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A Methodology for the Design of Engine Cooling Systems in Standalone

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Article  in  SAE Technical Papers · April 2010

DOI: 10.4271/2010-01-0325

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 2010-01-0325

A Methodology for the Design of Engine Cooling Systems in

Standalone Applications
Antonio J. Torregrosa, Pablo C. Olmeda
CMT-Motores Térmicos. Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain.

Antonio García-Ricós, Jordi Natividad

Vossloh, Spain

Carlos A. Romero
Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia.
Copyright © 2010 SAE International

ABSTRACT
In this paper, a methodology for the design process of engine cooling systems is presented, which is based on
the interaction among three programs: a code developed for radiator sizing and rating, a 3D commercial code
used for the air circuit modeling, and a 1D commercial code used for the modeling and simulation of the
complete engine cooling system. The aim of the developed methodology, in addition to ensure the system
thermal balance, is the improvement of the design process of the cooling system itself, while shortening the
development times, in non-automotive applications. An application to the design of a locomotive engine cooling
system is presented. The system designed has been assembled and tested, showing the validity of the
methodology, as well as the compliance of the designed system with the initially specified thermo-hydraulic
constraints and requirements.

INTRODUCTION
While in automotive applications the cooling system is designed for the majority of operational conditions and
coolant temperatures are managed the by actively controlling coolant flow and engine output [1, 2], in specific
purpose applications, such as the case of locomotive engines, the trend is still to size the cooling package so that
sufficient heat is rejected at extreme operating conditions (full engine power, high ambient temperature).
Nevertheless, many of the technological practices matured in automotive thermal management are now being
implemented in specific applications [1]. Along with this, there is also an increasing demand to reduce product
development times, to respond to market trends and to reduce investments. In this context, development
engineers are encouraged to develop conceptual design strategies for the rapid assessment of the whole thermal
management system at the component, system, and application levels, based on the use of CAE tools, in order
to achieve design objectives and specifications for different system aspects. The models have to be kept simple,
especially compared with state of the art radiator calculation methods, if acceptable calculation times are to be
achieved [3].

The computational cost of commercial 1D simulation programs is small when compared to complete system 3D
simulations. Thus, 1D codes are useful to conduct simulation of large systems; however, mechanical

Page 1 of 17
components and heat exchangers are considered only as momentum and energy sources or sinks, so that the
detailed behavior of the heat exchanger must be studied in a 3D environment. This means that both 1D and 3D
simulations are necessary in order to achieve both requirements (simulation of large systems and detailed
evaluation of each component). The internal flow in a component, simulated in 3D, can be incorporated into a
global 1D cooling system network. With this, the details of the internal flow are taken into account while
conserving overall mass flow in the system, thus reducing uncertainties in boundary conditions prescribed in the
3D model and reducing the overall simulation time.

In this work, an integrated engineering approach for the design of special application engine cooling systems is
presented, with emphasis put on the role of simulation from the conceptual phase onwards. Theoretical data was
used for the development of a radiator calculation program; commercial CFD PowerFlow code [4] was used for
the design of the air circuits, while the flow models of both the cooling air and the coolant were constructed
under commercial 1D FlowMaster simulation environment [5]. The iterative coupling of these computational
tools resulted in a co-simulation methodology that was applied to the design of the locomotive engine cooling
system, and allowed a rapid definition of a solution, avoiding the need for extensive prototype level testing.

The paper is organized as follows. First, an overview of the particularities of the general design process is
given, together with a description of design methodologies for engine cooling systems. Then, the preliminary
design procedure is outlined. This step should provide the basis for the detailed calculation or selection of
components such as coolant pumps, fans and radiators; also, an outline of the particular air ventilation path, as
well as coolant piping topology in accordance with the application, should be produced. Subsequently, a
description of the program developed for the selection and rating of heat exchangers, with application to engine
radiators, is presented. Then, the application of the methodology to the design of the cooling system of the
locomotive engine is described, with special emphasis put on the air flow and global thermo-hydraulic cooling
system modeling. Finally, the most important conclusions are presented, including some suggestions for future
work.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DESIGN PROCESS

The design and fabrication of mass produced engine cooling systems follow the flow diagram sketched in figure
1 [6].

