M. B. Bickell M.SC., C. Ruiz DR - ING (Auth.) - Pressure Vessel Design and Analysis-Macmillan Education UK (1967) PDF

Pressure Vessel Design and Analysis
Pressure Vessel
Design and Analysis
M. B. BICKELL M.sc.
Contract Manager, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd.
c. RUIZ DR.ING
Senior Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield
Macmillan Education
© M. B. Bickell and C. Ruiz 1967
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1967
MACMILLAN AND COMPANY LIMITED

Little Essex Street London WC2
also Bombay Calcutta Madras Melbourne
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LIMITED

70 Bond Street Toronto 2
ST. MARTIN'S PRESS INC

175 Fifth Avenue New York NY 10010
First Published 1967
9n X 6n, 592 pages

198 line illustrations
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-20870
ISBN 978-1-349-00131-6 ISBN 978-1-349-00129-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-00129-3
Contents
Introduction ix
Notation xi
1 Design Procedure and Establishment of the Design Requirements 1
Introduction. 1 Functional Requirements. 1.1 Size and Shape. 1.2 Fluid
Contained. 1.3 Method of Support. 1.4 Location of Attachments and Pene-
trations. 2 Operational Requirements and Limitations. 2.1 Maintained Load-
ing. 2.2 Transient Conditions. 2.3 Severity of Duty. 3 Principal Design
Codes. 3.1 Safety Devices. 3.2 Pressure Testing.
2 Selection of Materials 19
Introduction. 1 Steel. 1.1 Carbon Steel. 1.2 Low Alloy Steels. 1.3 High
Alloy Steels. 1.4 Clad Steels. 2 Non-ferrous Metals. 2.1 Aluminium and
Aluminium Alloys. 2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys. 2.3 Nickel and Nickel
Alloys.
3 Preliminary Layout 48
Introduction. 1 Establishment of the Design Conditions. 2 Nominal Design
Stress. 3 Basic Shell Thickness. 3.1 Cylinders and Spheres under Internal
Pressure. 3.2 Cylinders and Spheres under External Pressure. 4 Dimensioning
of Local Components. 4.1 Heads. 4.2 Reinforcement of Openings. 4.3 Special
Components (Flanges, Tube Plates, Supports). 5 Manufacture. 5.1 Manu-
facturing Tolerances. 5.2 Welding Processes and Inspection Techniques.
5.3 Design of Welded Joints. 5.4 Butt Welding of Plates of Unequal Thickness.
5.5 Head to Shell Connections. 5.6 Welded Nozzles. 5.7 Welded Attach-
ments. 6 Stress Relieving.
4 Elastic Stress Analysis: General Method 83
Introduction. 1 Stresses, Strains and Displacements. 2 Assumptions of Thin
Shell Theory. 3 Membrane and Bending Behaviour of Shells. 4 The Use of
Matrices. 5 Axi-symmetric Loading. 5.1 Co-axial Shells Joined in Series.
5.2 Co-axial Shells which Intersect in a Common Circle. 6 Lateral Loading.
6.1 Co-axial Shells Joined in Series. 6.2 Co-axial Shells which Intersect in a
Common Circle. 7 General Loading.
5 Cylindrical Shells 116
Introduction. 1 Thick Cylinders. 1.1 Finite Difference Methods for Axi-
symmetric Loading. 2 The Basic Equations for Thin Cylindrical Shells.
3 Axi-symmetric Loading. 3.1 Membrane Solutions. 3.2 Edge bending Solu-
tions and the Flexibility Matrix. 3.3 Unrestrained Solutions. 3.4 Cylinders of
Variable Thickness. 4 Lateral Loading. 4.1 Membrane Solutions. 4.2 Edge
bending Solutions and the Flexibility Matrix. 4.3 Unrestrained Solutions and
Applications. 5 General Loading.
v
vi CONTENTS
6 Spherical Shells 174

Introduction. 1 Thick Spheres. 2 The Basic Equations for Thin Spherical
Shells. 3 Axi-symmetric Loading. 3.1 Membrane Solutions. 3.2 Edge bend-
ing Solutions and the Flexibility Matrix. 3.3 Unrestrained Solutions and
Applications. 4 Lateral Loading. 4.1 Membrane Solution. 4.2 Edge bending
Solutions and the Flexibility Matrix. 4.3 Unrestrained Solution and Applica-
tions. 5 General Loading.
7 General Shells of Revolution 241

Introduction. 1 Thick Shells. 2 The Basic Equations for Thin Shells. 3 Axi-
symmetric Loading. 3.1 Membrane Solutions. 3.2 Edge bending Solution and
the Flexibility Matrix. 3.3 Surface Loads and Temperature Gradients. 3.4
Numerical Methods of Solution. 4 Flat Annular Plates. . 5 Conical Shells.
5.1 Conical Shells with Variable Thickness. 6 Ellipsoidal Shells. 7 Toroidal
Shells.
8 Application of the General Analysis to the More Usual Vessel

Components 318
Introduction. 1 Flat Closure Plates. 2 Conical Heads and Reducers. 3 Hemi-
spherical Heads. 4 Torispherical and Ellipsoidal Heads (Dished or Domed
ends). 5 Tapered Transition Joints. 6 Reinforcement of Openings. 6.1 Single
Radial Nozzles: Internal Pressure. 6.2 Single Oblique Nozzles: Internal Pres-
sure. 6.3 Multiple Openings. 6.4 Flued Openings and Flared Nozzles. 7 Spec-
ial Methods for the Design of Reinforced Openings.
9 Stress Analysis of Piping Systems 341

Introduction. 1 Single Run of Pipe. 2 Elements of the Flexibility Matrix.
2.1 General Plane Curve. 2.2 Straight Length of Pipe of Constant Circular
Cross-Section. 2.3 Bend with Constant Circular Cross-Section following
a Circular Arc. 3 Unrestrained Displacements-Thermal Loads. 4 Unre-
strained Displacements-Mechanical Loads. 5 Multi-anchor Runs of Pipe.
10 Adequacy of the Design: General Considerations 363

Introduction. 1 Development of Cracks: Fracture. 2 Corrosion. 3 Working
Stresses. 3.1 Field of Application of the Elastic Method of Stress Analysis.
3.2 Experimental Stress Analysis. 3.3 Selection of Working Stresses for Ductile
Materials. 3.4 Brittle Materials. 3.5 Summary.
11 Plastic Collapse 382

Introduction. 1 Bursting Pressure of Thin-Walled Spherical and Cylindrical
Vessels. 2 Bursting Pressure of Thick-Walled Spherical and Cylindrical Vessels.
2.1 Spherical Vessels. 2.2 Cylindrical Vessels. 2.3 Cylindrical Vessels: Aniso-
tropic, Strain Hardening Materials. 2.4 Approximate Expressions. 2.5 Com-
pound Cylindrical Vessels. 3 Tresca Yield Criterion for Rigid/Ideally Plastic
Shells. 3.1 Exact Condition. 3.2 Simplified Yield Conditions. 4 Application
of Limit Analysis to Design. 4.1 General Principles. 4.2 Simply-supported
Circular Plate under Uniform Load. 4.3 Band Reinforced Cylindrical Vessel.
4.4 Collapse Loads of Several Shells of Revolution.
12 Fatigue and Incremental Collapse 421

Introduction. 1 Incremental Collapse. 2 Fatigue of Pressure Vessel Materials.
2.1 Cumulative Fatigue Damage. 2.2 Effect of Notch-Type Stress Raisers.
2.3 Effect of Other Variables. 3 Application to Design.
CONTENTS Vll
13 Low Stress Brittle Fracture 447

Introduction. 1 Interpretation of the Experimental Information. 1.1 The
Classical Theory. 1.2 Griffith's Theory of Crack Propagation. 2 Experimental
Determination of the Transition Temperature: Toughness Tests. 2.1 Correla-
tion between Test Results. 2.2 State of Stress at Notches and Size Effect.
2.3 Correlation with· Service Experience. 3 Application to Design. 3.1 General
Considerations. 3.2 Application of Toughness Tests.
14 Creep 479
Introduction. 1 Presentation and Availability of Data. 2 Extrapolation of
Data. 3 Interpretation of Data: Uni-axial Stress Systems. 3.1 The Super-
position Method: Steady Creep and Creep Recovery. 3.2 Strain and Time
Hardening Theories: Creep Damage Factor. 3.3 Stress Relaxation. 4 General
Stress-Strain Relations. 5 Applications. 5.1 Thick-Walled Cylindrical and
Spherical Vessels under Internal Pressure. 5.2 Steady Creep of Thin Cylindrical
Vessels under Internal Pressure and Axial Loading. 5.3 Steady Creep of Thin
Cylindrical Vessels under Internal Pressure and Bending. 5.4 Steady Creep of
Thin Cylindrical Vessels under Internal Pressure and Torsion. 5.5 Piping Systems
and Shells of Revolution. 6 Design Stress in the Creep Range. 6.1 High Strain
Fatigue combined with Creep. 6.2 Effect of Local Constraints, Discontinuity
Stresses and Notch-Type Stress Raisers.
15 Buckling 516
Introduction. 1 Cylindrical Vessels under Uniform External Pressure. 1.1 Crit-
ical Buckling Pressure. 1.2 Effect of Initial Out-of-Roundness and Plastic
Collapse. 1.3 Stiffening Rings. 1.4 Design Procedure. 2 Spherical Vessels
under Uniform External Pressure; Dished Ends. 3 Effect of End Supports and
Structural Discontinuities.
16 Special Components 529
Introduction. 1 Smooth Bends. 1.1 Flexibility Factor of Smooth Bends.
1.2 Stress Distribution: Pressure and External Loading. 1.3 Design. 2 Mitred
Bends and Lobster-Back Bends. 3 Tube Plates. 3.1 Effective Elastic Constants.
3.2 Stress Distribution in the Equivalent Plate. 3.3 Stress Analysis. 3.4 Peak
Stresses. 3.5 Stress Limits: Design. 4 Bolted Flanged Connections. 4.1 Steady
Creep of Bolted Flanged Connections.
Note on Recent Bibliography 565
Index 511
Introduction
The traditional method for the design of pressure vessels is characterized

by the existence of Design Codes. These are based on the application of an
arbitrary factor on the ultimate tensile strength or yield point of the material
used and include rules, derived from previous experience, for the design of
certain local components such as branches and supports. The primary design
criterion implicit in these rules is the prevention of bursting or buckling under
uniform pressure loading. Although this is sufficient to ensure the integrity
under initial loading and the safe operation of most vessels it does not always
lead to an economic and safe design; indeed under certain operating con-
ditions, such as rapid changes in temperature or pressure, a vessel designed
according to Code rules may be unsafe. Several Code writing authorities have
recognized this situation and some of the most recently published Codes
permit more economic design and at the same time require a detailed study
of the possibility of failure.
The starting point for such a study is a complete specification of the service
conditions followed by an analysis of the possible modes of failure. Since the
most common modes of failure are stress dependent, the determination of
the stresses and the establishment of acceptable limits are essential steps in
the design process. Pressure vessels are critical structures and the risks
involved in their operation are often high. As a result, new theories and
methods of analysis can only be applied to design when they become suffi-
ciently well established to be generally accepted. On the other hand, designers
should be aware of any developments in order to apply them at the first
opportunity. We have therefore endeavoured to include the basic informa-
tion which we believe the designer should use on the methods of stress
analysis and the principal modes of failure. At the same time we have briefly
discussed and quoted references to more specialized and advanced work
which has not yet been widely used in design.
The first step in the design process is the establishment of a preliminary
layout. This is dealt with in Chapters 1-3, which contain references to the
appropriate Design Codes and to sources of information on materials proper-
ties. The next step is usually an elastic stress analysis following the general
methods described in Chapter 4 using the detailed results from Chapters 5-7.
A* ix
X INTRODUCTION
We believe there are significant advantages in developing the theory of shells

in a manner which is specifically directed towards the type of problems which
arise in pressure vessel design. With this approach it is possible to concentrate
on certain aspects of the theory and to carry these forward to a stage which
reduces the work required to apply the text results to actual problems. In
addition we have attempted to clarify the unified nature of the theory of axi-
symmetric shells by adopting the same chapter sub-divisions for the different
shapes considered. To obtain the full benefit of these chapters the reader will
need to study them and will require a mathematical knowledge to University
engineering graduate standard. Designers lacking this knowledge will still be
able to apply the results of some of this information which are summarized in
Chapter 8. For completeness the stress analysis of piping systems has been
included in Chapter 9.
In addition to the elastic stress analysis, an essential part in the design
process is the establishment of acceptable working stresses and, when possible,
the determination of the maximum load that the vessel may resist without
failure. A general introduction to this problem is provided by Chapter 10,
which contains also a brief discussion of stress-independent modes of failure.
In the following chapters an attempt has been made to describe the applica-
tion of experimental data, obtained from simple mechanical tests, to the
design of complex vessels. Supplementary design rules based on experience
are included also.
In recent years limit analysis has received considerable attention, since it
has the advantage of providing a means for the direct evaluation of the load
carrying capacity of the structure. Chapter 11 describes the fundamental
aspects together with some simple examples and several results.
In a final chapter the principles discussed are applied to the design of some
special components. These are pipe bends, tube plates and bolted connec-
tions. As in Chapter 8, the results are presented in a simplified form which
may be applied without demanding more than an elementary knowledge of
mathematics.
Most of the information contained in this book was collected or developed

whilst both authors were employed by Babcock & Wilcox Ltd. to whom thanks
are extended both for support during the preparation of the book and for
permission to publish. We are also grateful for the advice and encouragement
given by many of our friends and colleagues.
Notation
A Area
a. Linear thermal expansion coefficient
A Flexibility matrix
B Stiffness matrix
p Flexibility characteristic
D Flexural rigidity, diameter
d Diameter
D* Equivalent flexural rigidity of perforated plate
(j Deflection
D Generalized displacement matrix
E Modulus of elasticity
E* Equivalent modulus of elasticity of perforated plates
.
E Strain vector
E Strain rate vector
e Strain
eF L ogant
. h mtc stram
. at rupture = 1oge 100100
_ RA
e Significant strain
8 Strain rate
E.S.R. Equivalent stress range
F Force
F Generalized force
h Shell thickness, height of nozzle reinforcement
J Joint efficiency factor
I Moment of inertia
I Identity matrix
K 1 , K, Effective and theoretical stress concentration factors
KF Flexibility factor of pipe bend
kl> k 2 , Flexibility factors of pipe subjected to in-plane and out-of-plane
k3 bending moments and torque
L, I Length
A. Pipe factor
xi
xii NOTATION
M Bending moment, resultant bending moment

m Dimensionless bending moment
N Number of cycles, resultant force normal to shell thickness
n Dimensionless resultant force
v Poisson's ratio
v* Equivalent Poisson's ratio of perforated plates
0 Null matrix
P Pressure
p Dimensionless pressure
Q Resultant shear
q Reduced shear
R, r Shell radius
RA Reduction of area at fracture (tensile test)
Sa Allowable or design stress
Se Endurance limit
S Stress vector
a Stress
a Significant or combined uni-axial stress equivalent to a general stress
system
S Stress concentration factor for a pipe bend (bending stress)
S.F. Safety factor
S.C.F. Stress concentration factor
T Temperature, shell thickness
t Shell thickness
() Time
0, Time-to-rupture (creep)
T Shear stress
U.T.S. Ultimate tensile strength
u, v, w Components of displacement
V Deformation rate in yielded shell
W Strain energy, work or rate of dissipation of energy
Y Yield point stress
x Tangent rotation, change in curvature
Subindices
1, 2, 3 Applied to stress or strain refer to the principal components
x, y, z, ¢, (J Applied to stress, force, deflection or rotation refer to the
components in the relevant directions
o, i Applied to radius or pressure to respective magnitudes at the outside
or inside surfaces of a shell
e, p, c Refer to elastic, plastic or creep components of stress, etc.
1 Design Procedure and Establishment of
the Design Requirements
1·0 INTRODUCTION
P RESSURE vessels and piping systems, as components of a complete plant,

are designed to meet those requirements specified by the team of process
engineers, thermodynamicists and physicists responsible for the overall
design. The first step in the design procedure, illustrated in Fig. 1·1, is then
to select all the relevant information, establishing in this way a body of
design requirements. As described in this chapter, the necessary information
includes in the first instance the functional and operational requirements and
limitations. In addition, the requirements of one or several of the Design
Codes listed in Table 1·1 may also have to be considered.
Once all the design requirements have been established suitable materials
are selected, as discussed in Chapter 2. For the materials selected, the specified
Design Code will give an allowable design or nominal stress that is used to
dimension the main pressure shell. Additional Code rules usually cover the
design of the various vessel components, such as nozzles, flanges, etc.
Following these rules, a preliminary layout is obtained as described in
Chapter 3. This preliminary layout is then studied and possibly modified
until a final design is obtained and shown to be adequate.
Most of the types of failure relevant in pressure vessel design are primarily
stress dependent. For this reason, it becomes necessary in order to ensure the
adequacy of the design to assess the stress distribution following the general
methods of Chapters 4 to 9 or experimentally. The stress level is then main-
tained below the values established in Chapters 10 to 15, where the following
types of failures are considered in detail:
Plastic collapse in one pressurization.
Incremental collapse and fatigue.
Low stress brittle fracture.
Creep.
Buckling.
1
2 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Also, design rules, based on experience, are given. It is essential for these
rules to be incorporated in the design.
The proposed design, obtained following this procedure, is finally altered
until the most economical and reliable product is obtained. During this stage
those limitations imposed by the design itself on the mode of operation of
the plant are determined.
Functional
Requirements -
Operational Operational
Requirements 1- - Establishment of
the Design Conditions
r-- Limitations
~ Selection of Materials
Design
Codes
Determination of the
Preliminary Layout
Fulfilment of
Stress
Design
Analysis
Requirements
I Final Design
FIG. 1·1 Design procedure

I
The procedure thus described is in no way different from the general
method used for the design of other structures. First the stress and strain
distributions for a proposed layout under the specified loads are obtained.
Then, the distributions are compared with the critical combinations causing
failure. Here again we understand by 'failure' the impossibility of meeting
the design requirements and not only the rupture of the structure.
DESIGN PROCEDURE 3
1·1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
The functional requirements cover the geometrical design parameters, such

as size and shape, location of penetrations, etc. Some of these parameters
may have to be fixed in collaboration with the overall design team but, for
the majority, the pressure vessel designer will be entirely free to act on the
basis of his own experience.
1+ 1 Size and Shape

