many
other diseases. Also increasing the urine output
by increasing the blood pressure, also means
that one have to supply the water lost in
increasing the urine passage by drinking more
water.
4. When the one-way valve between the collecting
duct and the urinary bladder was closed, what
happened to the filtrate pressure in Bowman's
capsule (this is not directly measured in this
experiment) and the glomerular filtration rate?
How well did the results compare with your
prediction?
When closing the one-way valve between the
collecting duct and the urinary bladder, the
filtrate pressure in the bowman's capsule
remained the same, while the glomerular
filtration rate decreased. My prediction was
that the pressure would increase and the
filtration rate would decrease. The filtration
rate will decrease because the valve is closed,
meaning that there is no urine output. This lead
to urine being stuck in the urinary tract leading
to negative feedback to the filtration rate. The
filtration rate is decreased, because the system
cannot filtrate as much, because there is
already a certain amount of filtrate already
present in the system.
5. How did increasing the blood pressure alter the
results when the valve was closed?
The increase in blood pressure did not alter the
pressure when the valves was closed. The
glomerular pressure remained the same,
whether the valve was open or closed but the
glomerular filtration rate was decreased when
the valve was closed.
Activity 3
- The 180 L worth of filtrate flow into the renal
tubules everyday
- Blood pressure in the nephron has a profound
effect on glomerular capillary pressure and
glomerular filtration
- However, both usually remain constant despite
blood pressure changes
- This is because the nephron arterioles have the
ability to change their radii
Homeostasis causes our bodies to have a constant
glomerular filtration rate of 125 ml/min
In this experiment both arteriole radii and blood
pressure effects will be examined simultaneously
Questions
1. If all other variables are kept constant, how does
the afferent arteriole radius affect the rate of
glomerular filtration (select all that apply)?
An increased afferent arteriole radius will
increase the rate of glomerular filtration; A
decreased afferent arteriole radius will
decrease the rate of glomerular filtration.
2. If all other variables are kept constant, how does
the efferent arteriole radius affect the rate of
glomerular filtration (select all that apply)?
An increased efferent arteriole radius will
decrease the rate of glomerular filtration; A
decreased efferent arteriole radius will increase
the rate of glomerular filtration.
3. If all other variables are kept constant, how does
blood pressure affect the rate of glomerular
filtration (select all that apply)?
If blood pressure goes up, the rate of
glomerular filtration goes up; If blood pressure
goes down, the rate of glomerular filtration
goes down.
4. In the absence of other renal processes
(including tubular reabsorption and secretion),
more glomerular filtration leads to a larger urine
volume.
true
5. If blood pressure were to drop (for example, as
the result of blood loss), what changes in the
nephron would allow the kidney to maintain its
normal glomerular filtration rate (select all that
apply)?
efferent arteriole constriction
6. Comparing the glomerular filtration rate and
glomerular capillary pressure with the baseline
values (from the first run), how effective was the
increased afferent arteriole radius in compensating
for the low blood pressure?
The afferent arteriole dilation returned the low
glomerular capillary pressure and filtration
rate almost to baseline values.
7. Comparing the glomerular filtration rate and
glomerular capillary pressure with the baseline
values (from the first run), how effective was the
decreased efferent arteriole radius in compensating
for the low blood pressure?
The efferent arteriole constriction improved the
low glomerular capillary pressure and filtration
rate marginally
8. If all other variables are kept constant, when
blood pressure decreases, glomerular filtration
decreases.
9. If afferent arteriole radius decreases in response
to an increase in blood pressure, then glomerular
filtration
remains approximately the same.
10. If all other variables are kept constant, when
the efferent arteriole radius decreases, glomerular
filtration
Increases.
11. With blood pressure held at a constant value,
which of the following combinations will raise the
glomerular filtration rate above baseline values?
afferent arteriole dilation and efferent arteriole
constriction
REVIEW
1. List the several mechanisms you have explored
that change the glomerular filtration rate. How
does each mechanism specifically alter the
glomerular filtration rate?
The glomerular filtration rate is affected by the
blood pressure, the radii of the afferent an the
efferent arteriole and the change in afferent
arteriolar resistance. When increasing the