Analysis of Connectivity
component with other
suppliers systems

Setting of Preliminary
Type of
performance design
Application
specifications and layout

Variant
Detailed System
selection
design modelling
(optimization)

Response
analysis

Analysis of Calculation
Testing of Response of special
modelled
prototypes validation components
variants

Figure 1: Global flow diagram Figure 2: Cooling system design methodology

Page 2 of 17
The process starts with the identification of the application object to be designed, after which the physical
limitations are set and the performance characteristics are dimensioned. During this stage it is likely that
technical information on main system components comes from technical literature and suppliers’ catalogs. The
following phase comprises the preliminary activities intended to size the main components (pumps, fans, and
radiators), as well as to provide specifications for the selection and purchasing of original equipment. Based on
the results of the preliminary design, several sketches of the system under design must be drawn, modeled and
simulated, with the aim of analyzing and selecting the most suitable variant that optimally matches the various
components necessary for overall cooling system performance. In the general design process a certain number
of prototypes must be developed and tested, depending on the field of application.

As far as the locomotive engine application is concerned, prototypes are not practical, because of the small lot
production, and therefore computational modeling and simulation represent a great advantage in terms of time
and resource savings, and the general scheme of figure 1 is reduced to the CAE development methodology,
based on the preliminary design (there is no allowance for the prototype manufacture and testing). In essence,
the handling of the cooling system design methodology is described by figure 2.

In this methodology, the radiator design and modeling program, as well as the 3D air flow modeling are coupled
to the global 1D thermo-hydraulic model of the engine cooling system. The 1D model can be linked to a
detailed air flow model of the ventilation duct, which in turn provides the boundary for the 1D model. In this
way, a reasonable approach to the study of the thermal management system is achieved. The results are coolant
and air pressure, temperature and flow distribution as average values for all system nodes and branches. The
better the knowledge of the parts of the cooling system, the more accurate are the results.

The 3D CFD program provides local steady flow results, from which the momentum drop and thus the pressure
drop characteristic of the component, required as an input by the 1D program, can be calculated. Once the 1D
computation has finished, new pressure and mass flow rate on the boundaries are solved and fed back to the 3D
program and the radiator calculation program. The final result of this coupled iterative computation is achieved
when values of design parameters and thermo-fluid properties at the coupling boundaries converge
satisfactorily.

COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN METHODOLOGY - Once the application, the system specifications and the
performance requirements are known, the design process starts by making a number of assumptions allowing
for the preliminary design of a coarse engine cooling system layout. Typically, as the quantity of air and its
outlet temperature are functions of the radiator core geometry, trial an error procedures have been used, which
may be avoided with the use of the radiator sizing program, which has the ability to perform parametric studies,
including core type sweeps. After selecting initial radiators and fans, simulations are performed in which
preliminary sizes and components are modified until all operating conditions are satisfied. First, a fan is selected
and the 3D simulation of the ventilation circuit is carried out. By selecting a radiator core, the air velocity and
pressure drop distributions along the ventilation path are obtained and fed to both the radiator calculation
program and the global thermo-hydraulic 1D model of the cooling system. The thermal dissipation
characteristics of the radiators are used in their corresponding 1D sub-models, together with other thermo-
hydraulic information and then the whole system is simulated, providing the coolant flows and temperatures,
which are then compared to the specified values.

This iterative process not only allows assessing the heat source-sink balance, but also gives relevant insight into
the homogeneity of the distribution of air temperatures and flows as the air crosses the radiators. After this,
issues on the reconfiguration of the cooling tract, the arrangement and number of radiators and fans, among
other technical measures, can be considered. In the end, the best configuration of the radiators and the geometry

Page 3 of 17
of the ventilation duct can be obtained. Of course, the final design must account for other aspects, such as space
requirements, weight, easiness of installation, accessibility, noise emission, etc.

MODELLING PROGRAMS - A brief account of the programs used is given in the following.

3D CFD program - The airflow system is necessary to remove waste heat from the engine and any heat
exchangers present, such as the charge air cooler (aftercooler), engine oil cooler, transmission oil cooler (where
available), etc. Thermal interactions between the air side system and oil, transmission, and coolant loops are
supported by the 1D code.

Because of the complex nature of the flow field, the variation of the drag and heat transfer over the whole
surface of the radiator must be obtained from CFD simulations. In this work, commercial software [4] was used
for the simulation of the air circuit in the engine cooling system, which solves the three dimensional flow
equations governing conservation of mass, momentum and energy and the k-ε turbulence model. The radiators
are modeled as porous media, with the flow restricted to one direction through the radiator cores. The core
permeability is represented by specifying a quadratic relationship between pressure drop across, and velocity
through, the core. A similar relationship between heat transfer coefficient and velocity can also be specified.