The approximate size of the vessel is fixed in the very early stages of design.
The vessel may be sufficiently small to be shop-fabricated and transported to
site as a single unit, or it may have to be split into smaller sections and
assembled at site. A final possibility is that its size be such that it may not be
manufactured at all.
The maximum dimensions of a vessel that can be supplied as a completely
shop-fabricated unit, and of the sections for larger vessels, are fixed by the
workshop and site facilities and by the transport possibilities. The following
factors are likely to be of importance:
(a) Cranage capacity, both in the workshops and at site.
(b) Headroom, e.g. for long cylindrical vessels that require machining in
the vertical position.
(c) Maximum thickness of the plates that can be supplied, pressed or
rolled, welded and inspected with the available equipment and techniques.
(d) Maximum size of forgings.
(e) Capacity of heat treatment and stress relieving equipment.
(f) Machining facilities.
(g) Maximum dimensions and weight of units that can be transported
to site.
At present, it is within the scope of leading manufacturers to fabricate

cylindrical vessels in low alloy or carbon steel of almost any diameter using
plate thickness of up to 9 in. Forged rings are fabricated from segments of
up to 3 ft x 2ft cross-section, electroslag welded (see Chapter 3). Domed ends
of the same thickness are fabricated from pressed petals or forged from one
plate. Other methods of fabrication-strip wound vessels, vessels constructed
from forged rings, etc.-further extend the range of vessels that can be
manufactured successfully.
Local stress relieving, temporary sectional furnaces and special methods
for the heat treatment of large vessels at site practically overcome any
limitation in size.
Units as large as 12 ft in diameter and 20-30 ft long may be shipped by rail

or road, although special permits are usually required. In any specific
instance, it is necessary to consult with the local authorities. Larger units are
usually shipped by sea to the port nearest to site.
FrG. 1·2 Saddle supports
FIG. 1·3 Sling supports
FIG. 1·4 Hanger supports
Pressure vessels are usually spherical or cylindrical, with domed ends. The
latter are generally preferred, since they present simpler manufacturing
problems and better use can be made of the available space. Boiler drums,
heat exchangers, chemical reactors, etc., are generally cylindrical. Spherical
vessels have the advantage of requiring thinner walls for a given pressure and
diameter than the equivalent cylinder. They are therefore used for large gas
or liquid containers, gas-cooled nuclear reactors, containment buildings for
nuclear plant, etc.
DESIGN PROCEDURE 5
Containment vessels for liquids at very low pressure are sometimes in the
form of lobed spheroids or in the shape of a drop. This has the advantage of
providing the best possible stress distribution when the tank is full. Ovoid
vessels have also been used for some special applications.
Elongated Holes
and Radial Keys
FIG. 1·5 Bracket supports

1-1-2 Fluid Contained
The physical and chemical properties of the fluid contained should be
included among the design requirements. Its specific weight will affect the
design of the supports, its heat transfer properties are required for the deter-
mination of the vessel temperature distribution and the possibilities of
chemical attack may influence the selection of materials. In addition, the
flow rate through the vessel and its various connections must be known.
1·1·3 Method of Support

The method of support selected depends on the size, shape and weight of
the vessel, on the design temperature and pressure, on the location of the
various connections and on the arrangement of the internal and external

structures. Horizontal cylindrical vessels may be supported on two saddles,
as shown in Fig. 1·2. Stiffening rings are sometimes added at intermediate
locations. When differential expansion has to be considered, as in boiler
drums, the vessel is usually supported from slings (Fig. 1· 3) or from hangers
as in Fig. 1·4.
FIG. 1·6 Typical skirt support
Brackets or lugs are widely used for all types of vessels. An even distribu-
tion of the load carried by each bracket is achieved by providing adjustable
packers, shims or adjustable hangers. Provision for thermal expansion and
pressure inflation is made by using radial keys and keyways, elongated bolt
holes or swivelling hangers (see Fig. 1·5). Bronze surfaces, lubricated with a
DESIGN PROCEDURE 7
-
..
'•,
FIG. 1·7 Skirt supports: cylindrical vessels

molybdenum compound, are used when it is necessary to provide better

freedom for expansion. In all cases, the brackets are kept as short as possible,
to reduce the bending moment on the vessel shell.
FIG. 1·8 Spherical tank supported on stilts
'
FIG. 1·9 Cylindrical tank directly supported on foundation
A method of support that has found wide application for large spherical
vessels is the use of a cylindrical skirt, as shown in Fig. 1·6. The skirt should
be sufficiently flexible to allow for the differential expansion between vessel
DESIGN PROCEDURE 9
FIG. 1·10 Pipe supports

and foundation. Alternatively, a suitable arrangement
such as rollers will have to be provided. Vertical
cylindrical vessels are also supported in this way,
some possibilities being shown in Fig. 1·7.
Large storage tanks and containment vessels for
nuclear plants are sometimes supported on stilts
(Fig. 1·8) or directly on the foundation (Fig. 1·9).
Piping systems are usually supported from hangers-
as shown in Fig. 1·10-which may be directly fixed to
the structure or to a variable or constant load fixture.
When the movement of the piping system at the
support location is small, a spring support as shown
.... in Fig. 1·11 may be used. For large movements, con-
stant load fixtures using either springs or counter-
FIG. H 1 Spring support
weights, are preferred (see Fig. 1·12).
1·1·4 Location of Attachments and Penetrations

The approximate location of some attachments, such as support brackets for
the internal structure, temporary lugs for erection, etc., may be determined
at this stage. All attachments should be sufficiently remote from discon-
tinuities to prevent the superposition of stress peaks, and they must be easily
accessible for welding.
The penetrations in pressure vessels may be isolated or they may be grouped

together to form a regular pattern. In either case, good accessibility is
essential. Penetrations that are very oblique to the vessel shell and those
arranged in a square or triangular pattern with a very tight pitch must be
avoided. It is indeed true that this consideration has led in many cases to
FIG. 1·12 Constant load supports

basic alterations in the design of the whole plant. For instance, the minimum
pitch of the control rods in a nuclear reactor, an important design parameter,
may well be limited by the pressure vessel design.
1·2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
The requirements that are imposed on the design of the pressure vessel by
t~e mode of operation specified for the overall plant, are divided in two
groups. The first group includes those requirements resulting from the
operation at a maintained loading, either under maximum or normal condi-
tions. The second group includes the transient conditions that exist during
starting up and shutting down or, in general, during a change in loading.
Most of the operational requirements are fundamental to the overall plant
design. As a result, they are accepted without any modification in the design
of the pressure equipment. Other requirements are sometimes expressed only
as desirable from the standpoint of economical operation; for instance, it is
often interesting to achieve short starting-up periods in power stations. In
DESIGN PROCEDURE 11
this case, the maximum rate of change of temperature from cold to full load
is determined by the thermal stresses induced in boiler drums, pipes, etc. It is
then the responsibility of the pressure vessel designer to establish the limita-
tions imposed by his design on the overall mode of operation.
1·2·1 Maintained Loading

The first requirement to be specified is the operating pressure-internal or
external-existing during normal operation, the second is the maximum
maintained pressure that may be anticipated. In general, the maximum
pressure is not more than 10% higher than the normal value.
The fluid temperature is another fundamental design requirement. Its maxi-
mum and normal values have to be specified, as well as the minimum value
during shutdown or, for liquid-gas containers, during operation. This may
have some influence on the selection of materials.
The influence of the environment, including possible corrosion or chemical
attack from the fluid contained and from the atmosphere, is also a part of
the requirements. Further effects to be considered are irradiation, in the case
of nuclear plants, and erosion caused by high velocity flow, especially when
the fluid contained is wet steam or, even more, a slurry or any type of fluid
containing particles in suspension.
When pressure vessels and piping systems operate out of doors, external
loading such as snow and wind must be considered. It is also important to
add to these loads the minimum ambient temperature, as previously men-
tioned. Other external loading usually present is that resulting from the
reaction of piping systems on their anchors and on their attachments to
pressure vessels, dead weight of pumps, valves etc., supported from the
vessel, dynamic loading of blowers and rotating machinery and, in general,
all forms of local loading imposed during service.
A final consideration in this group of design requirements is the expected
life of the vessel. This may have some bearing on the protection offered
against the environment and on the selection of materials. Besides the
expected life, the possibility of carrying out regular inspections is of import-
ance. This may require the provision of man- or hand-holes, telltale holes,
etc., in accordance with the relevant regulations.
1·2·2 Transient Conditions

Transient conditions may be repetitive, e.g. those occurring during starting
up and shutting down, or they may occur only once in the plant's lifetime, for
instance, emergency operation following an accident. In either case the
stresses induced in the pressure equipment may cause sufficiently large
deformations to jeopardize any further operation or they may even cause

rupture. Repetitive transient conditions also have to be considered when
examining the possibility of fatigue failure.
The designer will therefore require a detailed description of the anticipated
modes of operation, including rates of change of fluid temperature, number
and frequency of cycles, procedure for starting up and shutting down, etc.
In addition, similar information concerning possible emergency operations
must be obtained.
Structural and acoustic vibrations are especially important in piping
systems and they may cause flow pulsations leading to shock loading and
impairment of operation of the equipment, fatigue damage, etc. The designer
must ensure that all rotating machinery connected to the pressure system is
properly balanced and supported.
In mobile plant-marine boilers and nuclear reactors, for instance-
dynamic loading has to be considered. This is usually specified in terms of
equivalent static loads, equal to given factors of the weight of the unit and
acting in the vertical and horizontal directions. Land-based plant subjected
to earthquakes is treated in the same way.
1·2·3 Severity of Duty

In the design of some pressure vessels, safety is the primary consideration
and no effort is spared to achieve it. Such is the case, for instance, of nuclear
reactor vessels, due to the extreme gravity of any foreseeable accident. In
general, however, the design is a compromise between considerations of
economy and of safety. The possible risks of a given form of failure and its
gravity are balanced against the effort required for its prevention; the result-
ing design should achieve an adequate standard of safety at the minimum cost.
This consideration is, of course, common in the design of structures. It is
obvious that absolute assurance of safety can never be achieved for two
reasons. First, the actual form of loading during service may be more severe
than was anticipated at the design stage: abnormal, unpredictable loads do
sometimes occur during the structure's lifetime. The second reason is that
our knowledge is seldom adequate to provide a qualified answer to the
problem of fracture of materials, state of stress under certain conditions, etc.
It is true that although the fundamental mechanism of failure is not suffi-
ciently understood, it is possible to establish preventive measures based on
semi-empirical methods. When all the relevant preventive measures are
taken, the design will be as safe as it can be. It will also be expensive. For the
sake of economy, one or several of these measures may be left out, if it is
considered that a possible catastrophic failure will not endanger human lives.
At the same time, the costs involved in reducing the risks of failure must be
DESIGN PROCEDURE 13
weighed against the economic loss that would result if such a failure occurred.
Following the above philosophy, it is advisable, before going any further,
to classify the vessels according to the severity of their duty, since this affects
both the possibility of a failure and its gravity.
The possibility of failure depends directly on the severity of the duty for
which the vessel was designed. Vessels containing corrosive fluids at high
pressure and high or very low temperature, with a high density of openings
and bolted flanged closures, require more careful design than simple low
pressure containers. While some of the preventive measures incorporated in
the various design rules may be left out for the latter, they all will have to be
considered for the former.
The gravity of a failure is influenced by the energy released. Large vessels,
under high pressures, are obviously more dangerous than smaller vessels at
lower pressures. The fluid contained also determines the gravity; steam or gas
present a higher risk than non-volatile liquids. In addition, their toxicity
must be considered. The proximity of operating personnel is of great import-
ance, especially when the contents are toxic or at high temperature. Other
risks are the possibility of fire, damage to nearby equipment, cost of replacing
the vessel, necessity to shut down the plant while effecting the necessary
repairs, etc.
These considerations lead to a classification of the vessels ranging from
nuclear reactor vessels at one end of the scale to underground water tanks
at the other. The designer will use his discretion as to the position of his
particular design in the scale.
1·3 PRINCIPAL DESIGN CODES
The legal standing of various National Codes is shown in Table 1·1. It will
be appreciated that in most countries the National Codes have the force of
law and strict adherence to their rules is required. Even in those countries,
such as Britain, where the National Codes have no legal standing, their use
may be specified by the customers or the local authorities. Since very few
Codes are sufficiently complete, it is customary for additional requirements to
be specified from such generally accepted Codes as, say, the A.S.M.E.
The A.S.M.E. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is the best known and the
most widely used of the Codes listed in Table 1·1. This is due to the wealth
of experience on which it is based, to its completeness and to its breadth of
application. The AD-Merkbliitter are also based on considerable experi-
mental work, mainly on laboratory scale, and they achieve a substantial
economy of material. Unfortunately, they are not as complete and detailed
TABLE 1·1
PRINCIPAL NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CODES
Legal
Country Code Title Scope Writing Body Force
Australia Standards Association B., Standards Association Yes

of Australia Boiler U.F.P.V. of Australia
Code, Pts. 1-V
Austria Dampfkessel Verordnung B. Bundesministerium fiir Yes
(DKV) RGBI No. 83/ Handel und
1948 Wiederaufbau
Werkstoff und Bauvor- P.V.
schriften (WBV) RGBI
No. 264/1949
Canada C.S.A. Standard B51- B., Canadian Standards Yes
1957 incorporating U.F.P.V. Association, A.S.M.E.
A.S.M.E. Rules
Finland Dimensioning, Materials B., Yes
and Welding of Steel U.F.P.V.
Pressure Vessels
France SNCTNo.1 U.F.P.V. Syndicat Nat. de No
Chaudronnerie et Tolerie
Reglementation des Governmental Rules not strictly Yes
appareils a vapeur et a forming a Design Code
pression de gaz -
Germany Werkstoff und Bauvor- B. Technische Yes
schriften fiir Dampfkessel Uberwachungs
und Dampfkessel Vereine
Bestimmungen
AD-Merkbliitter U.F.P.V. Arbeitsgemeinschaft Yes
Druckbehiilter
DIN-2413 Pipes DIN Yes
Holland Grondslagen waarop de B., Dienst voor het Yes
beoordeling van de U.F.P.V. Stoomwezen
constructie en bet
material van stoom-
toestelen, damptoestelen
en druckhoudersberust
India Indian Boiler B. Central Boilers Board Yes
Regulations 1950
Italy Controllo della B., A.N.C.C. Yes
combustione e U.F.P.V.
Apparecchi a Pressione
New Zealand N.Z. Boiler Code B. Marine Dept. N.Z. Yes
N.Z. Pressure Vessel U.F.P.V.
Code
Sweden Tryckkarlsnormer B., P.V. Commission of No
U.F.P.V. Swedish Academy of
Angpanneformer B., Eng. Science
Pannsvetnormer B. Weld. Yes
Code
DESIGN PROCEDURE 15
TABLE 1-1 (continue([)
Legal
Country Code Title Scope Writing Body Force
Switzerland Regulations of the B., Yes

Swiss Association of U.F.P.V.
Boiler Proprietors
Britain Lloyd's Rules B., Lloyd's Register No

U.F.P.V. of Shipping
piping
Rules of the Associated B., AOTC
Offices Technical U.F.P.V.
Committee (AOTC)
B.S. 1500: 1958 Pt. I U.F.P.V. British Standards
B.S. 1515: 1965 Pt. I Institution
B.S. 1113 : 1958 B
B.S. 806: 1954 Pipes
B.S. 1306: 1955 (power)
B.S. 3351: 1961 Pipes (oil)
B.S. 2633: 1956 Pipe-lines
B.S. 2971: 1961
B.S. 2654: 1956 Pt. I Vertical
: 1962 Pt. II tanks
B.S. 3274: 1960 Heat
exchangers
B.S. 3915: 1965 Nuclear vessels
U.S.A. A.S.M.E. Codes: B., American Society of Yes (in

Pt. I -Boilers U.F.P.V. Mechanical Engineers some
Pt. II -Materials States)
Pt. III -Nuclear vessels
Pt. VIII-U.F.P.V.
Pt. IX -Welding
Tentative Structural U.F.P.V. U.S. Bureau of Ships No
Basis for Reactor (nuclear)
Pressure Vessels and
Directly Associated
Components
ASA-B31.1.8-63 Piping A.S.M.E. and ASA Yes (in
some
States)
API-A.S.M.E. (similar
to A.S.M.E. Codes)
TEMA, Tubular Heat Heat TEMA No
Exchangers
Manufacturers
Association, 1959
B-Boilers
U.F.P.V.-Unfired pressure vessels
as the A.S.M.E., and their rules are more complicated to apply. Of the British
Codes, B.S. 1500: 1958, Pt. I is clear, concise, has good breadth of applica-
tion and is also based on sound experience. Most European countries are at
present revising their National Codes, to bring them into line with the recom-
mendations of the International Standards Organization. Following this
trend, a revised edition of the B.S. 1500 using higher design stresses, B.S. 1515,
has been prepared.
The Design Codes previously quoted are typical of those currently avail-
able. Others, such as the Swedish and French Codes, have the same qualities
to a greater or lesser extent, but are not so widely used.
Of the various piping Codes, the ASA-B31 is the most widely known and
accepted. It is, in fact, the basis of the National Codes such as B.S. 3351.
It is not possible, nor indeed advisable, to repeat here what the various
Codes specify, since they are all readily available and their direct study is
far more profitable. However, some fundamental rules of typical Codes will
be discussed in the following chapters as a guide for the designer who is not
familiar with them. They may affect the establishment of the design require-
ments mainly in their specifications for safety devices and for pressure testing.
1·3·1 Safety Devices

It is customary for the pressure vessel designer to produce a specification
for the safety devices that protect all pressurized equipment against over-
pressure. The devices themselves are usually designed and manufactured by
an independent firm, and they are tested by the manufacturers in their works
and at site during the plant commissioning tests.
The design requirements for the safety valves and bursting discs used as
protective devices are as follows:
(a) Capacity. The capacity shall be sufficient to discharge the maximum
quantity of fluid generated or supplied without permitting a rise in pressure
of more than, say, 10%. Usually, the capacity of standard safety valves is
given in gallons of water per minute at 70 °F, pounds of saturated steam per
hour, or cubic feet of air at atmospheric temperature and pressure per minute.
The conversion of the fluid used is done in accordance with formulae quoted
in the manufacturer's catalogue or in Design Codes. For example, when the
valve is rated for steam, the A.S.M.E. Section VIII Code gives
W. = 51·5 KAP
where w. = rated capacity, lb/hr; K = actual flow/theoretical flow (co-
efficient of discharge); A = discharge area of the valve (in 2); and P = set
pressure plus atmospheric pressure (lbfin 2 ).
DESIGN PROCEDURE 17
The capacity for any gas is then