blood pressure the glomerular filtration rate is
also proportionally increased, because the when
the blood has a higher pressure entering the
capillary beds of the Bowman's capsule
enhancing the diffusion, making the glomerular
filtration rate increase. The radii of the afferent
and efferent arteriole also affects the
glomerular filtration rate, by increasing the size
of the radii, then more bloods is allowed to
enter into the capillary beds, thereby increasing
the glomerular filtration rate. The change in
afferent resistance also affects the glomerular
filtration rate. The myogenic and glomerular
tubular are the names of the mechanisms.
2. Describe and explain what happened to the
glomerular capillary pressure and glomerular
filtration rate when both arteriole radii changes
were implemented simultaneously with the low
blood pressure condition. How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
When both arteriole radii changes were
implemented simultaneously with the low blood
pressure conditions, then the glomerular
capillary pressure and glomerular filtration
rate levels went almost back to baseline values.
This means that when there is a decrease in the
blood pressure in our body, an increase in the
radius of the afferent arteriole and a decrease
in the efferent arteriole will help to stabilize the
glomerular capillary pressure and glomerular
filtration rate, which is one of the protective
mechanism the body has, to protect itself from
to low blood pressure.
3.
How could you adjust the afferent or efferent
radius to compensate for the effect of reduced
blood pressure on the glomerular filtration rate?
By adjusting the afferent arteriole the body will
compensate for the effect of reduced blood
pressure on the glomerular filtration pressure.
By dilating the afferent arteriole, more blood is
allowed to enter the capillary beds of the
bowman's capsule by the dilation of the
afferent arteriole. By reducing the radii of the
efferent arteriole the blood will not be removed
from the capillary beds as the normal rate, thus
remaining the glomerular filtration rate
normal.
4. Which arteriole radius adjustment was more
effective at compensating for the effect of low
blood pressure on the glomerular filtration rate?
Explain why you think this difference occurs.
The afferent arteriole dilation was the most
effective compensatory mechanism for the
effect of low blood pressure. This mechanism
brought the glomerular filtration rate back to
the baseline values where the blood pressure
was normal.
5. In the body, how does a nephron maintain a
near-constant glomerular filtration rate despite a
constantly fluctuating blood pressure?
It may be caused by extrinsic or intrinsic
regulatory mechanism. There can also be a
stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system,
which may constrict the afferent arteriole as a
response to an increase in blood pressure.
Activity 4
- As the filtrate moves through the tubules of a
nephron, solutes and water move from the tubule
lumen to the interstitial spaces of the nephron
- The movement is reliant on the concentration
gradients in the interstitial spaces surrounding the
tubules
- The interstitial fluid is mostly made up of NaCl
and urea
- Equilibrium is eventually reached between the
fluid and the tubule
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases
the water permeability of the collecting duct ,
allowing water to move to areas of high solute
concentration (lumen to fluid)
Reabsorption describes this movement of
filtered solutes and water from the lumen back to
the plasma
- w/out it, we would excrete important solutes and
fluids
The solutes and water that reach the spaces must
be returned to the blood lest the kidneys explode,
therefore peritubular capillaries are employed to
perform this action.
Peritubular capillaries arise from efferent
arteriole exiting the glomerulus and empties into a
renal vein
Questions
1. As filtrate passes through the nephron, the renal
process of reabsorption describes
the movement of water and solutes from the
tubule lumen, into the interstitial space, and,
finally, into the peritubular capillaries
2. The maximum solute concentration refers to the
amount of solutes
in the interstitial space.
3. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) affects the
permeability of
the collecting duct.
4. ADH aids the reabsorption of
Water.
5. Why is the solute concentration (mOsm) in the
proximal tubule the same as in the blood?
Because water and many plasma solutes filter
into Bowman's capsule.
6. In the presence of ADH, what component of the
tubule fluid moves out of the collecting duct and
into the interstitial space?
Water
7. Tubule fluid osmolarity will always be the
greatest in which of these locations?
the bottom of the loop of Henle
8. Tubule fluid volume will always be the greatest
in which of these locations?
the proximal convoluted tubule
9. Where does ADH directly alter the urine
volume?
in the collecting duct