1D thermo-hydraulic program - Air and coolant parts of the cooling system are not independent. The 3D
computation must use the global flow conditions as boundary conditions for the detailed local flow calculations
and the local pressure drops must be used in the global flow calculations. Therefore, an iterative process is
required for a solution of the overall system. In the present work, a computational 1D program designed to
predict pressure, temperature and fluid flow distribution, among other important parameters in thermo-hydraulic
systems, was used [5]. Its physical basis is built on empirical correlations as well as on analytical equations for
mass, momentum and energy. A large database of elements, expandable by the user, is available to describe
relevant components of thermo-hydraulic systems such as pipes, pumps, heat exchangers, valves, etc.

Radiator Calculation program - The radiator is designed for the required heat flows in conjunction with the
mass flows of the coolant and the cooling air, as well as their temperature. Radiator heat transfer equations are
available from many sources [7-11], in numerous forms; discussion of the details of thermal and hydrodynamic
correlations upon which radiator sizing is based is beyond the scope of this work. Following the methodology
described by Kays and London [7] for the design of compact heat exchangers, and taking into account other
relevant literature [12,14], a computational program for the design of engine radiators has been developed. The
radiator calculation program includes correlations for the calculation of all main cross flow heat exchangers,
including automotive radiators, and is intended for the sizing and rating calculation, the calculation of thermo-
physical properties, and the execution of different parametric and sensitivity studies, together with pressure loss
dependencies. The flow diagram in figure 3 illustrates the calculation procedure.

Input data - During the analysis of a heat exchanger it is necessary to specify: coolant type, coolant and air mass
flows, coolant and air temperatures, allowable coolant and air pressure losses, required heat transfer rate (it does
not have to be set when the size is a constraint), radiator type, configuration and geometry of the core, and
overall dimensions (height, width, depth).

Output results - The output protocol of the radiator displays the used input values along with the calculated
output values. Among the data provided by the program, the most relevant are:

• Input parameters: input temperatures and volumetric flow rates, maximum pressure drops, and geometric
parameters of the radiator.

Page 4 of 17
• Operation parameters: temperatures of input and output process fluids, heat duty (thermal characteristics),
overall heat transfer coefficient, total heat transfer area, mean fluid velocities, and pressure losses.
• Construction parameters of the cross flow radiator: duct lengths, cross sectional area of ducts, tube pitch, fin
density and others.
Geometric characteristics of a
radiator

Calculation of the heat exchanger

• Thermal calculation Modification of the
• Hydraulic calculation geometric parameters

Data evaluation
(heat duty, pressure losses)

Results protocol

( )
Q / ITD ⋅ Aair vs. m refr vs. m air Aair

( )
Δprefr = f Vrefr

(
Δpair = f Vair )

Figure 3. Simplified scheme of design and rating calculation of the radiator

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF THE ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

The purpose of the preliminary design of the engine cooling system is the determination of the radiator total
heat transfer surface area, the pump performance curve, and the selection of the fan. Since, depending on the
application, the system can incorporate other heat exchangers besides the radiator (aftercooler, EGR cooler, oil
cooler, etc.), during the preliminary design more than one of these components may need to be selected in
accordance with the arrangement of the system, and also different compromises can become necessary when
arranging the fluid flow architecture.

HEAT DISSIPATED TO THE COOLANT - The amount of heat to be removed from the engine by the coolant
results from the balance between the various heat flows that characterize the internal combustion processes,
with the particularities associated with the thermal control of the air intake process. This heat amount is usually
unknown for the designer. Hence, its estimation is the first step in the preliminary design procedure.

The heat rejected by the engine can be estimated by using a detailed thermal model (using nodal finite
difference of finite element techniques) [15,16]. If sufficient information is not available, then some correlations
are available: Taylor and Toong [17], as well as Lahvic [18] proposed some of the most frequently cited
correlations in literature. Also, correlations based on nominal power or fuel consumption can be established.
The possibilities analyzed in this work were:

• Lahvic’s empirical correlation [18], which can be applied to spark ignition and Diesel engines; here, Vd (l),
n (rpm), MT (Nm), Ne (kW) are the engine displacement, speed , torque and brake power of the engine,
respectively:

Qcool = (8,66Vd n + 108,93M T + 1119,74 N e − 1010Vd + 2890) / 3412,2 (1)

Page 5 of 17
• The model based correlation of Parish [19], which requires more detailed information of the engine
operation, with consideration of the heat generated by the friction. In its normalized presentation related to
the charge inducted into the cylinders, (Vd⋅n/2), the correlation for the specific heat rejected to the coolant,
q cool = Q cool / N e , has the form given in equation (2), where σ represents the Stefan-Boltzmann constant; D
is the cylinder diameter; kg, Pr are the conductivity and Prandtl number of the gas in the cylinder,
respectively; Re is the Reynolds number characteristic of the flow in the cylinder; Tg and T f are the mean
values of the gas and flame temperatures, respectively; and Tw is the combustion chamber wall temperature.