W = CKAP.j(M/T)
where C = function of ratio of specific heats, cPfcv of the gas considered
(356 for air); M = molecular weight of the gas considered; and T = absolute
temperature eF + 460).
(b) Pressure setting. Safety valves are generally set to open at a pressure
not exceeding the maximum operating pressure. When more than one valve
is fitted to a vessel, one may be set to open at the maximum operating pressure
and to discharge, say, 50% of the maximum amount of fluid generated and
the others may be set to open at slightly higher pressures. Bursting discs are
only used together with safety valves, as additional precautions.
(c) All connecting piping, discharge stacks, manifolds, etc., must be taken
into account since they reduce the overall coefficient of discharge, usually
quoted by the manufacturers for the isolated valve. In addition, induced
vibrations may cause malfunctioning of the valves.
1·3·2 Pressure Testing

In accordance with the requirements of all Design Codes, the vessels have to
undergo a pressure test prior to their acceptance. In some cases, pressure tests
at regular intervals during the vessel's lifetime are also specified. The test
pressure varies from 1·1 to 1· 5 times the Equivalent Design Pressure, defined
as,
allowable stress at test temperature x design pressure
E.D.P. = ------~~~----~~----------------
allowable stress at design temperature
The pressurizing fluid may be water or any other non-volatile liquid. The
designer will therefore have to take into account the additional stresses due
to the weight of the liquid. Special design features that would not otherwise
be required, such as additional supports or pads for temporary supports,
may then have to be included.
When the vessel cannot withstand safely the weight of any pressurizing
liquid--as is the case with large pressure vessels for gas-cooled nuclear
reactors--it is necessary to test it using compressed air. Due to the hazards
involved, very stringent safety precautions have to be taken during a pneu-
matic test and some inspecting authorities--T.U.V. in Germany, for instance
--specify in these cases a reduced test pressure. Included among the safe-
guards is the use of strain gauges or brittle lacquer in areas where high stresses
are anticipated. The strain gauge readings are constantly monitored during
the test, which is stopped if any abnormally high stresses are detected. Since
failure may occur in a brittle way at low stresses, this procedure does not
provide complete assurance against the possibility of failure. The correct

selection of material, stress relieving, absence of highly constrained regions
and the test temperature are all safeguards against brittle failure (see Chapter
13).
Whatever the value of the test pressure and the type of fluid specified, it is
generally accepted that gross yielding over a large area must not occur. This
criterion is used in the so-called 'proof tests' for those vessels having com-
ponent parts whose design is beyond the scope of the Codes. In this case, the
vessel is strain gauged or coated with brittle lacquer until yielding is detected.
The maximum allowable working pressure is then defined as a certain fraction
of that at which yielding occurs. Or, if the design pressure has already been
defined, a normal pressure test with particular emphasis on the detection of
any yield over those parts not covered by the Design Codes may be specified.
In either case, the use of a proof test for the determination or the acceptance
of the design pressure is of doubtful value, since the test conditions can never
imitate the actual operation of the vessel.
In addition to pressure tests, leak tests are sometimes specified. These
rarely have any bearing on the actual design.
2 Selection of Materials
2·0 INTRODUCTION
I turepresent-day
N practice, some vessels are required to operate at a tempera-
as high as 600 oc while others will be designed to work at -200 oc.
The design pressure may, in some cases, be as high as 20,000 lb/in 2 • Some
vessels will be designed to contain non-corrosive fluids, others will have to
withstand the corrosive effect of acids or alkalis. The type of service-i.e. life,
steady or cyclic loading, etc.,-may also vary considerably. For each set of
operating conditions, the pressure vessel material will be required to have
certain properties. For example, operation at very low temperatures requires
the use of notch-tough materials, while at high temperatures creep strength
is essential.
Apart from the mechanical properties and the corrosion resistance of the
material, considerations referring to the fabrication problems involved, the
commercial availability and the cost must obviously be included in the pro-
cess of selecting the most suitable and economical material for a given
purpose. The following information is usually required:
(1) Yield stress and U.T.S. at room temperature and at the design tem-
perature.
(2) Elongation and reduction of area, at fracture. When the bursting
strength has to be evaluated, a true stress/logarithmic strain curve for the
material is required. This is seldom if ever readily available and it is then
necessary to obtain this information from the material supplier.
(3) Notch toughness. Some of the tests proposed for the evaluation of the
notch toughness are reviewed in Chapter 13. Broadly speaking, their results
can only be considered to give a qualitative indication of the relative merits
of one material compared to another one. Charpy V transition curves deter-
mined in accordance with the energy and fracture appearance criteria are the
most widely accepted although, more often than not, the only available
information will be in the form of a specified minimum impact value at a
given temperature (see, for example, B.S. 1510: 1958). In general, only a
transition curve provides adequate information.
19
(4) Ageing and embrittlement under operating conditions.

(5) Corrosion resistance.
(6) Fabrication techniques (forming, cutting, welding, etc.). Effect of
fabrication on the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the
material.
(7) Commercial availability.
(8) Cost.
For special applications, the following additional information may be
required:
(9) Creep strength: for high temperature vessels. If possible, this informa-
tion should take the form of strain-time curves for several combinations of
stress and temperature. Stress relaxation data, obtained from tests at con-
stant strain and temperature, should also be included. Usually, the only
information available is in the form of: (a) the stress value to cause rupture
at the end of a specified time-100, 1000 or 10,000 hours-at the service
temperature, (b) the stress value to cause a specified permanent strain-
0·1 or 1%-at the end of the same time at the service temperature and
(c) the stress value to cause a steady creep rate of 10- 6 or 10- 7 in/in/hr at
the service temperature. See also Chapter 14.
(10) Fatigue strength: for cyclic loading and thermal shock. At present
only the endurance limit or the stress-to-rupture after, say, 106 cycles is
likely to be of interest to the designer. Data on high strain fatigue, if at all
available, should proceed from strain controlled tests. Information on thermal
shock resistance and the combined effect of creep and fatigue is unlikely to be
available for most materials.
(11) Physical properties: thermal conductivity, density, specific heat, etc.
(12) Hardness and resistance to wear.
(13) Behaviour under neutron irradiation.
The designer will find some of the information he requires in commercial
or National specifications. Other data, usually stated to be for information
purposes only and, therefore, not binding commercially, may be obtained
from the manufacturers. Useful sources of general information are Refs.
1, 2, 3, while the fabrication and welding aspects are treated in Ref. 4. De-
tailed information on the physical and mechanical properties of metal may
also be found in Ref. 5. The reader is also referred to those sources quoted
in Chapters 3, 12, 13 and 14. It is, however, essential for the designer to be
aware of the inadequacy of this information without the co-operation and
advice of experienced metallurgists. At an early stage of the design detailed
information concerning the material properties of special interest must be
sought from the manufacturer.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS 21
The materials generally used in pressure vessel construction may be

grouped as follows:
(a) Steel: carbon, low alloy, high alloy and clad with stainless steel or
other metals.
(b) Non-ferrous: aluminium, copper, nickel and their alloys.
(c) Special purpose metals: titanium, zirconium, etc.
(d) Non-metallic: plastic, concrete.
(e) Metallic and non-metallic protective coatings.
In this chapter will be reviewed those materials, included in the first two
groups, of special interest to the pressure vessel designer. The fabrication
techniques are considered to be outside the scope of this book and will not
be discussed here, although their importance must be emphasized. The
designer must not specify any material until he is satisfied that adequate
fabrication experience exists, that the fabrication problems are not unduly
severe and that the properties of the finished product will be at least as well
known as those of the material in the 'as received' condition. Finally, the
behaviour of the material under the service conditions must be well known.
2·1 STEEL
Steel is by far the most versatile and most widely used material of construction
in the pressure vessel industry. Basically an alloy of iron and carbon it can
be classified, depending on the proportion and importance of other alloying
elements, into carbon, low alloy and high alloy steel. A fourth category
includes low alloy or carbon steel clad with a relatively thin layer of high
alloy steel or other material.
The principal element in steel is iron, in two allotropic forms, one of which
has a body-centred cubic lattice and is known as ferrite. The other form has
a face-centred cubic lattice and is known as austenite. The carbon content in
pressure vessel steels is usually maintained below 0·3%.
In Britain, the majority of the steels used in the construction of boilers,
vessels, and piping systems is specified in accordance with a variety of
standards, some of the most generally used being the following:
B.S. 14 Marine boilers
B.S. 15 Mild steel for structural purposes (non-pressurized parts,
lugs, attachments, etc.)
B.S. 1501-6 Steels for chemical and petroleum industries
B.S. 1510 Low temperature requirements for notch-tough steels
B
B.S. 1633 Land boilers

B.S. 1822 Nickel clad steel plates
Some standards for steel tubes, covering in whole or in part the material
properties, dimensions and working stresses, are the following:
B.S. 806 Boiler piping
B.S. 1600 Dimensions of steel pipes for the petroleum industry
B.S. 1627-8 Heat exchangers and condensers
B.S. 3059 Boiler and superheater tubes
B.S. 3351 Piping systems for the petroleum industry
B.S. 3601-5 Pipes and tubes for pressure purposes
Steels of the En series (B.S. 970) are sometimes specified, especially for
forgings and bolting. The present trend is towards the use of B.S. 1501 and
the equivalent specifications (B.S. 1501-8, 1510) for most vessels, B.S. 1633
being used for boilers.
In the U.S.A., the bulk of the steel used in pressure vessel construction is
specified in accordance with the A.S.T.M. or the equivalent A.S.M.E.
standards. National standards, of general application, also exist in other
countries.
2·1·1 Carbon Steel

Mild steel is the cheapest and most commonly used amongst the pressure
vessel steels. Fundamentally an alloy of iron and less than 0·25% carbon, it
contains about 0·7% manganese, although low-carbon high-manganese steels
with up to 1·5% manganese are fairly common. Small amounts of phos-
phorus and sulphur, usually less than 0·05%, are also present. In some cases,
silicon and aluminium are added as part of the steelmaking process. Other
incidental alloying elements, introduced by the scrap used in manufacturing
the steel, are nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper, etc., but their effect
is negligible due to the small amounts involved.
Carbon steel with 0·4% carbon is used for bolts, studs and nuts.
Depending on the degree of de-oxidation, a steel may be rimmed, semi-
killed or killed. Rimmed steels are seldom used in pressure vessel construc-
tion, due to their lack of chemical homogeneity. Semi-killed steels correspond
to an intermediate de-oxidation stage between rimming and killing. They are
the cheapest steels that may be used for conventional, light duty service.
Almost all the plate used in pressure vessels up to 1 in thick for this type of
service is semi-killed. Fully de-oxidized, silicon killed steels are more homo-
geneous and 'cleaner'. They are more expensive and are used for thicker
vessels or, in all the thicknesses, for more severe duty. Aluminium is fre-
quently added as a grain refiner, to improve the notch toughness of the

material. The amount of aluminium added to the steel is usually limited to
8 oz per ton, to avoid a possible reduction in the high temperature strength.
Mild steel is generally used in the normalized condition, i.e. after a heat
treatment consisting of heating over the upper critical point-900-850 oc
depending on the carbon content-and cooling down in air. Alternatively,
the annealed condition may be approached by selecting the temperature and
cooling rate during rolling and forming. The material is then in the as rolled
condition. A stress relieving treatment is generally specified after welding (see
Chapter 3).
Typical mechanical properties of mild steel at room temperature are
26-32 ton/in 2 U.T.S., 13-15 ton/in 2 yield point and 20-40% elongation at
fracture measured on 5·65 -JA gauge length. Elastic constants and thermal
expansion coefficients for carbon and low alloy steels are tabulated in
Table 2·1. Typical physical properties are:
Specific weight, 0·29 lb/in 3

Specific heat, 0·118 ChuflbtC (50-100 oq
Thermal conductivity, 312 Chu/ft2/htC/in (100 oq
TABLE 2·1
PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL
(Based on Ref. 6)
Modulus of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Temperature Elasticity* Poisson's - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(0C) (106 lbfin 2 ) Ratio Mean (l0- 6 in/inrC) Integrated (in/100ft)
21 27·9-29·9 0·29
200 27·0--28·6 0·29 12·3 2·64
300 26·0--27·6 0·30 12·9 4·32
400 24·1-26·1 0·30 13·6 6·16
500 17·5-24·0 0·30 14·2 8·16
600 13·0--19·9 0·31 14·6 10·17
* Note. The lower values correspond to low carbon steel. The higher values correspond
to high-carbon and low-alloy steels.
The mechanical properties at room temperature and the specified Charpy V

impact tests for several steels to B.S. 1501 (plates, sections and bars) are
listed in Table 2·2, together with the equivalent American specification.
Similar steels are available as forgings (B.S. 1503), castings (B.S. 1504) and
bars for bolting material (B.S. 1506). Two carbon steels used for bolting are
also included in the table.
TABLE 2·2
ROOM TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFIED CHARPY V
TESTS OF SEVERAL STANDARD CARBON STEELS
(From B.S. 1501-1506: 1958 and B.S. 1510: 1958)
British Equivalent U.T.S. Yield Charpy V Impact

Specification A.S.M.E. (tanfin 2 ) Stress Test
(B.S.) (SA) Min.
(tan/in 2 )
1501-101 283 c
113 A-D 26-32
7
1501-151 A 24-28 12
B 285 B-C 26-30 13-5
c 28-32 15
Low temperature LT 0 15ft lb at 0 oc
LT 15 15ft lb at -15 oc
1501-159 C1 28-33·5 15
C2 28-33·5 16
1501-161 A 210 A 24-28 12
B 210B 26-30 13·5
c 212 A 28-32 15
Low temperature LT 30 15ft lb at -30 oc
1506-111 306 28-33 15
Low temperature LT 0 15ft lb at 0 oc
1506-162 216 45-55 22
Note. Type 1501-161 LT50 replaced by 1501-224 (see B.S. 1501: 1964).
Type 101 is a mild, tank quality, steel, used for structural purposes, light
service tanks, supports, brackets in relatively thin sections. The maximum
thickness of pressurized tanks constructed with this steel is limited to i in.
It has poor impact properties and should not be used at temperatures below
0 oc. The maximum service temperature should be limited to about 250 °C.
Type 151 is a boiler quality mild steel, used for light and medium duty at
temperatures as high as 400 °C. For a particular steel, manufactured to this
specification, it is advisable to obtain the relevant information on the mechani-
cal properties at elevated temperature from the manufacturer.* It can be used
in stress relieved vessels, at temperatures above -50 oc when the shell
thickness does not exceed -!in. For larger thicknesses, below 2 in, the use of
the special impact tested grades LT 0 or LT 15 is recommended. With the
* Note: The latest edition of B.S. 1501: 1964 (Plates) contains information on specified
values of the mechanical properties of various types of steel at elevated temperature.
former the minimum service temperature, as specified by B.S. 1500, is -20 oc

and with the latter it is - 35 °C. Stress relieving is advisable, even when it is
not specified by the Codes.
A recent addition to the B.S. 1501 range of steels is the semi-killed or
killed type 159, with minimum specified values ofthe proof stress at elevated
temperatures. In this steel, the carbon content is limited to 0·28%, the maxi-
mum silicon content is 0·35% and there is between 0·55 and 1·20% of man-
ganese. The yield stress at elevated temperatures is given in Table 2·3, repro-
duced from 'Supplement No.1 (1962) to B.S. 1501-6: 1958'. These properties
may be considered to be typical for types 159 and 161.
TABLE 2·3
0·2% PROOF STRESS OF B.S. 1501-159 STEEL
Grade Min. (ton/in 2 ) at temperature ("C) of

250 300 350 400
C1 11·2 10·1 9·3 8·7

C2 13·0 11·5 10·2 9·3
Type 161 is a silicon killed, boiler quality mild steel used for high duty
vessels. It is the most homogeneous and free from segregations of all four
types and can be used in low temperature vessels down to about -60 oc,
in thickness below ! in in stress relieved vessels. For thicknesses of 2 in,
grade LT 30 can be used at -50 oc in stress relieved vessels. The carbon con-
tent is less than 0·25%, the maximum aluminium addition is limited to 8 oz
per ton.
Of the carbon steels for bolting, types 111 and 162 are the most common.
Type 111 is a low carbon steel used for light duty bolting, while type 162 is a
high tensile steel with a maximum carbon content of 0·6%, available in two
conditions, normalized (condition R) and quenched and tempered (condition
TX). Only type 111 should be used at low temperatures, down to -20 °C.
Low carbon-high manganese steels may have up to 0·23% carbon and
1·2-1·7% manganese. Their U.T.S. may be as high as 41 tonjin 2 with a yield
stress of up to 19 tonjin 2 • B.S. 1501 and 03/221 covers such steels in the form
of plates, sections and forgings. An equivalent American specification is
A.S.M.E.-SA 212B. Typical properties for a commercially available steel of
this type are shown in Table 2·4 (Ref. 7).
Mainly in order to meet the requirements of the nuclear power industry,
a number of carbon-manganese steels with a high notch toughness have been
developed and are commercially available. Their carbon content is usually
below 0·15%, with about 1-2% manganese. In general, they are silicon killed
TABLE 2·4
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON-MANGANESE STEEL TO
B.S. 1503/221
Temperature CC)
20 200 250 300 350
U.T.S. (ton/in 2 ) 31·7 35·7 37·2 36·6 35·3

0·2% Proof stress
(ton/in 2 ) 17* /14·8 14·5 13·5 13-4 13·5
R. of A.% 51·6 32·0 25·1 26·3 30·8
* Note. Yield point at room temperature. The Charpy V 50% crystallinity transition
temperature is about 30 oc, the steel would not be suitable for operation below 0 oc.
Equivalent steel, in thin (tin) plate form, however, could still be used at sub-zero tempera-
ture in the stress relieved condition.
and grain refined with aluminium. These steels are excellent for the site
fabrication of large pressure vessels designed to operate below 350 oc. Their
creep properties are poor, and vary considerably with the steelmaking process
and the addition, in small quantities, of other alloying elements. Thus, the
stress to cause 0·2% creep strain in 200,000 h varies from 3·5 tonjin 2 for
aluminium grain refined steel with an aluminium addition of 2 lb/ton, to
7·0 tonjin 2 for silicon killed steel with 4-8 ozjton of aluminium (Ref. 8).
A Charpy V 50% crystallinity transition temperature of the order of -75 oc
may be achieved with grain refined steels, a higher transition temperature cor-
responding to the silicon killed steels without the addition of aluminium.
Typical mechanical properties are shown in Table 2·5 (Ref. 8). The reduction
of area at fracture for both steels is about 70%.
TABLE 2·5
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NOTCH-TOUGH
CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS
Temperature Silicon killed Steel Silicon killed Steel,

CC) 4-8 ozfton Aluminium 2 lbfton Aluminium
U.T.S. 0·2% Proof U.T.S. 0·2% Proof
(ton/in 2 ) (ton/in 2 ) (tonfin 2 ) (ton/in 2 )
20 28·9 17·6* 26·5 15·5

200 24·5 13·6 23·0 l1·8
300 25·8 12·5 24·5 9·8
350 27·1 12·5 24·5 9·6
400 25·7 11·8 23·0 9·5
* Note. Yield point.