REVIEW
1. What happened to the urine concentration as the
solute concentration in the interstitial space was
increased? How well did the results compare to
your prediction?
As the solute concentration increases the urine
concentration increased proportionally. The
urine volume decreased as the solute and urine
concentration increased.
2. What happened to the volume of urine as the
solute concentration in the interstitial space was
increased? How well did the results compare to
your prediction?
As the solute concentration increased the urine
volume decreased.
3. What do you think would happen to urine
volume if you did not add ADH to the collecting
duct?
The urine volume would increase if ADH was
not added to the collecting duct. This is because
the ADH work on the collecting ducts where the
increase the permeability for water is
increased, so less water is secreted into the
urine, so urine becomes more concentrated.
4. Is most of the tubule filtrate reabsorbed into the
body or excreted in urine? Explain.
Yes , most of the filtrate is reabsorbed to
maintain homeostasis.The filtrate that enters
the proximal tubule is either absorbed or
secreted. Glucose is reabsorbed mainly in the
proximal tubule by GLUT 1 transport carriers.
When all these are filled up, then the remaining
glucose is secreted in the urine. Both sodium
and potassium is filtered and excessive amount
of both is secreted in the urine. Urea is filtered
and secreted in the urine. Water is added to the
urine, when there is a high concentration in the
body, and when there is a change of 1% in
osmolality and ADH is added, to maintain the
water balance in the body.
5. Can the reabsorption of solutes influence water
reabsorption from the tubule fluid? Explain.
When reabsorption of Nacl occur, then water
follows, so other solutes may influence the
water reabsorption by making more
water follow out of the tubules with the NaCl
making the urine concentration increase.
Activity 5
Glucose is easily filtered out of the plasma
membrane into Bowman’s capsule as part of the
filtrate
- To be reabsorbed, the body employs glucose
carrier proteins in the proximal tubule cells of
the nephron
- Carriers have a finite count and if they become
saturated and there is too much glucose, the sugar
is released in the urine (diabetes)
Glucose is first absorbed by secondary
active transport at the apical membrane of
proximal tubule cells
It then leaves the tubule via facilitated diffusion
along the basolateral membrane
Glucose is transported from the lumen of
the nephron --> interstitial spaces
Plasma glucose levels varies during the day
Questions
1. Renal processing of plasma glucose does not
normally include
Secretion.
2. How does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) affect
the renal processing of plasma glucose?
ADH has no direct effects on renal processing
of plasma glucose.
3. Glucose reabsorption in the nephron includes
secondary active transport along the apical
membrane of proximal tubule cell s.
4. Because carrier proteins are required to move
glucose from the lumen of the nephron into the
interstitial spaces, which of the following
statements is false?
The number of glucose carriers in a nephron
can be altered as needed by the body.
5. Why is the glucose concentration the same in
both Bowman's capsule and the urinary bladder?
Glucose cannot be reabsorbed in the absence of
carriers.
6. Glucose carrier proteins are located in which
region of the nephron?
the proximal convoluted tubule
7. If the concentration of glucose in the filtrate
exceeds the transport capacity of the carrier
proteins, then
a transport maximum has been reached.
8.
Why does glucose appear in the urine of untreated
diabetic patients?
An excessive amount of glucose is present in
their filtrate.
REVIEW
1. What happens to the concentration of glucose in
the urinary bladder as the number of glucose
carriers increases?
As the glucose carriers increases the
concentration in the urinary bladder decreases.
This is due to more glucose being reabsorbed
by active transport at the apical membrane and
then facilitated diffusion by the GLUT 1
receptors in the basolateral membrane of the
distal tubule.
2. What types of transport are utilized during
glucose reabsorption and where do they occur?