2,5k g Re0,7 Pr 0,3 πD 0,341σD 2 4

qcool pme = (Tg − Tw ) + (T f − Tw4 ) + 5,98
n (2)
4Vd n / 2 4Vd n / 2 2

• Based on commercial literature related to engine specifications, a relationship between effective power and
heat rejected to the coolant was obtained, as it is depicted in figures 4 and 5, for the heat rejected to the
coolant, through the engine water jacket, and the heat rejected to the coolant by the engine aftercooler,
respectively.

Figure 4: Heat dissipated by the engine to the coolant Figure 5: Heat dissipated by the aftercooler to the
flowing through its water jacket. coolant.

RADIATOR - In general the preliminary design of the radiator can be carried out in the following sequence:

• Calculate the heat to be dissipated in the radiator making allowance for the dirtying process in the radiator
surfaces, as:

Q cool _ c = 1,1Q cool (3)

• The heat carried off by the air is assumed to be equal to the energy dissipated by the coolant ( Q cool _ c = Q air )
• The volumetric air flow through the radiator core, after fixing the air temperature increase, ,
ΔTair = 45 − 55 ºC, is given by equation (4) where C air and ρ air are the air specific heat and density,
calculated for an assumed mean air inlet temperature Tairin of 40 °C:

Vair = Q air /(C air ρ air ΔTair ) (4)

Page 6 of 17
• The volumetric coolant flow rate through radiator is given by equation (5), where C cool and ρ cool are the
coolant specific heat and density calculated for an assumed mean coolant temperature through the water
jacket; ΔTcool = Tcool
in
− Tcool
out
is the coolant temperature drop across the radiator, which ranges usually from 6
to 12 °C.

Vcool = Q cool _ c /(C cool ρ cool ΔTcool ) (5)

• The mean coolant temperature in the radiator is computed as:

m
Tcool = Tcool
in
− ΔTcool / 2 (6)

• The mean air temperature as it passes through the radiator is given by:

Tairm = Tairin + ΔTair / 2 (7)

• The required radiator surface area is found as :

[
Frad = 10 3 Q cool _ c / U cool (Tcool
m
]
− Tairm ) (8)

Here, U cool is the overall heat transfer coefficient, based on the wetted surface [20]:

[ −1
U cool = ( hcool + δ k )ψ + hair
−1
]−1
(9)

where hcool is the convective heat transfer coefficient between the coolant and radiator surfaces, δ is the wall
thickness, k is the thermal conductivity of the material, hair is the convective heat transfer coefficient between
the air and radiator surfaces; ψ is a fin coefficient. For automotive radiators the values for U cool range from 140
to 180 W/(m2K) [20].

• The frontal surface area of the radiator can be found as given by equation (10), where v air is the air speed at
the radiator front (typical values range from 6 to18 m/s [20]), not taking into account the vehicle speed.

F fr = Vair / v air (10)

• The radiator width is now given by equation (11), where ϕ rad is a volumetric factor ranging from 0,6 to 1,8
mm-1 [20].

l rad = Frad /( F fr ϕ rad ) (11)

• The heat dissipated by the radiator per inlet air-coolant temperature difference, ITD = Tcool
in
− Tairin , is now
expressed as:

Q cool _ c / ITD = U cool Frad (12)

Page 7 of 17
• The thermal performance of the radiator can be characterized by the heat flow per inlet temperature
difference per unit frontal area, as a function of coolant mass flow rate and air mass flow rate per unit
frontal area:

Q cool _ c /( ITD ⋅ F fr ) = f ( m cool , F fr m air )

This sequence is used to calculate the initial design parameters either for a detailed design of the engine radiator
or for its selection from a manufacturer’s catalog, restricting also the allowable pressure losses. The
methodology could start from the global dimensions allowed for the radiator, in dependence of the available
space.

FAN - The information required for the selection of fans is the static pressure rise, p ai (Pa) and the volumetric
air flow rate Vair (m3/s) at the nominal operating point, in addition to the operating curve relating the change in
pressure across the fan to the volume flow through it, the tip and hub diameters and the fan blade shape: straight
or twisted. The axial flow propeller-type fans are those most used in engine applications. The data needed is
easily available from fan suppliers.