Coltuf 28, manufactured by Colvilles, is a good example of these steels. Its

creep strength has been improved with a small addition of molybdenum, to
give 0·2% strain in 200,000 h at 7 tonfin 2 and 420 oc (Ref. 9). The Charpy V
50% crystallinity transition temperature is -20 °C. At present these steels are
covered by B.S. 1501-224.
Mild steel is readily attacked by most fluids and atmospheric environ-
ments. In out-of-doors vessels and structures, the steel must be covered with
a protective paint which is renewed when required. For best results the steel
surface is cleaned, pickled with phosphoric acid or shot blasted before paint-
ing. Soil corrosion of pipelines is avoided by covering the steel with a thick
coating of bituminous paint.
The corrosion of mild steel by water can have serious consequences in
chemical works and power stations. The severity of the corrosion depends on
the amount of dissolved oxygen and the water pH, mild steel being less
attacked by de-aerated, alkaline waters. Water treatment with caustic soda
or lithium hydroxide to a pH of 8-9 is often practised. In addition, the water
purity is controlled by means of filters and ion-exchange columns. Corrosion
inhibitors, organic and inorganic, are also added. Highly alkaline waters
cause the so-called caustic embrittlement, or caustic cracking, common in
riveted construction but also possible in welded vessels which are not stress
relieved.
In chemical plant, mild steel can be used in the handling of sulphuric acid,
in concentrations from 70 to 78%; of hydrofluoric acid in concentrations
above 70% ; of nitric acid at room temperature and concentrations above
70% and at higher concentrations up to approximately 80 oc. Organic
solvents, carbon disulphide and carbon tetrachloride, ammonia, hydrogen
and hydrochloric acid are several of the substances that can safely be handled,
provided that the service pressure and temperature are not excessive (see
Ref. 1).
The corrosion resistance of a mild steel vessel depends to a large extent
on the cleanliness and homogeneity of the steel and on the fabrication process.
Local inhomogeneities such as slag inclusions, local variations of the chemical
composition, etc., have the effect of electrolytic cells, causing electro-chemical
corrosion. Cold working and the existence of high residual stresses also
increase the corrosion rate of steel and, therefore, a stress relieving heat
treatment is advisable after cold forming or welding operations.
2-1-2 Low Alloy Steels
In the low alloy steels that will be considered now, the carbon content is
usually of the order of 0·15%, the manganese content is about 1·0% and the
silicon content varies around 0·3%. Higher carbon steels with a carbon
content of 0·4% are used for bolting. The phosphorus and sulphur contents
are always kept below 0·05%. Special properties are conferred on these steels
by the presence of either one or several other alloying elements, the most
common being chromium, nickel and molybdenum in amounts below 10%.
In general, chromium and molybdenum improve the mechanical properties,
especially at high temperatures, and the corrosion resistance and nickel
increases the notch toughness at very low temperatures.
The elastic constants and coefficients of thermal expansion of low alloy
steels are shown in Table 2·1. The coefficients of thermal expansion of
chromium-molybdenum steels with a chromium content above 3% are
approximately 5% lower than those shown in Table 2·1.
TABLE 2·6
ROOM TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFIED CHARPY V
TEsTs oF SEVERAL Low ALLOY STEELS
(Extracted from relevant British and American specifications)
Type of British Equivalent U.T.S. Yield Charpy V

Steel Specification A.S.M.E. tonfin 2 Stress Impact Test
(B.S.) (SA) ton/in 2
(Min)
tMo 1501-240 204A, B, C 27-33 14

1503-240 A, B 182 F1 26-33 13-18
1504-240 217 WC1 30 16
3!Ni 1501-503 203 D 29 16·5
1503-503 350 LF3 31 18
1504-503 352 LC3 29 17·5
LTlOO 10 lb ft at -100 oc
1Cr-tMo 1503-620 182 F12 31 18
2!Cr-1Mo 1503-622 31 18
1504-622 31 18
3Cr-tMo 1503-623 38--48 28
1504-623 40-50 24
LTlOO 10 lb ft at -100 oc
5Cr-!Mo 1501-625 357 27 14
1503-625 182 F5a 40 29
1504-625 217 C5 40 27
1Cr-Mo 1506-621 A, B 193 B7 45-65 34-52
(Bolting) LT 30 Depending on 15lb ft at -30 oc
LT 50 Grade and Heat 15lb ft at -50 oc
LT 100 Treatment 10 lb ft at -100 oc
1Cr-Mo-V 1506-661 193 B14 55 47
(Bolting)
Table 2·6 lists some representative types of standard low alloy steels as
specified by B.S. 1501 (plates, forgings and sections), B.S. 1503 (forgings),
B.S. 1504 (castings) and B.S. 1506 (bolting material), the equivalent American
specifications, the room temperature U.T.S. and yield stress, and the required
low temperature impact test. Equivalent steels are also specified by the various
British Standards for pipes and tubes. Typical creep properties are listed in
Table 2·7.
TABLE 2·7
TYPICAL CREEP STRENGTH OF SoME Low ALLOY STEELS
(Refs. 10, 11) Stress to rupture in 10,000 h (ton/in 2 )
Steel 450 oc 500 oc 550 oc 600 °C
1Cr-!Mo 25 15 7
2!Cr-1Mo 16 8 4
3Cr-!Mo 14 6
The first example of a low alloy steel, with high creep resistance in the
range 450-500 oc, is the!% molybdenum steel which was originally developed
for high temperature steam plants, where it has found wide application. This
steel has also been used in petroleum cracking furnaces, at temperatures
between 500 and 550 °C. However, as a result of reported failures, in this
country and in America, it is now being replaced for high temperature service
by chromium-molybdenum steels, with chromium contents of !--5% and
molybdenum contents of !--1%.
Steels with!, 1, 2-!-, 3 and 5% chromium are commercially available, and
are covered by B.S.I. specifications. These steels have better corrosion resist-
ance than ordinary mild steel and they are used for high temperature service,
under mildly corrosive conditions. They are of special interest in coal hydro-
genation processes and in the synthesis of anhydrous ammonia. These pro-
cesses involve pressures of the order of 10,000 lb/in 2 and temperatures as
high as 500 oc. For this type of service, high tensile, creep resistant steels are
essential. In addition, the material must have good hydrogen resistance: it is
known that hydrogen attacks the steel, causing embrittlement and cracking.
The severity of the attack, for a given steel, depends on the temperature, the
pressure and the exposure time. At 10,000 lb/in 2 , mild steel is rapidly attacked
at a temperature of about 200 °C. The addition of carbide-forming alloying
elements, and especially of chromium, increases the resistance of the steel to
hydrogen attack.
As in the case of carbon steel, the mechanical properties of the chromium-
molybdenum steels depend to a large extent on the steelmaking process, the
B*
conditions of fabrication and the heat treatment. Detailed information con-

cerning the properties and the suitability for a given application of each
particular commercially available steel should therefore be obtained from the
steelmaker, at a very early stage in the design. As a guide for the preliminary
selection of material, typical properties of these steels will be reviewed.
;:;-..
--
~
·==
' - 20
...,
[lJ
~
0~--~~--~----~----~----~--~
Temperature ("C)
FIG. 2·1 Short time tensile properties of lCr-!Mo Steel
(based on Refs. 10, 11).
Figure 2·1 shows the variation of U.T.S., proof stress and reduction of area
at fracture for a lCr-tMo steel, in the annealed condition and in the nor-
malized condition. The former heat treatment gives the best overall pro-
perties. Average creep properties are shown in Table 2·7. This steel is used
for pressure vessels, steam and superheater tubes and piping systems designed
to operate at temperatures below 500 oc.
The U.T.S., proof stress and reduction of area at fracture for a 2!Cr-1Mo
steel are shown in Fig. 2·2, while the creep properties are included in Table
2·7. This type of steel has been used at a temperature of 590 °C. Similar
information is contained in Figs. 2·3 and 2·4 and Table 2·7 for the types
3Cr-!Mo and 5Cr-!Mo, of better corrosion resistance than the steels pre-
viously quoted. None of these steels is suitable for operation at sub-zero
temperatures.
40
--- ~----
--
t'---. Normalised and
f'-.....
4/'4 -
f---- at 20°C tempered
30
Annealed r---.::- ~~T.S. ~,
"'·
N
;;-.
.!:;
~
-...::
~ 20
'-
I '
~ o· 1% Proof stress\
ti -r'---
10
80
I I I. .-
<:!
Normalised and tempered~/ ~
-.:"
/
"-
70
~
..,; Annealed
"'
ct;
60 /
~
...--- /
/00 200 300 400 500 600

Temperature (°C)
FIG. 2·2 Short-time tensile properties of2!Cr-1Mo steel (based on Ref. 11).
High-duty bolting material is generally medium carbon, lCr-Mo steel

without or with vanadium. A typical steel of the former type corresponds to
the specification B.S. 1506-621. The LT 50 and LT 100 grades of this steel
are suitable for service at temperatures above -50 oc and -100 oc respec-
tively. After quenching and tempering treatment, the following mechanical
properties are achieved (Ref. 10):
U.T.S. at room temperature, 48 tonjin 2

0·1% Proof stress, 37 ton/in 2
Reduction of area, 64·5%,
and at 550 oc:
U.T.S., 40 tonjin 2
0·1% Proof stress, 22 ton/in 2
Reduction of area, 75%.
;:"
.s
.......
c:
~ 30
'-
!:!
~
~
20:
10
...
~
~
~
80
70
---- l..---""'
..,.,.,
...
"l:i
1:1::;
60
~
50
20 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature tC)
FIG. 2·3 Short-time tensile properties of quenched and tempered 3Cr-!Mo
steel (based on Ref. 10).
The creep strength of this material is inferior to that of the equivalent, low
carbon 1Cr-Mo steel. The maximum service temperature suggested is 500 °C.
For temperatures above 450 oc, the use of 1Cr-Mo-V bolts becomes
desirable, in spite of the very poor notch toughness of this steel. An

alternative is steel to En-24.
The 3!% nickel steel to B.S. 1501-503 and equivalent has been developed
40
..........
--
.=;
30
- r---~
"'
~
~ 20 ~
-
'-
~
~
(I) o·os% Proof stress
10
r---- r---
0
80
1--
/
v
50
20 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature (°C)
FIG. 2·4 Short-time tensile properties of 5Cr-!Mo steel in the annealed
condition (based on Ref. 11).
for the fabrication of pressure vessels for low temperature service. The LT 100
grade may be used at temperatures above -100 oc. A 9% nickel steel, for
similar service, is used in the U.S.A. at temperatures above -190 oc; some
successful experiments having been reported with liquid-gas tanks made of
this steel and not stress relieved. References 12, 13 and 14 may be consulted
for detailed information.
Several types of low alloy steel of high yield-point U.T.S. ratio, high notch
toughness and good creep resistance are now available as plates and forgings.
These steels are readily weldable, even under site conditions. Although they
are more expensive than ordinary carbon steel, their improved properties
permit the use of higher design stresses and result in a considerable saving in
material. In Britain, high tensile low alloy steels of this type have been
developed by Colvilles, Consett, English Steel Corporation, United Steels, etc.
One of the most representative steels ofthis class is manufactured by Colvilles,
under the trade name of 'Ducol W 30'. The notch ductility of this steel is
comparable to that of mild steel. The U.T.S. and 0·2% proof stress at room
temperature, are respectively approximately equal to 35 and 25 tonfin 2 with
a reduction of area at fracture of about 60% (Ref. 9). At elevated tempera-
tures, the minimum 0·2% proof stress is:
350 °C-19 ton/in 2 ; 400 °C-17 ton/in 2 ; 450 °C-16 ton/in 2 •
Mackenzie (9) recommends a maximum service temperature of 450 °C. This
steel has in fact a slightly lower creep strength than the low alloy steels of
Table 2·7, being more ductile.
In the U.S.A., the general trend is to use high tensile steels of the SA 212 B
(high tensile carbon steel), SA 302 B (high tensile carbon manganese) and
special steels such as a Cr-Ni-Mo low alloy steel known as HY-80. Other
steels with a high yield stress, good ductility and readily weldable are con-
tinually being developed. Wessel and Hays (15), for instance, report the
results of investigations into the notch toughness of five steels with a yield
stress in the range 36-54 tonfin 2 , suitable for the fabrication and welding of
thick (4 in) vessels. The more conventional SA 212 Band SA 302 B steels are
used for the construction of thick-walled pressure vessels for the nuclear
industry in the quenched and tempered condition, in order to meet the speci-
fied notch toughness and U.T.S. requirements. In this process, the whole
vessel has to be uniformly heated to a temperature of about 900 oc, quenched
in water and subsequently tempered at about 700 oc. The overall size of the
vessel is therefore restricted to the maximum capacity of the furnaces and
quenching rigs available in the works. In spite of the practical difficulties
involved, especially for large vessels, the advantages of using quenched and
tempered steel are considerable. The yield stress and the U.T.S. are con-
siderably higher than for the untreated steel, thus allowing a significant
reduction in the required thickness. Moreover this is achieved without any
loss in ductility. As an example by quenching and tempering a steel similar
to Ducol W 30, the U.T.S. and 0·2% proof stress at room temperature are
increased respectively to 38 ton/in 2 and 30 ton/in 2 • At elevated temperatures,
the minimum 0·2% proof stress is
350 °C-26 ton/in 2 ; 400 °C-25 tonfin 2 ; 450 °C-24 tonfin 2 •
The creep strength is slightly improved and the transition temperature
(Robertson test) is of -20 oc while it is - 5 oc for the untreated steel. A

thorough discussion on the use of quenched and tempered steel has been
published by Lorentz (16).
It is most important to emphasize that low alloy steels, developed for high
temperature application, have a lower elongation to rupture than ordinary
mild steels. This means that cracks may initiate during the pressure test at
those points where there are high, localized stresses. The designer must
ensure that the maximum stresses in low alloy pressure vessels do not
significantly exceed the yield point during the pressure test.
2·1·3 High Alloy Steels
High alloy steels are used in the power industries, and in nuclear and chemical
installations, when it is necessary to have a corrosion resistant material and
whenever contamination to the fluid by dissolved corrosion products or by
the material itself has to be avoided. This is the case in the manufacture of
high purity chemicals and in water-cooled reactors, where small amounts of
dissolved iron or corrosion products in the water increase its radiolytic
decomposition and lead to accelerated corrosion. In the power industry the
main requirement is that of corrosion resistance and creep strength at very
high temperatures.
High alloy steels are of two types: straight chromium steels, with chromium
contents ranging from 13 to 17% and chromium-nickel austenitic steels, with
chromium contents between 18 and 25% and nickel contents between 8 and
20%. The carbon content varies from 0·04 to 0·25% for the different steels.
The fundamental element is still iron in its two allotropic forms. Under
average conditions, ferrite exists only at low temperatures, austenite and
ferrite are present above 700 oc and austenite (with carbon in solid solution)
exists above 910 octo 850 oc, for low carbon steels, depending on the carbon
content. The addition of chromium has the effect of stabilizing the ferrite.
A ferritic, straight chromium steel is covered by B.S. 1501-6 type 713 and is
equivalent to the American steel A.S.T.M. type 240. Its maximum carbon
content is 0·08% for plates, 0·21% for forgings, 0·20% for castings and
0·15% for bolting. Only the varieties with a carbon content higher than 0·1%
are hardenable by heat treatment. Austenitic steels have both chromium and
nickel as alloying elements. The combined effect of these two elements being
to slow down the allotropic transformations, nickel having the effect of
stabilizing the austenite. When the nickel content is below 7%, austenite is
present in the steel at room temperature, in a metastable form. The structure
becomes ferritic under cold work. Above 14% nickel, the austenitic structure
is stable at room temperature. The most common austenitic steel, with 18%
chromium, 8% nickel and 0·08% or 0·03% carbon (B.S. 1501 type 801 or
A.S.T.M. type 304), is austenitic at room temperature.
Apart from the effects on the steel structure, chromium increases the
corrosion resistance due to the formation of a very thin and tenacious film,
firmly adhered to the surface of the metal. This film resists attack by most
chemical reagents. Nickel improves the corrosion resistance, increasing the
range of fluids that can be handled by these steels with a chromium content
below 22%.
When austenitic steels are held at temperatures above 250 oc for a suffi-
ciently long time, there is a tendency for chromium carbide to precipitate at
the austenite grain boundaries. This phenomenon is especially marked in
the regions adjacent to the welds, at temperatures in the range 500-850 °C.
In these regions, the precipitation of chromium carbide causes a reduction
of the effective chromium content and a weakening in the corrosion resistance
of the steel. When the fluid is sufficiently corrosive, intergranular corrosion
known as weld decay takes place. Weld decay may be prevented by a post-
weld heat treatment, consisting of heating up the whole unit to about 1050 oc
followed by a rapid cooling. This, however, may prove to be just sufficient
to delay the precipitation of chromium carbides. A better method is the
addition of niobium or titanium to the steel. These two elements have a
strong affinity for carbon and their carbides tend to form in preference to
chromium carbide. Steels with a titanium content higher than four times
the carbon content, or with a niobium content higher than ten times the
carbon contents, are known as stabilized. Weld decay can also be prevented
by the use of steels with a very low carbon content, as low as 0·03% being
required for complete safety.
The ductility of stainless steels and their resistance to corrosion can be
reduced by the formation of the sigma phase, which is hard and brittle and
exists in addition to the normal phases ferrite, austenite and carbide. The
factors influencing the formation of the sigma phase are the presence of
ferrite, prior cold working and the chemical composition of the steel. The
sigma phase forms fairly slowly at temperatures in the range 550-900 °C.
The choice of a chemical composition which will have a stable austenitic
structure is therefore essential to maintain the original ductility.
The notch toughness of straight chromium steels is poor. Austenitic
chromium-nickel steels on the other hand have excellent notch toughness,
and may be used for very low temperature service, down to -190 °C. The
elastic constants and thermal expansion coefficients of straight chromium
and austenitic steels are shown in Table 2·8. The specific weight is 0·29lb/in 3 ,
specific heat 0·12 Chu/lbrc (from 0 to 100 oq and the thermal conductivity
may be taken to be 108 Chu/ft 2 /hrCfin at 100 oc and 116 at 500 oc for aus-
tenitic steels.
TABLE 2·8
ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENTS
OF STAINLESS STEELS
(Based on Ref. 6)
Temperature Modulus of Poisson's Coefficients of Thermal Expansion

CC) Elasticity Ratio Mean Integrated
(10 6 lb/in 2 ) (I0- 6 in/intC) (in/100ft)
* ** * ** * ** * **
21 27-4 29·2 0·29 0·28
200 26·4 27·7 0·30 0·28 17-3 10·45 3·72 2·24
300 25-4 26·3 0·31 0·28 17-65 10·9 5-80 3-65
400 24·6 24·0 0·32 0·29 17·95 11·4 8·16 5·18
500 23·2 20·3 0·32 0·29 18-4 11·8 10·55 6·76
600 21·8 15-3 0·32 0·30 18·7 12·1 13·0 8·4
700 19·5 0·33 19·0 15·5
750 18·0 0·33 19·1 16·7
Note. * refers to stainless steel (Cr < 25% and Ni< 20 %).
** refers to straight chromium steel.
TABLE 2·9
ROOM TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SEVERAL STANDARD
STAINLESS STEELS
(Extracted from the relevant specification)
British Equivalent Denomination Min. Min.