First the glucose enter the apical membrane by
GLUT 2 transport carrier by secondary active
transport and leaves through the basolateral
membrane by the GLUT 1 transport protein by
facilitated diffusion.
3. Why does the glucose concentration in the
urinary bladder become zero in these experiments?
The glucose levels in the filtration system does
not reach the threshold and there is more
available transport protein than there are
glucose. If the glucose levels in filtration
reaches a certain level of glucose then the
transport proteins becomes filled up with
glucose and the additional glucose is secreted in
urine.
4. A person with type I diabetes cannot make
insulin in the pancreas, and a person with
untreated type II diabetes does not respond to the
insulin that is made in the pancreas. In either case,
why would you expect to find glucose in the
person's urine?
Type 1 diabetes cannot make insulin in the
pancreas and has an elevated level of glucose in
the blood. This leads to an increase level of
glucose in the filtration system and glucose
transport proteins threshold is completely filled
up, making the excessive glucose being excreted
in the urine. A person with diabetes type 2 does
not respond to the insulin being made, making
it glucose in the system, increasing the levels of
glucose making more glucose being excreted.
Activity 6
Urine volume excreted by the kidneys varies
depending on what our body needs
Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the
adrenal cortex under the control of the renin-
angiotensin system
- Acts on the Distal convoluted tubule cells in
the nephron to promote reabsorption of sodium
into the body and secretion of potassium from the
body
This alongside the effects of ADH causes more
water to be reabsorbed, resulting in an increase in
blood pressure.
A decrease in blood pressure is detected by cells in
the afferent arteriole and this causes the release of
Renin
Renin
- A proteolytic enzyme causing angiotensinogen
to be converted to angiotensin I
- Endothelial cells in the body possess converting
enzymes that convert angiotensin I to angiotensin
II
- Angiotensin II then signals the adrenal cortex to
secrete aldosterone
ADH
- Manufactured by the hypothalamus and stored in
the posterior pituitary gland
- Levels are influenced by the osmolality of body
fluids and the volume/pressure of the
cardiovascular system
Even just a 1% change causes it to be secreted
Normal individuals have a urine
osmolarity varying from 50 to 1200
milliosmoles/kg water.
Questions
1. Which of the following has a role in altering the
urine volume and concentration?
ADH, Aldosterone, the solute concentration in
the interstitial spaces surrounding the lumen
2. The total solute concentration surrounding the
tubule lumen refers to the solutes in
the interstitial space.
3. Aldosterone is produced in the
adrenal cortex.
4. ADH promotes the renal reabsorption of
Water.
5. Aldosterone promotes renal reabsorption of
__________ and secretion of __________.
NaCl, potassium
6. In the presence of aldosterone, what component
of the tubule fluid moves out of the distal tubule
and into the interstitial Space?
NaCl
7. In the presence of ADH, why did the urinary
potassium concentration increase?
The water volume in the urinary bladder is
decreased, increasing the concentration of
solutes such as potassium.
8. In the presence of both ADH and aldosterone,
why did the urinary potassium concentration
increase?
There was more potassium secretion into the
distal tubule and more water reabsorption in
the collecting duct.
9. If there has been a significant loss of fluid from
the body, the kidneys will generate __________
urine.
Hyperosmotic
10. If you drink a large volume of water, the
kidneys will generate __________ urine.
Hypo-osmotic
11. In response to dehydration, ADH will be
released from the
posterior pituitary gland.
12. In response to abnormally low plasma
osmolality, aldosterone will increase
sodium reabsorption along the distal tubule and
the collecting duct.
REVIEW
1. How did the addition of aldosterone affect urine
volume (compared with baseline)? Can the
reabsorption of solutes influence water
reabsorption in the nephron? Explain. How well
did the results compare with your prediction?