The volumetric air flow rate has been calculated in the previous paragraph, while the pressure must be found
after analyzing a preliminary air flow layout, and considering the principle of minimum power consumption. In
any case, pressure drop across the radiator core must be less than 25 mm water and most usually in the 12 to 18
mm water range [20]. Also, in the preliminary stage of the cooling system design, correlations for pressure drop
for discrete components of the air flow path, as well as tabulated information available in the specialized
literature, can be used to estimate per-component and total pressure drop across the air duct. Depending on the
application of the cooling systems the static pressure developed by fans ranges from 600 to 1450 Pa [21]. The
fan tip speed is determined as [20]:

u = ψ a pai / ρ ai
(13)

where ψa is a blade shape coefficient, ranging from 2,2 to 2,9 for curved blades, and from 2,8 to 3,5 for straight
blades. For noise considerations u ≤ 110 m/s [22].

The preliminary fan diameter can be determined as:

DV = 1,3 Vair v air
′ (14)

′ is the calculated air flow velocity through the rotor. This depends on the relationship between the
Here, v air
effective area swept by the fan blades, and the radiator frontal area. For the systems in use, this relationship is in
′ ranges from 13 to 40 m/s [22].
the range from 0,45 to 0,6, whence v air

The rotational speed of the fan is determined as:

nv = 60u πDv (15)

The power consumed by the fan can be now assessed by assuming the fan efficiency ηV (typical values range
from 0,6 to 0,7):
N V = 10 −3 p aiVair / ηV (16)

Page 8 of 17
The performance of the fan may be given in a non-dimensional form, by the flow, ϕ fd , and pressure, ψ fd ,
coefficients defined by:
2Δp vent 2Vvent
ψ fd = ; ϕ fd = (17)
ρv ps
2
πDv2 v 2ps

Equations (13) to (17) define the basic parameters for either the detailed design or selection of the fan for the
engine cooling system, with the possibility of using the specialized selection software provided by fan
manufacturers (DOE-2 simulation program, ASHRAE simulation toolkit, commercial simulation programs such
as Trace and HAP) [22, 23]. Finally, some authors have developed models for fan performance selection and
assessment [24]. The selection must be made in such a way that the fan operates in the best region for the static
pressure drop curve of the air induction duct.

COOLANT PUMP - In most engine applications the coolant flow rate is obtained by a centrifugal open
impeller type pump driven by the engine with an appropriate pulley ratio. The pressure required for the pump
depends on the pressure drop characteristics of the water jacket as well as on the cooling system external
resistance. The values of the pressure developed by the coolant pumps at the engine nominal speeds are in the
range of 50 … 100 kPa. The pressure developed by the pump is generally expressed in terms of head of water
( p = ρgH ). The power consumed by the pump, taken into account its mechanical efficiency,η M (typical values
ranging from 0,7 to 0,9 [18]):

N b = Vcool _ c p1 / η M (18)

The pump handbook [25] provides estimates for hydraulic efficiency, volumetric efficiency, rotor friction
power, and seal/bearing losses as a function of flow, specific speed, and rotor diameter at the design point. With
the design point established, the pump specific speed, ns, is calculated as:

n s = H −0,75 n Vcool (19)

where n is the impeller speed, and H is the discharge head. Once the pump specific speed is known, the
guidelines for calculating the impeller geometry available in the specialized literature can be used [26]. The
total capacity of the engine cooling system (in liters) can now be correlated with the engine power by [20]:

Vcool = [0,13" 0,25] × N e

APPLICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY

This part of the work is devoted to the design of the cooling system for a locomotive engine. The engine
requires two different coolant loops for engine water jacket and aftercooler. Performance targets are being
defined consistently with the engine manufacturer, although information for the estimation of the size of the
cooling system, except for the pump performance characteristics and their desirable operational point, has not
been provided. The system must meet thermal requirements for high temperature operation (ambient condition
= 35 ºC), under maximum load at regulated speed: maximum allowable engine coolant outlet temperature = 85
ºC, and maximum allowable aftercooler air outlet temperature = 65 ºC.

APPLICATION PARTICULARITIES - The locomotive application demands a cooling system design that
includes the “normal” engine cooling components for coolant and air in two separated circuits for engine and
aftercooler. The engine circuit can consist of the engine water jacket, the pump, the oil cooler, the compressor,
Page 9 of 17
the expansion tank, and the radiators. Except for the compressor and the oil cooler, the aftercooler circuit could
be analogous to the engine one. The project is conducted under several constraints: the engine cooling system
components must accommodate to a given space and dimensions, performance targets must be consistent with
the locomotive application, and the time for the development is short.