Specification A.S.M.E. U.T.S. Yield
(B.S.) (SA) (tonfin 2 ) Stress
(ton/in 2 )
1501-713 240-410S 13 % chromium steel 27 12·0

1501-801 B 167-3-304 18Cr-8Ni Austenitic: 35 13·5
0·08%C
1501-801 c and-LC 18Cr-8Ni Austenitic: 33 13·0
0·03%C
1501-821 Ti 167-5-321 18Cr-8Ni Austenitic: 35 13·5
Ti stabilized
1501-821 Nb 167-6-347 18Cr-18Ni Austenitic: 35 13-5
Nb stabilized
1501-845 B 167-11-316 18Cr-10Ni-2!Mo Austenitic 35 13·5
1501-845 Ti 18Cr-10Ni-2!Mo 35 13·5
Austenitic: Ti Stabilized
1501-846 18Cr-11Ni-3!Mo Austenitic 35 13·5
Note. Types 801, 821, 845, suitable for low temperature service. Additional
requirement (B.S. 1510: 1958), 15 lb ft Charpy V impact at -190 oc.
Table 2·9 lists the stainless steels covered by B.S. 1501 (plates, sections
and bars). Similar specifications exist for forgings, castings, bars for bolting,
tubes and pipes (see B.S. 1501-6, 1507-8, 3605).
The U.T.S. and yield stress at elevated temperatures of some stainless
steels are shown in Fig. 2·5. The minimum Charpy V impact value of the
austenitic steels is well over 40 lb ft at - 200 oc. The best creep properties
correspond to the 18Cr-10Ni-2tMo steel, stabilized with titanium. For this
steel, the stress to produce 10- 7 in/in/hr strain rate at 600 °Cis about 7ton/in 2 ,
while at 700 oc it drops to 2·5 ton/in 2 (Ref. 10). The corresponding stresses
to produce rupture after 10,000 hr are 13 and 5 ton/in 2 • The creep properties
of unstabilized 18Cr-8Ni steel are only slightly better than those of low alloy
steels (see Table 2·7).
~~=---------~----~----~----~----~----~
OL-----L-----~----~-----L-----L----~----~
20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature (°C)
FIG. 2·5 Short-time tensile properties of high alloy steels (based on Refs. 1,
2, 7, 17).
Curves 1 & 2, U.T.S. and 0·1% proof stress of 13Cr steel
3& 4, , 18Cr-8Ni steel
5& 6, , 18Cr-10Ni-2tMo Steel
7& 8, , 18Cr-8Ni low carbon steel
Austenitic steels are used for pressure parts and as linings whenever it is
necessary to use materials with high corrosion resistance, creep strength,
notch toughness and when contamination of the contained fluid is not per-
missible. In general, the austenitic stabilized steel types 18Cr-8Ni-low
carbon or stabilized-are used in welded construction for relatively low
temperature service and 18Cr-10Ni-Mo are used for their high creep strength
in the power industry.
Other types of stainless steel, with higher chromium and nickel contents
have been used for highly corrosive conditions. In the petroleum industry,
18Cr-8Ni steels are usually specified as having good corrosive resistance up
to about 800 oc. Above this temperature, up to about 1100 oc, 25Cr-12Ni
or 25Cr-20Ni steel are generally selected (see Ref. 1). In addition, several
types of austenitic Cr-Ni-Mo steels, with vanadium and other alloying ele-
ments have been developed for high temperature service due to their good sta-
bility, corrosion resistance and creep strength (see, for example, Refs. 11, 17).
Straight chromium steels are used in chemical plant, usually for non-
pressurized components.
The satisfactory service of high alloy steel structures can only be achieved
when the correct manufacturing procedure is followed. Questions such as
weld preparations, pre-weld and post-weld heat treatment, have a direct
bearing on the corrosion resistance and on the resistance to embrittlement
during operation. A high alloy vessel designed without the advice of a
competent metallurgist and manufactured by an inexperienced team is more
likely to fail in service than a mild steel vessel designed and built under
similar circumstances. It is also true to say that high alloy vessels are mainly
built for very severe duty, under operating conditions that could not be
achieved before the development of these materials. Such vessels can only be
designed and built on the basis of theoretical considerations and laboratory
experiments. The designer must then be aware of the risk involved in extra-
polating this limited knowledge, as revealed by the numerous reported
failures of superheater tubes and other steam plant components (Refs. 18,
19, 20, 21).
2-1-4 Clad Steels

Carbon or low alloy steel vessels, clad with an internal layer of a corrosion
resistant material, are frequently used for handling corrosive fluids or when
contamination of the contained fluid has to be minimized. The materials
most frequently used for cladding are stainless steels of the 18Cr-8Ni type,
13% chromium steels, nickel and nickel alloys.
Clad steel plates, fabricated by rolling together plates of carbon or low
alloy steel and of the cladding, are commercially available in a variety of
thicknesses and materials. Specific information may be obtained from the
steel manufacturers. Other methods for the production of clad steel plates
involve the casting of the cladding or the backing materials. Vessels and
vessel parts are also clad by the deposition (usually automatic) of overlapping
beads of weld metal.
The mechanical properties of the clad steel plate are the same as those of
the backing steel. At the same time, the corrosion resistance is equal to that
of the cladding material, provided that adequate care is taken in obtaining
a homogeneous and sound cladding of a sufficient thickness, usually 10-20%
of the total thickness or !---& in. Whenever possible, dye penetrating testing
or magnetic crack detection of the cladding are essential. Alternatively,

ultrasonic testing may be considered advisable. The possibility of high-strain
fatigue failure, taking the form of cracking of the cladding is of some import-
ance. Due to the different coefficients of thermal expansion of the two
materials that constitute the clad steel plate, thermal stresses of variable
magnitude will be present throughout the different load and temperature
cycles experienced in operation. High strain fatigue then becomes a possi-
bility. However, no such failure in properly designed and constructed vessels
has been recorded.
The joint preparations for welding clad steels are similar to those discussed
in Chapter 3. The most common procedure is to weld the backing side first,
chipping or grinding the clad side of the joint down to clean, sound metal
afterwards. The clad side is then welded with an appropriate electrode (see
Ref. 4).
Cladding by weld deposition is the only practicable method for forged
components such as nozzles and flanges. It is also the only method that
ensures good adherence between cladding and backing in plates when the
total thickness required is above 2 in. In this case, the weld deposition may
be made before or after forming the plate into the required shape. After the
deposition of the cladding, it is ground or machined to the specified surface
finish.
2·2 NON-FERROUS METALS
Non-ferrous metals are frequently used for special applications in the

chemical industry, the most common materials being aluminium, copper,
nickel and their alloys. Platinum, silver and lead are used either alone or in
the form of liners. In addition, titanium, zirconium, niobium and other so-
called 'new-metals' find increasing application.
2·2·1 Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys

The use of aluminium and aluminium alloys in chemical plant results from
the following considerations:
(a) Aluminium and aluminium alloys are readily available and relatively
inexpensive.
(b) Although the mechanical properties of the pure metal are poor, some
aluminium alloys have been developed with mechanical properties com-
parable to those of mild steel. The fabrication problems presented by these
alloys are not serious.
(c) All aluminium alloys retain their ductility at sub-zero temperatures.

They are therefore of special interest for the construction of liquid-gas
containers, etc., operating at temperatures of the order of -200 °C.
(d) In the presence of oxygen or an oxidizing reagent a thin, tenacious film
of aluminium oxide protects the material from any further attack. This
oxide film is sometimes artificially formed by anodizing, giving additional
protection against corrosion in the pH range of 4-9. When the pH value is
outside this range the oxide film is dissolved and rapid deterioration results.
The addition of impurities or alloying elements reduces the corrosion resist-
ance of pure aluminium, but this reduction is not too severe in the case of
magnesium, manganese or silicon.
Besides their application for the construction of low temperature vessels,
aluminium and aluminium alloys are used for handling most organic solvents,
foodstuffs, hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, sea water and inorganic salts.
Fresh water may cause some pitting, and distilled and demineralized waters
at temperatures above 200 oc also attack aluminium. Due to the reduction in
mechanical properties with temperature, this material is seldom used for
vessels operating above 150 °C. In all cases, care must be taken to prevent
any contact between aluminium and nobler metals, such as copper and iron.
Stainless steel, however, has little or no galvanic effect on aluminium, since
it is also passivated by an oxide film.
In Britain, B.S. 1470-7 specify a wide range of wrought aluminium alloys,
some of the characteristics and mechanical properties of the most commonly
used in welded pressure vessels being summarized in Table 2·10. For welded
constructions, material in the annealed or as manufactured condition is
generally specified. The effect of heat treatment on the mechanical properties
of the HS 30 alloy can be seen in Table 2·10. When specifying this material
in the fully heat treated condition, a post-weld heat treatment will be
required. Ingots and castings are covered by B.S. 1490. Clad aluminium
alloys (B.S. 1470 C) are also used when the good mechanical properties of
the Al-Mg-Si-Mn alloys have to be combined with the corrosion resistance of
high-purity aluminium.
A comprehensive review of the mechanical properties, corrosion resistance,
physical properties, etc., of the aluminium alloys suitable for pressure vessel
construction has been published by Elliott (22). The reader is referred to this
paper for any specific information on the subject. Additional information
on welding and fabrication techniques may be obtained by consulting the
Welding Handbook (4) and Ref. 23. The following are typical values of some
of the physical properties of these alloys:
Thermal expansion, 24 X 10- 6 infinrc (from 20 to 100 oq
Specific heat, 0·22 Chu/lbtC (at 100 oq

Thermal conductivity, 1500-600 Chu/ftl/htC (0-100 oq (depending on
the relative amount of impurities or alloying elements).
Some typical applications of the aluminium alloys listed in Table 2·10 are
tanks, 1B, NS 3, 4, 5, and 6; cryogenic vessels, NP 5/6; pipes and pipelines,
H30.
TABLE 2·10
PROPERTIES OF SEVERAL STANDARD ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
(Extracted from the relevant specifications)

B.S. 1470-(Sheet)
Material Condition* Alloy Type U.T.S. 0·1 %Proof

(Major Elements %) (ton/in 2 ) Stress (tonfin 2 )
SIB 0 99·5Al 6·0 (max.)

NS3 0 Al-1·25Mn 7·5 (max.)
NS4 0 Al-2Mg 11-14
NS5 0 Al-3·5Mg 14·0 (min.) 6·0
NS6 0 Al-5Mg 17·0 (min.) 8·0
HS 30 0 Al-Mg-Si-Mn 11·0 (max.)
HS 30 WP Al-Mg-Si-Mn 19·0 (min.) 16·0
B.S. 1477-{Plate)
Material Condition* Alloy Type Plate U.T.S. 0·1% Proof

Thickness (tonfin 2 ) Stress
(in) (tonfin 2 )
P1B M 99·5Al 0·253-1 4·0

NP4 M Al-2Mg 0·253-1 12·0
NP 5/6 M Al-4Mg 0·253-1 17·0 8·0
NP 5/6 0 AI-4Mg 0·253-1 17·0 7·0
*Note. 0 corresponds to the annealed condition.

M corresponds to the as manufactured condition.
WP corresponds to the fully heat-treated condition.
2·2·2 Copper and Copper Alloys

Copper and its alloys are used in food processing plants, in the manufacture
and recovery of organic solvents and in heat exchangers and evaporators for
general purposes. A detailed study of the application of copper and copper
alloys to pressure vessels has been published by Weaver and Imperati (24).
Copper is commercially available in various grades of purity. It can be
classified in two groups: oxygen-bearing copper-fire refined or electrolytic
tough pitch-and oxygen-free copper, high conductivity or phosphor de-

oxidized copper. The mechanical and corrosion properties of the various
types are very similar, deoxidized copper being preferred for welded con-
struction. Typical mechanical properties, at room temperature, are the
following:
U.T.S. (annealed condition), 13-17 tonjin 2
0·1% proof stress (annealed condition), 4-7 tonjin 2
U.T.S. (cold worked), 19-25 tonjin 2
0·1% proof stress (cold worked), -18-21 tonjin 2
The modulus of elasticity may be taken as 17 x 106 lb/in 2 and the Poisson's
ratio as 0·33. The thermal expansion coefficient is 17·65 x 10- 6 injintC,
specific heat 0·09 Chu/lbtC, thermal conductivity 2352 Chu/ft/htCfin, and
specific weight 0·32 lbfin 3 • The thermal conductivity of most copper alloys
may be taken as 35% of that of pure copper.
The use of copper is limited to fairly low temperature applications, due to
its poor creep resistance above 150 °C.
Copper has good corrosion resistance in the presence of sea water and of
a large number of chemicals. It should not be used in contact with oxidizing
acids, ammonia and carbon dioxide solutions, metallic salts susceptible to
reduction and turbulent sea water.
In Britain, B.S. 2870--5 schedule a range of copper and copper alloys in the
form of tubes, forgings, plates, castings, etc. Tubes for several types of heat
exchangers are specified in B.S. 378 and B.S. 1464 covers alloy tubes for heat
exchangers in the petroleum industry. Aluminium bronze tubes are covered
by B.S. 1867.
Brasses are copper-zinc alloys, with a zinc content as high as 45%. Their
corrosion resistance is not as high as that of copper, especially when the zinc
content is higher than 20% due to the loss of zinc. These high-zinc brasses
may also fail by 'season cracking', or stress corrosion cracking. Table 2·11
shows the main properties of some of the most usual brasses, in the annealed
condition. Their application is limited in general to tubes and tube-plates
for heat exchangers, condensers, etc., operating at low temperatures.
Tin bronzes are mainly used for castings, such as valve bodies. Other
bronzes of wide application are the aluminium-copper alloys. These are very
resistant to oxidation, with high corrosion resistance and stronger than pure
copper, especially at temperatures above 150 °C. The 5% and 8% aluminium
types (see Table 2·11) are used for steam condenser tubes at temperatures
below 200 °C. The 10% aluminium bronze, with iron and nickel is used for
tubes and tube plates, up to 350 oc. All aluminium bronzes resist mineral
acids and have excellent resistance to sea water, even under turbulent con-
ditions.
Copper-nickel alloys are widely used in steam condensers, operating with

polluted cooling water or sea water.
TABLE 2·11
PROPERTIES OF SOME COPPER ALLOYS IN THE ANNEALED CONDITION
Material Composition U.T.S. 0·1% Thermal Modulus

(Major Elements %) (tonfin 2 ) Proof Expansion of
Stress (10- 6 in/in/"C) Elasticity
(tonfin 2 ) (10 6 lbfin 2 )
Brass
Admiralty 70Cu-29Zn-1Sn 22 18·45 16
Naval 62Cu-3 7Zn-1 Sn 25 18·45 15
Aluminium 76Cu-22Zn-2Al 24 18·45 16
Muntz
Metal 60Cu-40Zn 24 18-45 15
High-tensile 55 to 63 Cu-rest Zn 38
and other elements to
(Pb, Sn, Mn, AI, 45
Ni, Fe)
Aluminium
Bronze
5%Al 95Cu-5Al 20 8 18 17·5
8%Al 92Cu-8Al 23 9 18 17·5
10%Al 82·5Cu-10Al 40 16 18·5 17·5
5Ni-2·5Fe (5)*
Copper-
Nickels
20% Ni 80Cu-20Ni 20 6 16·2 26
30%Ni 70Cu-30Ni 23 9 16·2 26
(6·5)*
* Note. At 350 oc.
2·2·3 Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Nickel and nickel alloys are used for handling a variety of corrosive fluids
at low or elevated temperatures and where it is essential to prevent the
contamination of the contained fluid. Nickel and its alloys are very expensive,
and it will be found that in pressure vessel construction they are only
used as cladding materials. The only exceptions are heat-exchanger tubes
and tube plates and relatively small, thin-walled vessels.
Nickel is commercially available in two grades, both with an impurity
content below 1%. The more usual grade has a carbon content of about
0·05% and is generally used for handling caustic soda at all temperatures and
concentrations, salts (molten or in aqueous solution), chlorine, fluorine, and
bromine and molten metals such as sodium and potassium. A low-carbon

content nickel, with less than 0·02% carbon, is also available. It is used for
handling molten caustic soda at high temperatures in preference to the more
usual grade. Nickel is subjected to embrittlement and cracking when it is in
contact with sulphur and lead. The physical properties of nickel are:
Specific heat, 0·13 ChuflbtC (at 100 oq
Thermal conductivity, 420 Chu/ft2/htC/in (0-100 oq
Thermal expansion coefficient, 13 X w- 6 injintC (0-100 °C).
The thermal conductivity of nickel alloys is 20-40% of that of pure nickel,
depending on the amount of alloying elements.
TABLE 2·12
PROPERTIES OF NICKEL, MONEL 400, INCONEL AND INCONEL X
(Refs. 1, 5, 26)
Material U.T.S. (tonfin 2 ) 0·2% Proof Stress Stress to Rupture in 1000 hr

(tonfin 2 ) (tonfin 2 )
20 oc 600 oc 20°C 600 oc 60QoC 800 oc 1000 oc
Nickel 30 8
Monel400 31 15·8 11 7·7
lnconel 38 33·5 15·5 10 6·5 1·5 0·8
Inconel X 72 55 41 23 8 1·5
Note. Large variations in properties are obtained depending on the heat treatment and
condition of the alloy.
In Britain, B.S. 3072-6 cover a range of nickel and nickel alloys, the most
generally used being nickel-copper, nickel-chromium-molybdenum-iron.
These alloys are better known by their trade names as Monel, Inconel,
Hastelloys, etc. (Refs. 25, 26).
Monel is an alloy of nickel and copper, of better mechanical properties
than pure nickel (see Table 2·12). Its corrosion resistance is not much inferior
to that of the pure metal, and it is used in contact with hydrofluoric acid, salt
solutions and salt-water heat exchangers. It is not resistant to oxidizing acids.
A general survey of the applications of Monel can be seen in Ref. 26.
Inconel is a nickel alloy containing chromium and iron, of better corrosion
resistance in oxidizing media than pure nickel and Monel. It is used in the
chemical industry under a variety of service conditions and also in furnace
equipment and power plants, due to its good creep and thermal shock resist-
ance. In the same group, Inconel X, Inconel X550 and Inconel W have
improved creep strength (see Refs. I and 25).
Other nickel alloys that find some application are creep or thermal shock
resistant. Most of them are manufactured under trade names, such as
Nimonic, Refracoloy, etc. Detailed information can be obtained from the
manufacturers.
In spite of the advantages to be gained by the use of these alloys, their price
restricts their application to a few, very special cases. In general they are
replaced by stainless steels except for service at temperature above 600 oc
and for handling corrosive fluids.
REFERENCES
1. LYMAN T. (ed.). Metals Handbook (A.S.M.).