Aldosterone addition made the urine volume
decrease. The reabsorption of NaCl in the distal
tubule can attract some water with it, making
firstly the urine volume decrease and secondly
making the urine concentration increase.
2. How did the addition of ADH affect urine
volume (compared with baseline)? How well did
the results compare with your prediction? Why did
the addition of ADH also affect the concentration
of potassium in urine (compared with baseline)?
The addition of ADH affect urine volume by
decreasing it drastically. The addition of ADH
affected the potassium concentration in urine
because when water is removed, then the
concentration of potassium is greater because
the water is decreased.
3. What is the principal determinant for the release
of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex?
The principal determinant for aldosterone is
the conformation of angiotensin 1 to
angiotensin 2 by endothelial cells in the body.
4. How did the addition of both aldosterone and
ADH affect urine volume (compared with
baseline)? How well did the results compare with
your prediction?
When both aldosterone and ADH then urine
volume was further decreased and the urine
concentration increased.
5. What is the principal determinant for the release
of ADH from the posterior pituitary gland? Does
ADH favor the formation of dilute or concentrated
urine? Explain why.
ADH is released from the posterior pituitary
gland when there is a decrease in osmolality
over 1%. This is an indication that there is too
little water in the body, and water should not be
excreted. ADH is then released to act on the
collecting ducts to prevent them from secreting
water into the urine.
6. Which hormone (aldosterone or ADH) has the
greater effect on urine volume? Why?
ADH has the greatest effect on urine volume,
because this is one of the body's primary
regulatory mechanism to regulate too little
water in the body, by keeping the water from
being secreted in the collecting ducts. This is
done to keep homeostasis in the body.
Aldosterone remove the NaCl from the distal
tubule and with that removal often some water
follows, this means that some water will be
removed as well, but that is not the primary
goal of aldosterone.
7. If ADH is not available, can the urine
concentration still vary? Explain your answer.
Yes, because if aldosterone is present then some
water will be transported with NaCl and water
will follow, so there is not only ADH that
ultimately affects the urine volume.
8. Consider this situation: you want to reabsorb
sodium ions but you do not want to increase the
volume of the blood by reabsorbing large amounts
of water from the filtrate. Assuming that
aldosterone and ADH are both present, how would
you adjust the hormones to accomplish the task?
By aldosterone being present then Nacl and
water is being reabsorbed. ADH reabsorbs the
water form the collecting tubule.making more
water present in the blood thereby increasing
the volume of the blood. To decrease the one
has to remove ADH or at least decrease the
amount of ADH and increase the amount of
aldosterone.
PHYSIO EX
Exercise 10: Acid-Base Balance
Activity 1: Hyperventilation
• Acid-base imbalances
= Have respiratory and metabolic causes
= In diagnosis, two key signs are evaluated:
- pH
~normal: between 7.35 and 7.45
~acidosis: below 7.35
~alkalosis: above 7.45
- partial pressure of CO2 in the blood (PCO2)
~normal: between 35 and 45 mm Hg
• Respiratory alkalosis
= Condition of too little carbon dioxide in the
blood (below 35 mm Hg)
= Commonly results from:
- traveling to high altitude (where air contains
less oxygen)
- hyperventilation
• Hyperventilation
= Can be brought on by fever, panic attack, or
anxiety
= Increase in the rate and depth of breathing
= Removes CO2 from the blood faster than it is
being produced by the cells of the body,
reducing the amount of H+ in the blood–thus,
increasing the blood’s pH
- equation showing shift in equilibrium
resulting in the increase in blood pH:
• The renal system can compensate for alkalosis
for retaining H+ and excreting bicarbonate ions to
lower blood pH levels back to normal range
• Equipment used:
= Simulated lung chamber
= pH meter
= Oscilloscope
= Two breathing patterns: normal and
hyperventilation
• Results