In accordance to classical locomotive practices, the arrangement of the locomotive traction wagon is as follows:
a Diesel engine with lateral radiator banks, where the air flow is driven through lateral grills in the intake
towards the radiators, sucked by two centrifugal roof-mounted fans. Tubes and fittings connecting different
components can be located in the middle space between radiators and the engine.

Variable Engine Afterc.

Cooling air temperature increase, ºC 35 35
Coolant temperature drop, ºC 7 12
Convective heat transfer coefficient inside the radiator tubes, W/m2K 3500 3500
Tube wall thickness, mm 0,6 0,6
Thermal conductivity of tube material, W/mK 120 140
Convective heat transfer coefficient for the interface between tube
surfaces and external air, W/m2K 120 170
Fin coefficient 6 6
Air speed, m/s 7 7
Air speed through fan free area, m/s 27 27
Radiator compactness factor 0,7 0,7
Pressure created by the fan, Pa 1325 1325
Fan efficiency 0,75 0,75
Fan coefficient 2,5 2,5
Table 1. Initial parameters in the preliminary design

PRELIMINARY DESIGN - As was described in the precedent paragraphs, the design process of the engine
cooling system starts with the determination of the nominal parameters of the core system components, and the
definition of a preliminary layout of the whole cooling system arrangement, with the estimated dimensions for
pipes and fittings accordingly with the topology of the system. With this in mind, in this paragraph the
preliminary calculation and selection of radiators and fans are described, starting by the assessment of the heat
rejected to the coolant.

Parameter Engine Afterc

Coolant to air flow ratio (×10-3) 1,6 0,95
Mean coolant temperature, ºC 81,50 79,00
Mean air temperature, ºC 52,50 52,50
Heat exchange area of radiator, m2 434,57 144,64
Radiator frontal area, m2 2,79 1,07
Radiator core thickness, mm 222,34 193,65
Fan speed, m/s 78,47 78,47
Fan external diameter, m (2 un.) 1,46 0,97
Fan rotational speed, rpm 1024 1549
Radiator volume, m3 0,62 0,21
Radiator heat exchange area to volume ratio, m2/m3 700 700
Heat rejected related to inlet temperature difference per unit of 5,87 5,87

Page 10 of 17
 radiator frontal area
Fraction of coolant system capacity 0,75 0,25
Table 2. Basic parameters for radiator and fan sizing and selection

Due to the absence of detailed engine information allowing using a thermal model, Lahvic’s correlation was
used in order to find the total heat rejected to the coolant. This heat was in turn split into a part rejected through
the engine (including that part dissipated in the oil cooler), and the remaining part dissipated through the
aftercooler. Then, making some assumptions described in table 1, some important data to calculate and select
the radiators and fans were found, as presented in table 2. The value of the heat flow to be exchanged in the
radiator was used as an input to all the programs used.

Cooling system packaging - Based on the data obtained after the preliminary design, and taking into account the
locomotive manufacturer’s recommendation, various core sizes and configurations were analyzed for the engine
and after-cooler radiators. Their thermal and hydraulic characteristics are presented in figures 6 and 7. The
performance characteristics of the selected fans are defined by the head rise versus volumetric flow rate
performance curve drawn in figure 8.

Figure 6: Heat transfer performance surfaces: a) engine radiator; b) after-cooler radiator.

Figure 7: Radiator pressure loss characteristics: a) coolant side; b) air side.

The conceived layout of the coolant part of the system is illustrated in figure 9. The coolant flows through the
engine water jacket, the radiators and the oil cooler loop in parallel with the compressor loop. In the second
after-cooler circuit, the coolant is driven by a separate pump, in a way analogous to that in the engine circuit.
The two circuits can be connected via a link valve in case of necessity. Space and geometry allowed for the

Page 11 of 17
cooling system determine the coolant piping packaging. Any deficiencies in piping and their resulting coolant
flow restrictions would negatively impact engine performance and durability.

Figure 8: Fan performance curve. Figure 9: Proposed engine coolant system layout.

MODELLING AND SIMULATION – As the coolant pumps are part of the engine module, the main
component selection was reduced only to the radiators and fans. For the first ones, the radiator calculation
program was used, considering the data of the preliminary design. Making use of commercial literature two
centrifugal (54 inches diameter, 11 blades), fans were selected. CFD and 1D thermo-hydraulic modeling were
then carried out using commercial programs PowerFlow and FlowMaster, respectively.