2. MANTELL C. L. (ed.). Engineering Materials Handbook (McGraw-Hill,
1958).
3. HEPNER I. L. (ed.), Materials of Construction for Chemical Plant (Leonard
Hill, 1962).
4. AMERICAN WELDING SociETY. Welding Handbook (MacmillanjCleaver-
Hume, 5 Parts serially revised).
5. SMITHELLS C. J. Metals Reference Book (Butterworth, 1962).
6. MICHEL R. Paper in Pressure Vessel and Piping Design: Collected Papers
(A.S.M.E., 1960).
7. ENGLISH STEEL CORPORATION LTD., private communication.
8. ROBERTSON J. M. & NICHOLS R. W. Paper in Steels for Reactor Pressure
Circuits (Iron and Steel lnst., 1961).
9. MACKENZIE I. M. 1oc. cit. Ref. 8.
10. CONNOLLY B. J. & BOYD G. Proc. I. Mech. E. 172 (1958) 889.
11. SAMUEL Fox & Co. LTD., 'Esshete' CRM2, CRM5, CML and 1250 steels,
Pubs. Nos. 268A, 269A, 465, 468.
12. INTERNATIONAL NICKEL LTD. 2! and 3f% Nickel Steels, Pubs. Nos. 2691,
2693.
13. JoRDAN D. E. & HEATH D. J. Brit. Welding J. 11 (1964) 2.
14. A.S.M.E. BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CoMMITTEE, Case Interpretation
1308-4, Heat Treated 9% Nickel Steel, 1963.
15. WESSEL E. T. & HAYS L. E. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 42 (1963) 512s.
16. LORENTZ R. E. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 41 (1962) 433s.
17. SAMUEL Fox & Co. LTD. Silver Fox Stainless Steels, Pub. No. D505.
18. C.E.G.B. Final Report of Working Party on Welded Austenitic Joints
(1963).
19. WYATT L. M. & GEMMIL M. G. Paper in Joint International Conf. on
Creep (A.S.M.E., A.S.T.M. and I.Mech.E., 1963).
20. HARLOW J. H. loc. cit. Ref. 19.

21. BRISTER P. M. & BRESSLER, M. N. loc. cit. Ref. 19.
22. ELLIOTT E. Paper in Symposium on Aluminium Pressure Vessels (I.Mech.E.
& Aluminium Development Association, 1958).
23. HOLT M., KAUFMAN J. G. & WANDERER E. T. Aluminium and Aluminium
Alloys for Pressure Vessels, Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 75,
1962.
24. WEAVER V. P. & IMPERATI J. Copper and Copper Alloys for Pressure
Vessels, Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 73, 1961.
25. HENRY WIGGIN & Co. LTD. The Engineering Properties of Monel, Nickel
and Inconel, Pub. No. 1038, 1956.
26. HENRY WIGGIN & Co. LTD. Monel and K Monel, Properties and Applica-
tions, Pub. No. 1042, 1959.
3 Preliminary Layout
3·0 INTRODUCTION
T HE preceding chapters have described the establishment of the design

requirements and the selection of suitable materials. The next stage in the
design process is the preparation of a preliminary layout, which includes a
general arrangement of the vessel and main dimensioning of the local com-
ponents. When the preliminary layout is complete the design must be
analysed and modified in accordance with the methods and principles
described in other sections of the book.
The present chapter describes how the preliminary layout is prepared by
reference to the design methods in common use. Information referring to the
manufacture, such as manufacturing tolerances, approximate dimensioning
of welds, etc., is given in sufficient detail to provide a basis for discussion
with the production department.
The main tools for the preparation of the preliminary layout are the Design
Codes. These give rules for the design of pressure vessels and piping systems,
based on experience gained with conventional plant. Their only objective is
to achieve a safe construction, and whilst to ignore the Code requirements
would increase the operational risks, it does not follow that absolute assurance
of safety results from their acceptance. When more certain assurance of
safety is required, or when the plant differs from conventional design, the
intermediate steps between preliminary layout and final design are of primary
importance and cannot be omitted.
The preliminary layout is obtained in accordance with the rules laid out
by an accepted Code, following the steps detailed below:
(a) The design conditions-uniformly distributed static pressure and,

in general, uniform temperature-are derived from the specified design
requirements.
(b) The nominal design stress is obtained for the selected material at the
relevant design temperature.
(c) The thickness of the vessel shell is obtained.
(d) All local components, such as heads, flanges, reinforced openings, etc.,
48
PRELIMINARY LAYOUT 49
are dimensioned. The preferred dimensions of some components, such as

flanges and other pipe fittings, are generally given in Standards and in
manufacturers' catalogues. Whenever possible, standard parts should be
included for economy.
(e) Manufacturing tolerances and weld dimensions are decided.
3·1 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DESIGN CONDITIONS
All Design Codes, especially those listed in Chapter 1, specify values of the
temperature and of the pressure (which may be different from those existing
under service) as the basis for the design. Since pressurized systems have to
be protected with safety devices-safety valves or bursting discs-it is custom-
ary to take a design pressure equal to the valve setting pressure or the bursting
pressure of the discs plus a small margin to cover for possible fluctuations.
A general rule is to have a design pressure equal to the maximum operating
pressure plus 10%. Vessels subject to vacuum and not provided with vacuum
break valves are designed to 14·7lb/in2 or 1 atm gauge. The hydrostatic head
must be taken into account when calculating the design pressure.
The design temperature is generally taken as equal to the actual metal
temperature. This is estimated to be the same as that of the fluid contained
for unfired pressure vessels and 20-50 oc higher for fired vessels or those
heated by flue gas. The A.N.C.C. Code (see Chapter 1, Table 1·1) specifies
a design temperature equal to the maximum fluid temperature when there is
no heat transfer from vessel to fluid and 20-100 oc higher, depending on the
type of fluid, when there is heat transfer.
Most Codes list the loadings to be considered when designing a vessel, but
none gives any clear indication as to how to take them into account. The only
load to be considered for the determination of the preliminary layout is, in
fact, the design pressure acting in a uniformly distributed way, at the design
temperature. Piping systems are different in that the restricted thermal
expansion has to be considered, although the overall thickness of the pre-
liminary layout is still given by pressure considerations only. The calculation
of this expansion, resulting from the movements of the piping itself, is trivial
(see, for instance, Ref. 1). Detailed tables of thermal expansion coefficients
may be found in the A.S.A.-B 31 Code or in B.S. 3351.
3·2 NOMINAL DESIGN STRESSES
Design Codes include a list of acceptable materials in accordance with given

National Specifications. The use of otherwise suitable materials, not included
in the Code, is not precluded, provided that it is sanctioned by the customers,

the inspecting authorities, the manufacturers and the organization responsible
for the Code administration, if any. Thus, the approval of new materials may
have to follow a fairly involved procedure, as required by A.S.M.E., or it may
be based on a simple agreement with customers and inspecting authorities
as required by the British Codes.
An indication of the material specifications included in various Codes is
given in Table 3·1, which also gives the criteria followed for the derivation
of the allowable design stresses. These may be based on the ultimate tensile
stress, the yield stress-or the 0·2% proof stress-or creep properties. An
apparent inconsistency is thus brought to light, namely the fact that for a
given material, different design stresses may be considered acceptable depend-
ing on the Code chosen. For instance, carbon steel to B.S. 1501-151 Grade B
or its equivalent has an acceptable design stress ranging from 14 to 24 ton/in 2
at 120 oc, depending on whether the specified Code is the A.S.M.E. or the
AD-Merkblatter. This wide difference is explained by a more cautious
approach in the U.S.A. than in Germany, but it is not necessarily true that a
vessel designed to the lower stress is safer than a vessel for which the higher
limit is used. Fortunately, these differences are being ironed out by the
acceptance of International rather than National Codes.
In the U.S.A., the acceptance of higher design stresses for the A.S.M.E.
Section III may, ultimately, lead to a gradual approximation to European
practice. However, at present the designer has to resign himself to the
anomalous situation that a vessel considered to be safe in one country would
be deemed unsafe in another. A detailed discussion on this subject has been
published by Lancaster (2) and Clarke and Northrup (3).
3·3 BASIC SHELL THICKNESS
3·3·1 Cylinders and Spheres under Internal Pressure

The thickness of cylindrical and spherical shells submitted to internal pressure
is calculated using formulae of the type
PD
t = aSJ-bP +c
where t = thickness; P = internal pressure; D = internal diameter; S =
allowable stress; J = joint efficiency factor; a = 2 for cylinders, 4 for spheres;
b, c, parameters.
The joint efficiency factor takes into account the possible existence of weak
TABLE "d
3·1 ::a
ttl
MATERIALS AND PERMISSIBLE STRESSES SPECIFIED BY VARIOUS CODES t"'
......
., s::
......
.!:l .!:l z
~
s
::::: ., >
~ ~..., ~ ~ ::a
~ E
s
::::: ><
Code s .Sl ~ .;: Criteria for the Determination of Permissible Stresses
!5 ::::: -~ ~ t"'
~:: ...
c ~ ~ ~ t; .!:; .!:; >
-:: !;I. E E ole ole
i: ...~ ~ .!;j> ~
"'~ -"' -"' ><
~ ~ 0
a u ~ ~ u a ~ ~ ~ ~ c:::
- '"'I
Australia
Austria " " " AsA.S.M.E.
Canada
""
" "
Finland " " " " " " " " " " ! x yield stress
France " I H of ultimate tensile stress (U.T.S.) depending on material
Germany " .; .; Materials with well-defined yield, or 0· 2% proof stress (carbon,
AD-Merkblatter alloy steels)
" " " "" " " " "
" " " " " " " permissible stress =K/S
where K is the lower of yield stress (proof) at design tempera-
ture or average stress to rupture at 100,000 hr and S varies
from 1·5 for seamless or butt welded sections in steel with
acceptance certificate DIN 50049, to 2·5 for cast steel without
certificate.
Materials with no defined yield (cast iron, aluminium or copper)
permissible stress = K'/S
where K' is the ultimate tensile strength at design temperature
and S varies from 3·5 for seamless or butt welded A1 and Cu
vessels with DIN 50049 acceptance certificate, to 11·0 for
cast iron
In addition the stress to rupture at a temperature 15 oc higher
than design and the strain rate at design temperature of 1 %
per 100,000 hr must not be exceeded. VI
-
(Jl
TABLE 3·1 contd. N
..!:l ..!:l ~
II> ~
II> ~
~ ~
~
..,;:.,
~
;:... ~ IS IS ~
Code 1:: s ~ .;: .;: Criteria for the Determination of Permissible Stresses
-~
1::
c ..Sl ::::::
~ ... ... .::; .::;
~
c ..:; ~ II> II> ~ ~
1: -::;
-~
-=: IS E "'C "'C
c
...;j
..:: ..::
a a ~ a~ a~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Holland I I I t x yield stress at design temperature
Italy I I I I I t x U.T.S. for vessels with longitudinal lap joints to lx U.T.S
A.N.C.C. for seamless or butt welded vessels
Nuova I ..; ..; ..; ..; (1/1·5) x yield point for unfired vessels
Proposta (1/1·6) x yield point for vessels exposed to gas above 600 oc
New Zealand ..; ..; ..; ..; See British Codes
Sweden I ..; ..; I ..; (1/1·5) x yield stress for cylindrical shell. Formulae for flat
plates, cones, spherically dished plate covers and openings are
developed with safety factors of 1·1
Switzerland I ..; ..; l x ultimate tensile stress
'"d
Britain Similar to A.S.M.E. and ASA-B.31 ::c
..; ..; ..; t!l
B.S. 1500: 1949 til
..; ..; til
B.S. 1500: 1958
~
B.S. 1500: 1965 I I ::c
B.S. 1113: 1958 ..; ..; t!l
B.S. 806: 1954 ..; I ..; <
..; ..; t!l
B.S. 3351: 1961 I til
..; ..; ..; til
B.S. 1515: 1965 The lower of t!l
0·67 x yield stress (0·2% proof stress). t""
0·37 x ultimate tensile stress at room temperature. t;
0·67 x average stress to rupture at 100,000 hr. t!l
til
1·0x average stress to give 1% creep strain in 100,000 hr. 0
B.S. 3915: 1965 I ..; Same as B.S. 1515
-z
~
l;l:j
(")
n:l
t""'
-a::
TABLE 3·1 contd.
z-
>
l;l:j
..::: .., -<

..::: ~ s t""'
:::::: .., >
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
1\> ~
..... s -<
Code ~ s E E :::::: 0
§ :::::: ~ Criteria for the Determination of Permissible Stresses
s
:::::: ~ c::
§ ..=; ~
~ ~
... ·= .s·=
.s ~ >-l
...., ~ ~ E E ~
12 :: ~ ~ ~
-
<::> ~
a a "-l ~ ~ u ~ ~ ~ ~
U.S.A.* ,; ,; ,; ,; ,; ,; ,; ,; ,; ,; Ferrous materials, the lower of,
A.S.M.E. l x ultimate tensile stress.
Codes i x yield stress (0·2% proof stress).
Sections 1·0 x average stress to give creep rate of 0·01 % per 1000 hr.
I, II, VIII 0·6 x average stress to rupture at 100,000 hr.
0·8 x minimum stress to rupture at 100,000 hr.
(this limit raised to 1·0 for specified materials)
Non-ferrous, the lower of,
l x ultimate tensile stress.
i x yield stress (0·2% proof stress).
1·0 x stress to produce secondary creep rate of 0·1 % in
10,000 hr.
Bolting, the lower of
t x ultimate tensile stress.
l x yield stress (0·2% proof stress) and the same creep criteria
as before.
Ul
w
VI
""'"
TABLE 3·1 contd.