= Normal breathing
- PCO2 & pH are constant (both normal)
= Hyperventilation
- min. PCO2 decreased to 19.7 (respiratory
alkalosis)
- max. pH increased to 7.68 (alkalosis)
- decrease in PCO2 results due to an increased
concentration of bicarbonate relative to PCO2,
thereby increasing the blood pH, and thus
resulting to respiratory alkalosis
- decrease in PCO2 levels develops when more
CO2 in the tissues are removed by the
respiratory system than are produced
metabolically in response to fast and heavy
breathing
= Hyperventilation then normal breathing
- min. PCO2 decreased to 35.3 (still normal)
- min. pH decreased to 7.38 (still normal) and
max. pH increased to 7.47 (alkalosis)
- brief plateau before returning to the normal
breathing pattern corresponds to a short pause
in breathing
~necessary in order to retain some CO2,
which is normally lost during
hyperventilation
Review Questions:
1) What is the fastest compensatory mechanism
for maintaining pH homeostasis in the human
body?
- Chemical buffering system
2) What happens when there is a decrease in
hydrogen concentration?
- pH increases
3) What catalyzes the reaction of water and carbon
dioxide?
- Carbonic anhydrase
4) The amount of carbon dioxide in the blood is
measured in
- mm Hg
5) With hyperventilation, what do the higher peaks
on the tracing indicate?
- It indicates a larger volume of air being taken in.
6).What are the normal ranges for pH and carbon
dioxide in the blood?
- Normal ranges for pH are between 7.35 and 7.45.
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood is
between 35 and 45 mm Hg.
7) Describe what happened to the pH and the
carbon dioxide level with hyperventilation?
- The pH level increased and the carbon dioxide
level decreased.
8) Explain how returning to normal breathing after shifts → H+ levels increase, pH value of blood
hyperventilation differed from hyperventilation decreases
without returning to normal breathing.
- When returning to normal breathing after
hyperventilation, there is a short time in which the
breathing stops temporarily in order to retain • Rebreathing
carbon dioxide. This would not occur in = action of breathing in air that was expelled
hyperventilation without returning to normal from the lungs
breathing. = results in the accumulation of carbon dioxide
in the blood
9) Describe some possible causes of respiratory = example: breathing into a paper bag
alkalosis. - can deplete the body of oxygen and is
- Respiratory alkalosis commonly results from therefore not the best therapy for
traveling to high altitude (where air contains less hyperventilation
oxygen). Fever, panic attacks, or anxiety triggers ~ it can mask other life-threatening
hyperventilation, which is also a cause of emergencies (such as heart attack or asthma)
respiratory alkalosis. • In the body, the kidneys regulate the acid-base
balance by altering the amount of H+ and HCO3-
Activity 2: Rebreathing excreted in the urine
• Acidosis • Results
= pH of the blood falls below 7.35
- pH of 7.35 is technically not
acidic
• Respiratory Acidosis
= result of impaired respiration
(hypoventilation); leads to accumulation of too
much carbon dioxide in the blood (above 45 mm
Hg)
- causes of hypoventilation include:
~ airway obstruction
~ depression of the respiratory center in the
brain stem
~ lung disease (emphysema & chronic
bronchitis)
~ drug overdose
• Carbon dioxide
= contributes to the formation of carbonic acid
(weak acid) when it combines with water
through a reversible reaction catalyzed by
carbonic anhydrase
= carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions
= Rebreathing
and bicarbonate ions
– max. PCO2 increased to 53.02 (respiratory
= hypoventilation results in elevated carbon
acidosis) and min. pH decreased to 7.24
dioxide levels in the blood → equilibrium (acidosis)
 – recall that: CO2 combines with water to form
carbonic acid (a weak acid) through a
reversible reaction catalyzed by carbonic
anhydrase –> carbonic acid dissociates into
hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions –> with
hypoventilation, CO2 levels in the blood
increase –> equilibrium shift, thus H+ levels
increase and pH levels decrease
Review Questions:
1) In cases of acidosis, the pH of the blood is
- Less than 7.35
2) What does carbon dioxide and water form?
- Carbonic acid / H2CO3 (a weak acid)
3) How can rebreathing be exemplified?
- By breathing into a paper bag
4) What does rebreathing simulate?
- Hypoventilation and respiratory acidosis
5) Hypoventilation results in
- an accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood
6) What happens when there is an increase in
hydrogen concentration?
- pH decreases
7) Respiratory acidosis CANNOT be caused by
- an anxiety attack
8) Describe what happened to the pH and the
carbon dioxide levels during rebreathing.
- The pH level decreased while the carbon dioxide
level increased.
9) Describe some possible causes of respiratory
acidosis.
Possible causes of respiratory acidosis include
lung diseases, an obstructed airway,
hypoventilation, emphysema, and drug overdose.
Activity 3: Renal Responses to Respiratory
Acidosis and Respiratory Alkalosis
• Kidneys
= play a major role in maintaining fluid,
electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the body's
internal environment
= regulate the amount of water lost in urine
– defend the body against excessive hydration
or dehydration
= regulate acidity of urine and rate of electrolyte
excretion
– maintain plasma pH and electrolyte levels
within normal limits
• Renal compensation
= body's primary method of compensating for
conditions of respiratory acidosis/alkalosis
= kidneys regulate acid-base balance by altering
the amount of H+ and HCO3- excreted in the