Figure 10 represents a cutaway view of the ventilation passage to be modeled with the CFD program. By
simulating the forced air flow through lateral grills and radiators, under a pressure difference created by the fans
installed on the roof, the detailed air pressure drops along the ventilation path, for the volume air flows through
upper (engine) and lower (aftercooler) paths were obtained, as presented in table 3. The modeled pressure drops
along the duct were used to build the hydraulic impedance characteristics, required by the 1D model.

Section Δp, % Air flow, %

1-2 (grill) 22

2-3 14

3-4 (upper radiator) 43 55

3-4 (lower radiator) 26 45

4-5 (upper radiator) 19

4-5 (upper radiator) 38

Figure 10: View of the ventilation duct. Table 3. Pressure drops in the ventilation path for a volume air flow.

Page 12 of 17
Although it is possible, in principle, to incorporate the detailed CFD model of the ventilation part into the 1D
thermo-hydraulic model, a much simpler model has been built, with the radiator cores modeled as porous
media. The computed air velocity and pressure drop distributions across their surfaces are shown in figures 11
and 12, respectively.

Figure 11: Air velocity field on the radiators frontal (left) and rear (right) sides.

Figure 12: Air pressure distribution before (left) and after radiators (right).

The pressure and velocity plots of figures 11 and 12 show that the air flow behavior is better across engine
radiators than across the aftercooler ones. Inflow disturbances, both steady distortions and turbulence, in
particular, can increase the pressure losses and air velocity misdistribution. The air flow distribution across the
radiator frontal area is acceptable.

Now, the thermal and hydraulic information gathered during the preliminary design, the calculation of radiators,
and the CFD simulation results, are used to build the model of the complete engine cooling system.

The model developed is a collection of the different engine cooling system components that make up both the
cooling and the air loops. The entire air duct has been represented by the fans and the radiators with the required
aerodynamic impedances defined by the total pressure loss vs. air flow ventilation duct characteristics lumped
in the radiator sub-models. With such a network it is possible to predict the temperature levels reached by the
coolant and the air flows (thermal power dissipation capacity).

After providing the initialization data required for all the components and fluids, the response of the system
under full load conditions and extreme ambient temperature was simulated. The heat dissipated by the engine,

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aftercooler, oil cooler and compressor were input as a function of time as shown in figure 13. The coolant and
air flows through the radiators are represented in figure 14.

Figure 13: Input of heat flow rate through engine

Figure 14: Coolant and air flow rates trough engine
water jacket, after-cooler jacket, oil cooler and
and after-cooler radiators.
compressor.

The coolant and air temperatures through engine and aftercooler radiators are plotted in figures 15 and 16,
respectively. The temperatures are expressed in a dimensionless form, as the ratio of the respective temperature
to the difference between inlet coolant and air temperatures. Under extreme conditions, the coolant and air
temperatures are below the threshold values defined in the design conditions, so the system designed meets the
specified requirements. Although the simulation model allowed assessing the behavior of different thermal and
hydraulic quantities, only the thermal and flow rate responses related to radiators fall within the scope of this
work. With the model developed different thermal operating and ambient conditions can be simulated.

Figure 15: Inlet and outlet coolant and air Figure 16: Inlet and outlet coolant and air
temperatures through one of the engine radiators. temperatures through one of the after-cooler radiators.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS – After assembling the cooling system in accordance with the components
selected, and the general arrangement used in the modelling process, the traction wagon was placed in the
testing room, were the load was created by a controlled electrical load box. The coolant and air parts were

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instrumented to measure fluid pressures, temperatures and flows at the locations of interest in order to estimate
the pressure losses, the heat flow rates, and the general energy balance.

Even though the cooling system is being designed for extreme conditions, the field test had to accommodate to
the actual ambient conditions, with the normal ambient temperature of 14 - 15 ºC. Table 3 shows the
dimensionless temperatures in percentage (defined as the ratio of the difference between inlet coolant
temperature and air temperature at the considered zone to the difference between inlet coolant temperature and
inlet air temperature) at each radiator surface. There is an appreciable misdistribution of the air velocity across
the radiator face. The main problem appears in the lower region, where the velocity profile is very complicated,
as was evidenced from the CFD simulation; it is difficult to eliminate the air side misdistribution along the
radiators as the flow is very non-uniform and the air duct has insufficient room to smooth out the flow.