~
.,
~
~"'
., ::::6- .,
~"' -.::
;:>.. :::::6- :::::6-
Code =: Criteria for the Determination of Permissible Stresses
-~"' :::::6- -.:: .§
<::> ~ .:=E
=: -.:: ~ .!:; .!:;
<::> ..:..... -.:: E
.."'
;: -==
i: [:! <::>
..;: ..;:E
--.::"'
u '"-l ~ -.:: -.:: ~
a a~ a~
-~"'
A.S.A. I I I I I I I I I I Power piping: as per A.S.M.E. VIII.
B31·8 Oil: as per A.S.M.E. VIII (creep range) and the lower of,
t x ultimate tensile stress.
0·85 x yield stress (0·2% proof stress).
Gas and air: 0·6...()·72 x yield stress.
Gas trans.: 0·72 x yield stress (0·2% proof stress).
A.S.M.E. I I I I I I I General primary membrane stress: t x yield stress or t x ulti- '"lj
Pt. III mate tensile stress. ::a
m
(Nuclear) Higher stress limits established for stresses necessary to satisfy
continuity of structure (at structural discontinuities or due to
"'"'c::
thermal loading). Maximum stress, subjected to fatigue ::a
m
analysis = 2 x yield stress or = ultimate tensile stress.
<
m
• Note. Slight differences in safety factors on creep data are specified for boilers (Section I) and unfired pressure vessels (Section VIII) "'"'m
t"'
I:)
m
0
-"'z
areas along longitudinal joints in cylinders and meridional or hoop joints in

spheres. Its presence in the basic formulae is fully justified for, say, riveted
joints. In the case of welded construction, especially when the welds are
subjected to 100% non-destructive testing and stress relieved, a value of J
lower than unity does not appear to be realistic. The values of J for welded
joints specified by the different Codes vary from 0·5 to 1·0. For example, in
Britain B.S. 1500 specifies a value of 0·95 for stress relieved and 100% radio-
graphed seams, 0·7 for spot radiographed and non-stress relieved, 0·6 for
non-radiographed, non-stress relieved welds. In Germany, the AD-Merk-
blatter specify a value of J equal to 0·8, allowing up to 1·0 depending on the
results of prescribed tests. There is at present a tendency to specify, instead of
a joint efficiency factor, an 'inspection factor' applicable to those areas where
inspection in service is not possible. In this case J is taken as unity-welds
stress relieved and 100% non-destructive inspected-and the allowable stress
reduced by 5%.
The parameter b varies from 0 to 1·2 for cylinders and from 0 to 1·0 in
spheres. The A.S.M.E. Section VIII specifies b = 1·2 for cylinders and 0·4
for spheres, while the Swedish Code takes b = 0 for both spheres and cylinders.
In Britain, B.S. 1500 takes b = 1 for cylinders and in Germany AD-Merk-
bHitter Bl takes b = 1 for both cylinders and spheres.
The parameter c is specified to cover for the wastage by corrosion and
erosion and, sometimes, to take into account manufacturing tolerances in
plate thickness. A minimum value may be specified by the Codes; 1 mm by
the AD-Merkbliitter, -k in by B.S. 1500 for mild steel vessels.
In addition to the formulae thus described, some Codes give other expres-
sions for thick shells, based upon the Lame equations.
It is interesting to note that the A.N.C.C. rules take into account the
thermal stresses in the computation ofthe minimum wall thickness. Following
these rules, the sum of the calculated stress due to pressure and to the tem-
perature distribution across the vessel shell must be lower than the design
stress. The result is, naturally, that uninsulated vessels containing a fluid at
high temperature are designed to a higher safety factor on pressure stresses
than those operating at, say, room temperature. At first sight, this does not
appear to be a wholly unreasonable approach. However, it may lead to serious
errors, since it is implicitly assumed that thermal and membrane stresses
due to internal pressure are equally important causes of failure.
3·3·2 Cylinders and Spheres Under External Pressure

The formulae for the design of spherical shells under external pressure are
all based on the work of Karman and Tsien (4). According to this, the mini-
mum load required to keep the shell in a buckled shape is
Pmin = 0·365EGY
or
Umin = 0·1825EG)
where Pmin =minimum uniform pressure; umin =minimum membrane

stress; E = modulus of elasticity; t = shell thickness; r = shell radius.
The A.S.M.E. Section VIII takes a design stress equal to ! of umin; B.S. 1500:
1958 present the method of computation in a slightly different form, but
give approximately the same results; AD-Merkbliitter B3 specifies that the
pressure 0·5 Pmin must be three times higher than the working pressure cal-
culated with a safety factor of 20% higher than prescribed for internal
pressure.
In the case of cylinders, attempts have been made in various Codes to
correlate the buckling pressure with the allowable out-of-roundness, defined
according to multiple criteria. Since these formulae are applicable to entirely
different, fabricated cylinders, a direct comparison between them is virtually
impossible (see§ 3·5·1).
3·4 DIMENSIONING OF LOCAL COMPONENTS
3·4·1 Heads
The design of domed ends, ellipsoidal or torispherical, is usually covered by
Design Codes using formulae of the type
PD
t=-m
4S
where t = minimum thickness; P = design pressure (internal); D = dia-

meter; S = design stress; m = shape factor.
The shape factor depends on the ratio of the outside height of the head to
its diameter, and for domed ends with openings, on the relative size of the
opening, its shape and whether it is reinforced or not. For example; a domed
end without openings, with a ratio height-to-diameter of0·25 and designed to
B.S. 1500 has a shape factor of 2·34. The shape factor for the same domed
end according to AD-MerkbHitter would be 2·0.
Some Codes give formulae based on the crown radius rather than on shape
factors. See, for instance, A.S.M.E. Section VIII.
Whatever the approach, the membrane solution of the shell equations is

usually the basis of Code formulae. It has been proved by Galletly (5) that
this is not a good approximation and that very high bending stresses may exist
in some cases. However, for the purpose of establishing the preliminary
layout these formulae are sufficient.
Total area of reinforcc>ment A 2 ;;. A 1
h0 , lr;, r. limits of reinforcement

FIG. 3·1 Equal area method of compensation.
Domed ends submitted to external pressure are designed as spheres with

a radius equal to the crown radius.
Formulae for fiat covers are of the type
t=D Jfxc (3·1)
where t = minimum thickness; D = diameter; P = design pressure;

S = allowable stress; C is a parameter that depends on the method of

support.
Conical shells are designed using formulae similar to those used for
cylinders, with an additional factor, a function of the cone angle, to take
into account the increased stress level. In general, transitions between conical
and cylindrical shells are radiused.
3·4·2 Reinforcement of Openings

One of the main differences between the various Design Codes is the way in
which they treat the problem of compensation of isolated openings in vessels
under internal pressure. On the one hand, the American and British practice
as represented by the A.S.M.E. and B.S. 1500 Codes is to replace all the
material that has been removed, as shown in Fig. 3·1. The area added as
reinforcement is limited by the rectangle 0-1-2-3, defined as a function ofthe
vessel thickness and the thickness and bore of the branch.
Most European countries, on the other hand, follow a more rational
approach based on the limitation of the peak stresses or strains that occur in
the neighbourhood of the opening. The AD-Merkbliitter B9 method may be
chosen as a typical example. This method is based on work by Siebel et a/.,
reviewed by Winn (6). Defining a weakening factor, v, for a pierced shell as
V=--
Po·2
pF
where P 0 •2 is the pressure required to cause a 0·2% permanent deformation
near the opening and PF is that required to yield the unpierced shell, we take
a design stress for the pierced shell equal to S x v. The thickness of the shell
near the opening is then approximately equal to the required thickness of the
unpierced shell divided by the weakening factor. A graph for the calculation
of this factor for various types of reinforcement is given in AD-Merkbliitter
B9. When all the compensation is in the form of a protruding nozzle, and
the vessel shell thickness is equal to the minimum required for an unpierced
shell, v must be equal to unity. The required nozzle thickness, t, is shown as
a function of the vessel thickness T and of the parameter d/J(DT) in Fig.
3·2. For example, a 10 in bore opening in a 60 in mean diameter vessel 2 in
thick, with all the compensation in the form of a protruding nozzle, would
require a thickness t = 1 in. The minimum length of the 1 in thick branch is
specified by AD-Merkbliitter as
h 0 = .J(dt)~3-! in.
In this example, and in Fig. 3·2, all thicknesses are excluding the corrosion
allowance. Based on the equal area method, the required nozzle thickness
is 1·47 in.
The current trend in Britain is towards the acceptance of a method based

on the adoption of a 'stress concentration factor', defined as the ratio of the
maximum stress in the shell near the opening to the design stress for the
unpierced shell. The value of this ratio is obtained by carrying out calcula-
tions for the nozzle using the methods described in Chapters 4 et seq. of
2·5.---------------------.
//
/ I.. =o·OOI
/ D
/
/
/
--
o·5 D
- - - - A D Merkblatt B9
----BWRA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d/jl5T
FIG. 3·2 Comparison between nozzle compensation in accordance with
A.D.-Merkblatter B9 ( V=l·O) and B.W.R.A. (S.C.F. = 2·5).
this book, or experimentally, and assuming elastic behaviour of the material.

The S.C.F. may then be compared with the weakening factor, the latter
being obtained from measurements in plastically deformed shells.
For an S.C.F. of 2·5, a nomogram giving the required compensation has
been prepared by the British Welding Research Association (7). Although
this approach is fundamentally different from Siebel's, the results are never-
theless very similar, as can be seen from Fig. 3·2 for protruding nozzles. A
comparison with the equal area method (Fig. 3·3) shows that substantial
economy of material is achieved. These conclusions, obtained for protruding
nozzles, remain valid in most other cases.
The reinforcement of multiple openings is usually undertaken following the
equal area method. When no compensation is claimed from nozzles, the shell
thickness is increased, in at least the ratio
f
f-d y
0•8
~
T
0'7
7
-...
.......
~
~
...
o·6
~~
~-
1::1 g o·s
'-@:
~
~ ...~ o·4
~
s:: s::
.!;! .!;!
o·J
~
~
~ ~
i
::: 0•2
dd
o·z
0 o·J o·4 o·s

dfD
FIG. 3·3 Comparison between nozzle compensation in accordance with
B.W.R.A. (S.C.F. = 2·5) and with the equal area method.
where f = pitch between adjacent openings; d = bore; y = 1 for spherical

shells, !(1 +cos 2 oc) for cylindrical shells; oc = angle between the longitudinal
direction and the line connecting the centres of the openings considered.
The parameter y is then equal to 1 for openings along a line parallel to the
axis and ! when the openings are along the hoop direction.
3·4·3 Special Components (Flanges, Tube Plates, Supports)

The use of bolted-flanged connections is widespread, to facilitate disassembly
of equipment or sections of piping systems. Their design involves the con-
sideration of three elements; the gasket, the bolting and the flange itself.
The design requirements are to obtain structural integrity with minimum

leakage during service.
The structural integrity is achieved in the design by the limitation of the
calculated stresses to a permissible level. An additional requirement, imposed
by the minimum leakage condition, is to insure a positive contact pressure at
the gasket-to-flanges interfaces under all service conditions. A complete treat-
ment of the problem has then to be based on a detailed knowledge of the
stress-strain-time properties of the materials involved, and on the solution
of the c0mpatibility and equilibrium conditions at the junction of each pair
of components. Such an analysis need only be attempted in a few cases.
Bolt load, W
;--.,"""· f--------
...o
..
""
~
Gasket J
reaction, Ho
I
Hydros;~
load, HD
-Ha-HD y
Kt
O.D. or mean diameter 2
of gasket, G
Total moment = Hn x 11 0 + H0 x h0 + Hr x Tlr

FIG. 3·4 Forces acting on integral type flanges (after A.S.M.E. Section VIII).
Present practice for the design of bolted-flanged connections is typified

by the rules given in most Design Codes. As usual, those rules contained in
the A.S.M.E. Codes are the most comprehensive and the most widely used.
The A.S.M.E. rules are based on a theoretical analysis published by Waters,
Wesstrom and Williams (8). In this analysis, the flange is treated as a
flat plate, and for the hub and the adjoining cylindrical shell the beam-on
elastic foundation approach is followed. It is assumed that no plastic defor-
mation occurs and that the bolt load remains constant. The results of the
analysis are presented in the form
Longitudinal hub stress = A1 x total moment
Radial flange stress = A 2 x total moment
Hoop flange stress = A3 x total moment
c*
where the factors A 1 , A 2 , A 3 are obtained from the diagrams and formulae
contained in the Code (A.S.M.E. Section VIII, UA-50 to 52) and are a
function of the geometrical configuration only. The total moment acting on
the flange is obtained as shown in Fig. 3·4. In this figure, the hydrostatic
load acting on the hub is, with B equal to the bore,
B2
HD = - x (internal pressure) x n.
4
The gasket reaction
G2
H 0 = W - - x (internal pressure) x n.
4
The force required for equilibrium, H n is assumed to act at a distance hT

from the bolt centre line. For the flange shown in the figure, hT is defined as
hT = hD+ha+gl,
2 4
In general, HT is assumed to act midway between H 0 and HD.
The minimum design bolt load, Wm 1 , is equal to the sum of the hydrostatic
load over the area bounded by the gasket diameter plus a minimum load to
maintain a contact pressure on the gasket. This contact pressure is expressed
as a multiple of the internal design pressure; from 0·5-6·5 times the design
pressure for soft rubber gaskets and for stainless steel gaskets respectively.
The minimum required bolting area is then
Aml = WmdSb
where Sb is the Code design stress for bolting material at the design tempera-
ture.
The required initial bolt Joad Wm 2 , necessary to ensure a tight joint, is
equal to the gasket seating area times a design pressure that varies from 0 for
soft rubber to 26,000 lb/in 2 for stainless steel gaskets. The corresponding
bolting area is then
Am2 = Wm2/Sa
where Sa is the Code design stress for bolting material at room temperature.
The required bolting area, Am, is then taken as the larger of Am 1 and Am2.
Finally, the actual bolting area, larger than Am, is fixed from considerations
of standard bolts available. The bolt load, W, is defined as
W -Actual
Am+
- --- area
- x S a• un der ttg
. htenmg
. cond'Itlons
.
2
w = wm1' under operating conditions.
It will be appreciated that the actual load due to tightening up of the bolts
without internal pressure and the variations in this load due to pressurization,
creep thermal transients, etc., have not been considered in the definitions of W.
Finally, resulting stresses are checked to be within the limits
Longitudinal hub stress~ 1· 5 x code design stress
Radial flange stress ~ code design stress
Hoop flange stress ~code design stress
Longitudinal hub+
radial flange stresses ~ 2 x code design stress
Longitudinal hub+
hoop flange stresses ~ 2 x code design stress.
The main criticisms that have been made of the A.S.M.E. method are that
the flanged connection is assumed to behave elastically and that the bolt load
is purely fictitious. More rational methods have been proposed by various
authors and have been incorporated in several Design Codes (Refs. 9, 10,
11). All these methods are based on more sophisticated analysis than the
A.S.M.E. but they all suffer from the same disadvantage, namely that being
semi-empirical their scope is limited to the area covered by experimental
information. Also, it is important to note that the rules contained in a given
Code, gasket factors, bolt loads, etc., are not interchangeable with those
contained in a different method.
Some practical considerations for the design of bolted-flanged connections
are given in Chapter 16.
Tube plates are mainly used in tubular heat-exchangers, boilers and con-
densers. In the past, their design has generally been in accordance with the
T.E.M.A. Code rules, applicable only in the most conventional cases due to
the many simplifying assumptions involved in their derivation. A more
elaborate and successful treatment has been developed by Miller (12) and
forms the basis of the B.S. 1500 design method. Except in very conventional
designs, it is advantageous to apply the general method detailed in Chapter 16,
even at the stage of preliminary layout.
In piping design, it is customary to have the same nominal thickness for
the bends as for the straight runs. When short radius bends are used, their
thickness is sometimes increased in order to keep the stress level under the
Code design stress in spite of the higher internal pressure (see Chapter 16).
Lobster-back bends can be assumed to behave in a similar way to smooth
bends, with additional discontinuity stresses at the junction of the various
segments. No account is usually taken of these stresses at this stage. In the
same way mitre bends are usually designed in accordance with the engineer's
experience rather than by following given criteria.
Some Codes give non-mandatory rules, usually of a very general nature,
for the design of supports and other shell attachments. In general the designer
is entirely free to select the method of support and satisfy himself that the
existing stresses are within permissible limits. Typical designs are shown in
Chapter 1. As a guidance for the preparation of a preliminary layout, the
rules given in A.S.M.E. Section VIII, Appendix G, may be followed.
3·5 MANUFACTURE
3·5·1 Manufacturing Tolerances

Manufacturing tolerances have to be imposed for two reasons. The first is
the structural necessity to limit stresses due to out-of-roundness, joint mis-
alignment, etc. The second is that they may be required for the insertion and
satisfactory operation of internals such as the control rods in nuclear reactor
vessels. Tolerances must always be specified as large as possible, since the
achievement of close limits may be a time consuming and costly process.
The following typical value of manufacturing tolerances for conventional
vessels, taken from German practice, may be quoted for the guidance of the
designer:
(a) Deviation between measured and nominal outside diameter, ± 1·5%.
(b) Ovality for cylinders under internal pressure,
Dmax -D
. mn
I
= 1·0-2%<30 mm
mean d1ameter
depending on the thickness-to-diameter ratio
where Dmax is the maximum measured internal diameter; Dmin is the minimum
measured internal diameter and the mean diameter is !(Dmax+Dm;n).
(c) For cylindrical vessels under external pressure the above value of the
ovality is taken to be 1·5%.
(d) Buckled parts must be smooth and their depth must not exceed 1% of
the length or width of the buckled area. The normal circumference or the
shell generator is taken as a reference.
(e) Deviation from straight line-e.g. along cylinder generators-must be
less than 0·5% of the total cylindrical length.
(f) The offset at butt joints must not exceed 5% of the plate thickness for
longitudinal seams, and 10% for circumferential seams, in cylindrical vessels.
It is interesting to note that the AD-Merkblatter B6, 'Cylinders under
External Pressure', does not specify any tolerance for local flats, leaving
complete freedom of choice to the designer. In this way, a substantial saving
in thickness may be achieved when working to close manufacturing limits.