urine
= can partially compensate for pH imbalances
with a respiratory cause
– kidneys cannot fully compensate if
respirations have not returned to normal
because CO2 levels will still be abnormal
• Respiratory acidosis
= generally caused by accumulation of CO2 in
the blood from hypoventilation
= can also be caused by rebreathing
= pH is below normal level
• Respiratory alkalosis
= caused by a depletion of CO2, often results
from hyperventilation
= elevated blood pH
• Nephron
 = functional unit of the kidney for adjusting
plasma composition
• Equipment used:
= source beaker for blood
= drain beaker for blood
= simulated nephron (filtrate forms in Bowman's
capsule –> flows through renal tubule –>
empties into collecting duct –> drains into
urinary bladder)
– nephron tank
– glomerulus - "ball" of capillaries that forms
part of the filtration membrane
– glomerular (Bowman's) capsule - forms part
of the filtration membrane and a capsular
space where the filtrate initially forms
– proximal convoluted tubule
– loop of Henle
– distal convoluted tubule
– collecting duct
= drain beaker for filtrate – simulates urinary
bladder
• Results
• The body’s response to primary respiratory
acidosis is to utilize intracellular buffers, followed
by increased renal acid
= there is no extracellular buffering system for
increased CO2 in the body
= In acute respiratory acidosis, CO2 moves
rapidly intracellularly, and disassociates with
water to form H+ and HCO3–
– Hemoglobin and intracellular phosphate
buffers the H+
– HCO3– moves extracellularly, in exchange
for Cl–, causing the initial increase in plasma
bicarbonate (metabolic alkalosis) and
corrected hypochloremia (chloride shift)
= In chronic respiratory acidosis, the body
promotes acid excretion through renal
ammoniagenesis by the kidneys, which enhances
HCO3– retention
– kidneys can also excrete hydrogen directly
through the hydrogen pumps in the collecting
tubules
• The body’s response to primary respiratory
alkalosis is to utilize body buffers, followed by
decreased renal acid excretion
= most of the buffering in primary respiratory
alkalosis occurs intracellularly
= Alkalemia promotes intracellular production
of lactic acid and helps in releasing hydrogen
= chloride ions leave the red blood cells in
exchange for bicarbonate to decrease the plasma
bicarbonate (metabolic acidosis)
= In a chronic respiratory alkalosis, renal acid
excretion of H+ decreases to decrease
ammoniagenesis and promote acidity
Review Questions:
1) Respiratory alkalosis is characterized by
- pH greater than 7.45 and PCO2 less than 35 mm
Hg
2) How does the kidney compensate for
respiratory alkalosis?
- It retains H+ and excretes bicarbonate ions
3) Respiratory acidosis is characterized by
- pH less than 7.35 and PCO2 greater than 45 mm
Hg
4) How does the kidney compensate for
respiratory acidosis?
- It excretes H+ and retains bicarbonate ions
5) Can the renal system fully compensate for
acidosis or alkalosis?
- No, neither for respiratory alkalosis nor
respiratory acidosis.
6) Describe what happened to the concentration of
ions in the urine when the PCO2 was lowered.
What condition was simulated?
- [H+] decreased and [HCO3-] increased.
Respiratory alkalosis was the condition simulated.
 – results in formation of more H+, therefore
7) Describe what happened to the concentration of lower plasma pH –> acidosis
ions in the urine when the PCO2 was raised. What – examples of acids that accumulate with an
condition was simulated? increase in metabolic rate - ketone bodies,
- [H+] increased and [HCO3-] decreased. Acidosis phosphoric acid, uric acid, lactic acid
was the condition simulated. = decrease in normal metabolic rate –> less CO2
to form as a metabolic waste product
Activity 4: Respiratory Responses to Metabolic – formation of less H+, therefore higher
Acidosis and Metabolic Alkalosis plasma pH –> alkalosis
• Metabolic acidosis/alkalosis • Factors that cause the rate of cell metabolism to
= conditions of acidosis/alkalosis that do not INCREASE:
have respiratory causes = fever
• Metabolic acidosis = stress
= low plasma HCO3- and pH = ingestion of food
= causes: • Factors that cause the rate of cell metabolism to
– ketoacidosis DECREASE:
~buildup of keto acids that can result from = fall in body temperature
diabetes mellitus = decrease in food intake
– salicylate poisoning • Respiratory system
~toxic condition resulting from ingestion of = compensates for metabolic acidosis/alkalosis
too much aspirin or oil of wintergreen by expelling CO2 in the blood
– ingestion of too much alcohol = metabolic acidosis:
~metabolizes into acetic acid – respiration increases to expel CO2 from the
– diarrhea blood –> [H+] decreases, raising the pH
~ results in the loss of bicarbonate with the = metabolic alkalosis:
elimination of intestinal contents – respiration decreases to promote
– strenuous exercise accumulation of CO2 in the blood –> [H+]
~ buildup of lactic acid from anaerobic increases, decreasing the pH
muscle metabolism • Renal system
• Metabolic alkalosis = also compensates for metabolic
= high plasma HCO3- and pH acidosis/alkalosis by conserving or excreting
= causes: bicarbonate ions
– ingestion of alkali (e.g., antacids, • When metabolism increased, the breaths per
bicarbonate) minute and tidal volume increased
– vomiting • Results
~ result in loss of too much H+
– constipation
~ significant reabsorption of HCO3-
• Increases or decreases in the body's normal
metabolic rate can also result in metabolic
acidosis/alkalosis
= increase in normal metabolic rate –> more
CO2 to form as a metabolic waste product
• Higher metabolic rate = higher PCO2 = more H+,
lower plasma pH
• Lower metabolic rate = lower PCO2 = less H+,
higher plasma pH