Engine radiator Coolant in → 10 11 10 10

Coolant out ← 13 10 9 14
Afterc. radiator Coolant in → 11 10 7 11
Coolant out ← 6 6 3 5
Table 3. Dimensionless temperatures at each radiator surface

By using the measured coolant flow rates and temperatures through radiators, compressor and oil cooler, the
heat flow rates in these heat exchangers were calculated and are shown in table 4.

Heat flow rate in the left engine radiator 27,1

Heat flow rate in the left aftercooler radiator 14,1
Heat flow rate in the oil cooler 17,5
Heat flow rate in the compressor 0,1
Table 4. Heat flow rates measured in the system heat exchangers, as percentage of the total heat exchanged

Calculating the air flow rates required to close the heat energy balance in the radiators, considering the inlet and
outlet air temperatures, a great discrepancy was observed in these magnitudes in relation to the measured
values, as is noticed in table 5.

Air mass flow ratio Thermal balance Experimental

Engine radiator 0,93 0,74
Aftercooler radiator 1,15 0,73
Table 5. Heat flow rates measured in the system heat exchangers, as percentage of the total heat exchanged

In comparing the experimental and CFD results (these obtained after running the model with the revised
conditions, the real field test ambient conditions), the mean air flow rates obtained from the CFD modeling are
closer to the values obtained with the heat energy balance (the heat dissipated by the coolant). The discrepancies
in measured air flows can be associated with the location of the measurement probe and the stability of the
measurement, which suggests reconsidering the measuring method, Comparisons between the experimental and
predicted parameters for the engine and aftercooler radiators are presented in table 6.

From the model and experimental results, it follows that the water jacket and aftercooler radiators are well
dimensioned for the actual thermal demand under full load conditions. The actual thermal load dissipated by the
four radiators amounts to a magnitude very close to the thermal load calculated during the preliminary design. If
this value of heat rejected is extrapolated to the conditions prescribed during the radiator design, the installed

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dissipation power of the radiators is about 11 % higher than the actual heat dissipation demand, which means
that there is certain safety margin for heat dissipation capacity.

Parameter Engine Aftercooler

Inlet T (ºC) 3,81 0,92
Coolant Outlet T (ºC) 2,86 0,05
Drop (ºC) 11,13 2,54
Inlet T (ºC) 0,00 0,00
Air Outlet T (ºC) 5,63 7,00
Increment (ºC) 8,97 3,02
Coolant flow (kg/s) 3,62 9,10
Air flow (kg/s) 2,05 22,2
Heat rejected (kW) (Radiator1) 12,04 10,3
Table 6. Percentage differences between experiments and predictions for the two radiators.

In general, the model predictions and experimental values are in good agreement, the major differences being
observed in the air flow circuits. This exercise has evidenced the straightforwardness of the methodology
followed in the cooling design process presented in this work.

CONCLUSIONS
A methodology has been developed for the design of engine cooling systems, which enables information from
three programs to be combined in order to get a fast design of cooling systems: a home-made program for sizing
and rating of heat exchangers, a 3D CFD program (PowerFlow) used for air flow modeling, and a 1D thermo-
hydraulic program (FlowMaster) for the global modeling of the cooling system. Previous to the methodology, a
classical preliminary design procedure is used to start the design of the engine cooling system, provided that the
engine heat rejection to the coolant is known.

The methodology has been applied to the design of the cooling system for a locomotive Diesel engine, based on
locomotive manufacturer specifications, as well as on physical characteristics of the system and on information
from the literature. The comparison of experimental and modeled results confirmed the suitability of the
methodology. In particular, the performance of the cooling system design obtained, as far as the heat rejection
under full load conditions is concerned, showed that the preliminary assumptions were accurate and that the
models developed reproduced well the real system behavior.

The air flows rates obtained with the energy balance from measurements on the coolant side of the system were
used to validate the air flows predicted with the CFD model, given the lack of consistency in the experimental
measurements of the air flow across the ventilation passages. The measurement of the air flow distribution and
the actual pressure losses has been especially difficult, one reason being that the ventilation duct has non-
regular forms and shapes, which give rise to complex turbulent flow phenomena, as has been noticed during the
3D CFD simulation of the ventilation part of the system. Thus, an important step in the modeling of the cooling
system has been the application of numerical tools to the cooling air flow.

Finally, this work has shown the usefulness of the developed methodology for single application engine cooling
system designs.

For confidentiality reasons most of the results have been presented in non dimensional form.

Page 16 of 17
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CONTACT INFORMATION: Pablo César Olmeda González, pabolgon@mot.upv.es

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