Review Questions:
1) An increase in metabolic rate (without
compensation) would result in
- more carbon dioxide in the blood

2) Excessive vomiting results in

- loss of acid, metabolic alkalosis

3) What values increase with decreased metabolism?

- pH and [HCO3-]

4) Why did the tidal volume and breaths per

minute increase with increased metabolism?
- Because there is more carbon dioxide being
formed.

5) Which body system is compensating for the

metabolic alkalosis?
- Respiratory system

6) Describe what happened to the blood pH when

the metabolic rate was increased to 80 kcal/hr.
- At a metabolic rate of 80 kcal/hr, blood pH was
found to be lowered. Thus, metabolic acidosis
occurred.

7) List and describe some possible causes of

metabolic acidosis.
- Some possible causes of metabolic acidosis
include highly intensive exercise (causes a buildup
of lactic acid from anaerobic muscle metabolism),
ingestion of too much alcohol (which metabolizes
into acetic acid), and diarrhea (results in loss of
bicarbonate).

8) Describe what happened to the blood pH when

the metabolic rate was decreased to 20 kcal/hr.
- At a metabolic rate of 20 kcal/hr, blood pH was
found to be raised. Thus, metabolic alkalosis
occurred..

9) List and describe some possible causes of

metabolic alkalosis.
- Some possible causes of metabolic alkalosis
include ingestion of alkali (such as antacids or
bicarbonate), vomiting (loss of too much H+), and
constipation (reabsorption of significant amounts
of HCO3-)