In general, leading manufacturers, using their standard techniques, achieve
limits considerably closer than the tolerances specified by the Codes.
The American practice is typified by the A.S.M.E. Code. For cylinders
under internal pressure, the allowable ovality (as defined previously) is
reduced to 1%. In addition, the departure from the specified shape for formed
heads is stated to be less than 1·25% ofthe inside diameter of the head skirt.
Cylindrical vessels with butt joints, under external pressure, must have a
maximum ovality specified by the Code as a function of the outside diameter-
to-thickness ratio and the unsupported length-to-outside diameter ratio. The
ovality or out-of-roundness in this case is defined as: the radial departure
from a segmental circular template having the design radius and a cord length
given by the Code as a function of the variables previously mentioned. For
example, a 10 ft outside diameter cylinder, 2 in thick, 20 ft long between
supports, has a maximum out-of-roundness, e = 0·375T = 0·75 in (Fig.
UG 80-1, A.S.M.E. Section VIII) measured on a semi-chord length of
0·21 D 0 = 25·2 in (Fig. UG 29-2). This out-of-roundness must not be in the
form of a flat spot or of a sharp bend.
In Britain, B.S. 1500: 1958 Pt. I specifies a circumferential tolerance of
±!%for cylindrical shells over 2ft diameter, compared with 1·5% accepted
in Germany. The ovality for cylinders under internal pressure varies from
1·0 to 0·4%, depending on the internal diameter, the lower limit correspond-
ing to vessels over 10ft internal diameter. For formed heads, the departure
from the specified shape must be less than 1% of the skirt diameter or i in.
The maximum departure from circularity for cylinders under external pres-
sure is specified as 0·2% for vessels with a nominal diameter over 10ft and
is slightly higher for smaller vessels. In this case, the out-of-roundness is
measured as the radial departure from a segmental circular template having
the design radius and chord length equal to one-quarter of the internal
diameter. Local flats and sharp bends must also be avoided. Using the same
example as before, the maximum out-of-roundness would be 0·2 x Di x (1/100)
= 0·232 in measured from a template with a chord length equal to 0·25 x
Di = 29 in. In this particular case, B.S. 1500 requirements are more strict
than the A.S.M.E. ones. Concerning joint alignment, B.S. 1500 allows a
maximum offset of -h-t in for longitudinal seams and ~-ilr in for cir-
cumferential seams in cylindrical vessels, depending on the plate thickness.
In general, the subject of tolerances in cylindrical shells is adequately
treated, but other shells of revolution have received little attention by the
Code sponsoring organizations. There is also little evidence from the manu-
facturers to suggest, on a statistical basis, actual tolerances measured in
conventional vessels.
The designer may specify closer tolerances than those given by the Codes,
bearing in mind what this involves in terms of manufacturing time, expense

and feasibility. For these reasons, very tight tolerances should only be speci-
fied when absolutely necessary.
Tolerances in plate thickness are seldom specified, since only the minimum
value of the shell thickness need be given. An exception to this rule is that
it is Naval practice to specify a maximum thickness because of weight con-
siderations. The tolerance is then given as, say, -0+ 7%.
The above tolerances are generally sufficient when only the structural
integrity of the vessel is taken into account. Tighter limits, required for the
operation of the plant, are better achieved by providing for adjustment during
the final stages of assembly than by the strict control of the tolerances during
manufacture.
A point often overlooked is the deformation of the vessel or piping due
to welding and stress relieving. Final machining operations must be carried
out after stress relieving. When local stress relief of site welds is specified,
suitable provision for site machining, or preferably for adjustment during
erection, must be made if tight tolerances are to be achieved.
3·5·2 Welding Processes and Inspection Techniques

At present, welding is universally accepted for the construction of pressure
vessels and the assembly of piping systems. Forge welding has practically
disappeared and riveting is only used for special production items of com-
paratively minor importance. Most vessels are fabricated from plates, pressed
or rolled to the required shape and joined by welding (Refs. 13, 14). In some
cases, very thick vessels have been fabricated by welding forged rings.
The welding processes most commonly used are the automatic and semi-
automatic submerged arc and metal arc welding for shop fabrication, and
the manual metal arc processes for shop and site welding. In addition to these
processes, some recent developments must be mentioned. The first is the
electroslag process (Ref. 15) which enables the butt welding of very thick
sections (up to 18 in). This technique is used for longitudinal seams in
cylindrical steel vessels of a thickness over 2 in and for the fabrication of
heavy, large diameter rings (as used for large flanges) from forged segments.
Considerable experience with this process has been reported (Ref. 16).
A limitation of this method is that during welding the seams must be
vertical. This may involve the use of heavy and expensive positioners. Electro-
slag welding has also been used experimentally for circumferential seams,
achieving some success. The principal advantages of this process are the
increased rate of welding and the absence of defects such as slag inclusions
and porosity. These advantages are partly offset, from the economic point
of view, when the typical coarse grain size of the electroslag weld requires a
normalizing treatment to recrystallize the structure. Such a heat treatment,

possible even under site conditions with portable furnaces or local heating
techniques, adds to the total cost of the weld. Thus, for thin sections G-1! in)
where the advantages of the electroslag process over more conventional
techniques are less pronounced, the additional cost of the normalizing heat
treatment makes the use of the electroslag process uneconomical. Some
attempts have been made, therefore, to control the grain size by modifying
the welding technique (Ref. 17). These attempts appear to have been success-
ful and have opened the way towards the more general application of the
electroslag process in the future.
The past few years have seen a pronounced advance in the use of gas-
shielded welding techniques. Inert gas welding of non-ferrous materials using
FIG. 3·5 Inserted type nozzle (radiographic inspection).
argon and consumable electrodes has been in general use for non-ferrous
materials, especially aluminium. A recent development has been the use of
C02 instead of argon, and Si-Mn killed steel wire for the welding of steel.
This process, known as Mig, has been used for the automatic welding of
branch connections in boiler drums (Ref. 17). It has the obvious advantages
that very little descaling of the weld deposit is required and that the joint is
always visible to the welder (Ref. 18). The Tig process, using argon and a
tungsten non-consumable electrode, has found application in the tube
industry for longitudinal seams in small bore thin-walled tubes. It is unlikely
that it will find as wide application as the techniques previously mentioned.
The non-destructive testing of welded joints has to be taken into account
by the designer, since he must design welds that are amenable to one or more
of the following methods of examination.
At present, the techniques used are radiographic inspection, ultrasonic
examination, magnetic crack detection and dye penetrant testing. It is outside
the scope of this book to describe in detail any of these techniques, and the
reader is referred to the current edition of the Welding Handbook (19) or to
(20).
Radiography has been until very recently the only technique generally
recognized by the Codes and inspecting authorities for the detection of
structural discontinuities in the interior of welds. X-ray machines ranging
from 200,000 volt to 2-MeV, gamma-ray sources of cobalt 60 and linear
accelerators or betatrons are used for the examination of butt welds in plates
up to 10 in thick. As seen in § 3·3·1, it is common practice to give credit in
terms of increased joint efficiency factor when the vessels are subjected to
radiographic control. In some cases, radiographic examination of all pressure-
containing welds may be specified. Nozzle attachments, supports, etc., will
then have to be of the inserted butt-welded type, as shown in Figs. 3·4 and 3·5.
(a) (h)
FIG. 3·6 Typical welded nozzles (ultrasonic inspection).
Magnetic crack detection is applicable to magnetic materials and may be

specified for welds that cannot be radiographed. Cracks and other dis-
continuities at, or near the surface are located. It is generally used for the
inspection of plate edges prior to welding. Although the sensitivity of the
method depends on the surface conditions, no machining or grinding need
be carried out, except when the weld surface is extremely rough. In general,
cleaning the surface by wire brushing or sand blasting is sufficient.
Surface defects in magnetic and non-magnetic materials-aluminium,
copper, nickel and austenitic steels-are detected with the dye penetrant
testing technique. This method is of general application for welds not amen-
able to radiography in non-ferrous and austenitic steel vessels, and for lined
or clad vessels. It may also be used for leak testing.
Until very recently, radiography has been the only available technique for
the detection of internal defects in welds, with magnetic crack detection and
dye penetrant testing for the detection of surface defects. The inspection of
the vessels of ever increasing thickness demanded by industry has only been
possible by using machines-betatrons or linear accelerators-of corre-
spondingly higher cost, more difficult installation and whose use increased
the radiation hazards to the inspection personnel. Welds not amenable to
radiographic examination, when accepted by the Codes, involved the use of
lower joint efficiency factors. This situation has led to the rapid development
of the ultrasonic inspection technique. This method has the advantages of
being economical; it does not involve any radiation hazard; the equipment is
portable and safe to use. Like radiography, the interpretation of results can
only be made by experienced personnel. When ultrasonic inspection is
possible, welded nozzles of the type shown in Fig. 3·6 can be subjected to a
rigorous examination. The economic advantages of this type over the one
shown in Fig. 3·5 are obvious. Ultrasonic examination may also be used in
conjunction with radiography, replacing the 100% radiographic inspection.
Thus, longitudinal seams in boiler drums are sometimes examined by auto-
matic scanning ultrasonic equipment and any indication of possible defects
investigated by radiography.
3·5·3 Design of Welded Joints

When designing welded joints, the following general principles must be
observed, as pointed out by Koenigsberger (21).
The provision of good accessibility for welding is of paramount importance.
Inadequate provision leads to increased labour costs and poor workmanship.
Often, the required quality of the weldment is only achieved after repeated
rewelding, thus causing delays that may affect the whole construction pro-
gramme. In the same way good accessibility for inspection should also be
provided.
Another general principle can be summarized by saying that the optimum
design for welded construction is the one with the minimum amount of
welding. A great number of unnecessarily large welds causes distortion and
residual stresses and should be avoided. Nor should welds be designed to
converge on one point. For example, in a cylindrical vessel composed of
sections with longitudinal seams, these should be offset.
Cracking during welding may occur due to differential expansion. The
design of the joint must incorporate sufficient flexibility to prevent this
happening.
In thick plates, distortion may be controlled by the use of double-V or
double-D joint preparations.
Figure 3·7 shows some typical joint preparations for butt welding of steel
plates of equal thickness. This figure, and the following comments, are based
1 Single V, without backing strip
a Type (a)
'r--Y
'Ll)i
Welded from one
Qtl-- ~'
side
~R
g~~ Type (b)
Welded from both
sides
(a} (b)
v.
n
2 Single with backing strip
.~;1,
*
Backing strip
may be removed
after welding
3 Double v
a
'r-1
)~, Type (a)
~~
g
~~· N
Ordinary
s-. ~ Type (h)

Equal, Asymm_etrical
9
(a} (b)
~~ :~t-~:
Type (c)
Unequal, Symmetrical
Type {d)
~. Unequal, Asymmetrical
(c) (d)
FIG. 3·7 Typical weld preparations for fusion welding of steel.

4 Single U, without backing strip
h ]__!) _;;
_
~~
Welded from
both sides
t tl3t
e-ll!-
5 Single U, with backing strip
- s
r:-1 Backing strip
~
See Type 2 for may be removed
vertical welds after welding
6 Double U
a
'\:"1
~~·
Type (a)
Equal
See Type 3 for

vertical welds
~· 7
~
Y Joints
Type (b)
Unequal
¥. ,,
a
8 Partial Double Y
,
'r-i
a
~
~(-d·: ;i·f
~@E· a•
t
~
T
s
mainly on the Recommendations of the International Institute of Welding

(22). V and double-V preparations are in general preferred to the U and
double-U types, due to the ease and economy with which the edges may be
prepared. The amount of metal deposited is higher in the former types of
preparations than in the latter.
(1) Single V without Backing Strip. Welding process: metal-arc.

Type (a) is only used for circumferential joints in cylinders. Must not be
used when a tensile bending stress exists at the root or when subjected to
cyclic loading, unless special precautions (such as an argon arc deposited
root run), are taken to overcome the possible lack of penetration. In these
cases, Type (b) is preferable. For thicknesses over i in, these preparations
may be uneconomical due to the large amount of weld metal required.
Precautions against distortion must be taken.
Usual symmetrical preparation:
ex = 50° for all positions, 70° for overhead position.
s = 0-t in.
Asymmetrical preparation:
ex= 55°; P1 = 10-15°.
s =}a in-A in on the upper edge, s = 0 on the lower edge.
The root gap varies from n in to ! in depending on the thickness and, to a
lesser degree, on the position.
(2) Single V with Backing Strip. Welding process:

metal-arc (steel or copper backing)
submerged-arc (copper or bed of flux)
In all cases, a close fit between the backing strip and the component parts
is essential. The maximum separation allowed is one-quarter of the thickness
or ,\ in whichever is smaller. Steel backing has been used for the metal-arc
process in all thicknesses when one side is inaccessible for welding. Some
Codes, however, limit the application of this type of preparation to 1! in
thicknesses. The possibility of stress concentrations and corrosion at the
root must be considered. The most common values of the parameters when
a steel backing are used, are summarized below:
Downhand Position
Angle 45° 30° 20°
Root gap g ! in (min) -a\ in (min) -A- in (min)
PRELl MINAR Y LAYOUT 73
The root gap is increased when the first layer is deposited in two runs
and, for thicker plates and angles of 30-20°, in order to allow for a 30°
inclination of the electrode. For the vertical positions the minimum root gap
should be slightly larger and a: = 45° should be preferred. For the horizontal-
vertical position, an asymmetric preparation with a: = 45°, P1 = 10-15°,
g~i in may be used.
Copper backing has been used for both the metal-arc and the submerged-
arc processes. The I.I.W. recommends that great care be exercised when
using this type of backing in conjunction with normal penetration electrode
for submerged-arc welding, or poor penetration may result.
This type of joint, in thicknesses up to I! in, may be welded by the sub-
merged-arc process using a bed of flux as the backing. Adequate control of
the penetration is difficult.
(3) Double V. Welding process: Metal-arc and submerged-arc.

This is the most commonly used preparation for the metal-arc welding of
thick sections when both sides are accessible. Root chipping is necessary in
order to obtain a sound weld. This may be facilitated by the use of unequal
preparations, chipping from the shallow side. The use of unequal preparations
is recommended to obtain the same cross-sectional area at either side of the
root after chipping and to reduce the volume to fill in the overhead position.
Asymmetrical joints, used in the vertical-horizontal position, are similar to
the symmetrical type, with P1 = 10-15°. In general, a: = 60° and s = 0-is in.
A typical unequal preparation would have a:' = 60°, a:" = 90°, d' = ! and
d" = t of the thickness. The angle a:" may be reduced to 60° when less
welding in the overhead position is required.
(4) U Preparations (Types 4, 5, 6). These preparations are more economical

than the types previously mentioned from the standpoint of weld metal.
In general, r = i in and s = tin. The angle a: is taken as 20° for the downhand
position, 30° for vertical position and 40° for vertical and overhead position
welding. Asymmetrical preparations with P1 = 5-10° are used for the
horizontal-vertical position. The root gap g = 0----l in.
(5) Y Preparations (Types 7, 8). Y-type preparations are generally used for
submerged-arc welding. Type 7 is recommended for thicknesses up to i in.
Typical values of the geometrical parameters are a: = 70-90°, s = i x thick-
ness, g = 0. Type 8 is used for thicknesses above i in, with a: = 70-90°,
s = t x thickness and g = 0.
The joint preparations previously discussed may be considered to be
typical. The following examples illustrate their application to specific cases.
(6) Metal-Arc Welding of Pipes. Some weld preparations used in piping
20°
~·radius
Edge Preparation Commonly Used
,,; .
fmin B /IIIII
Weld Preparation with Backing Rings
80°
Pipe thickness less than f Pipe thickness over ~ •

Horizontal pipes g = f Root gap g as for thinner
6"
pipes
Vertical pipes g = J2
Weld Preparation for Austenitic Steel Pipes
FIG. 3·8 Weld preparations for circumferential joints in pipes.
systems are shown in Fig. 3·8. Dimensional Standards, such as B.S. 1640 and
ASA-B16, specify various joint preparations for end fittings such as valves,
bends, reducers, flanges etc. The ASA-B31 Code may also be consulted.
Joint preparations for austenitic steel have been studied by Truman eta!. (23).
(7) Arc Welding of Thick Plate. Steel plates of 3-6 in thickness are used for
the manufacture of vessels for the nuclear, chemical and power industries.
The weld shown in Fig. 3·9 (Ref. 24) achieves ease and economy of prepara-
tion together with a saving in the amount of weld metal. Welding may be
Weld beads
FIG. 3·9 Weld preparation for thick sections (Ref. 24).
70° 30°
I
~~ ~
fi'±o·ooJ
r
i
~~ fi o·oos~ 1- t
±
1 11 t•
TB"F
Weld Preparation for Argonarc Welding of Pipes
60°
~~w 8 16
18
Weld Preparation for Automatic Mig Welding of Pipes

3~ -· 40°
~ ~
~'J r
i ...5'!.+.1.'!
64 - 6~
L"+I'.-
8 -16
1- t
Weld Preparation for Tig Fused Root, Metal-Arc Remainder
FIG. 3·10 Special weld preparations for circumferential joints in pipes
(based on Refs. 23, 25).
either by the manual metal-arc process or by the submerged-arc technique.

In that case, the first runs are made manually.
The use of Argonarc, Mig and Tig techniques for butt welding of pipes is
covered in Refs. 23 and 25. Some recommended weld preparations are shown
in Fig. 3·10.
The electroslag welding technique
'\6o"i has the advantage that a plain flame-
'·I 'i~l;--
~~--o·oJO·
cut edge only is required. The separa-
tion between the edges at the joint
varies from 1i in for 3 in plates to 1-f«-
in for 12 in plates.
Joint preparations for non-ferrous
materials are very similar to those
reviewed for steel. Some typical pre-
parations for nickel alloys are shown
in Fig. 3·11 (Ref. 26). For further
details concerning the weld prepara-
tions for these alloys and other non-
ferrous metals, the reader is referred to
the current edition of the Welding
Handbook (19).
Flo. 3·11 Butt welds for nickel alloys. Clad vessels are being used more
and more frequently by the chemical
and nuclear industries. The Welding Handbook and Ref. 17 should be con-
sulted for the design problems associated with this type of construction, i.e.
cladding techniques, types of welded joints and joints between austenitic and
ferritic steels or, in general, dissimilar materials.
3·5·4 Butt Welding of Plates of Unequal Thickness

When butt welding plates of unequal thickness, a tapered transition with an
angle not larger than 14° (1 in 4 slope) should be provided. The weld may
be in the transition section, in which case it must be ground flush. Figure 3·12
shows some typical arrangements. When the weld is not ground flush, it is
advisable to leave a distance equal to at least twice the plate thickness
between the centre line of the weld and the beginning of the transition.
3·5·5 Head to Shell Connections

When a hemispherical, torispherical or ellipsoidal head is connected to a
cylindrical shell of a different thickness, the general arrangements shown in
Fig. 3·12 (a) and (c) are preferred. Torispherical and ellipsoidal heads should
then have a cylindrical skirt and the minimum length be of the order of three
times the head thickness or I! in, whichever is smaller.
·VI~· !
4 4
I
I
I
' I \
\
\ I\ i \
\
\
\
~/ \ ' ' ...
(a) '
(b) (c)
FIG. 3·12 Typical transitions between plates of unequal thickness.
r; la 3t or f'
FIG. 3·13 Recommended types of fiat heads.
Some recommended types of welded connections between flat heads and

cylindrical shell are shown in Fig. 3·13.
3·5·6 Welded Nozzles

The inserted type nozzle, consisting of a forged rim butt welded to the vessel
shell, is in general use when a full penetration weld with 100% radiographic
inspection is specified (see Fig. 3·5). The type shown in Fig. 3·6 (a) is used for
large openings in severe duty vessels. The weld preparation of the branch is
of the types shown in Fig. 3·14. The most commonly used type is the one
shown in Fig. 3·6 (b), incorporating a part penetration weld. Some acceptable
branches of this type are shown in Fig. 3·15 (from A. S.M. E., Section VIII).
The Mig process has been applied to the welding of branches in boiler
drums (Ref. 17). The process is particularly interesting when a large number
of branches of the same diameter have to be welded. The weld preparation
used is given in Fig. 3·16.
FIG. 3·14 Typical full penetration weld preparations for branches.
3·5·7 Welded Attachments

Most attachments, such as supporting skirts and brackets, are welded to the
vessel by means of fillet welds, without penetration. The design of these welds
is well known to the engineer and will not be covered in this book. The
Welding Handbook (Ref. 19) or Designfor Welding (Ref. 21) should be con-
sulted. For the preliminary layout, the approximate dimensioning of the
welds may be based on an allowable shear stress equal to 50% of the design
stress for the vessel material. Tensile stresses in welds may be allowed up to
75% of the same design stress.
3·6 STRESS RELIEVING
Thermal stress relieving of the welded seams is specified for most vessels and
piping systems and has to be taken into account when preparing the
t, + !2 = ] ·]5 X fmi11
t 1 , t2 > ftmin or f
Flo. 3-15 Typical part penetration and fillet welds in branches (after
A.S.M.E. Section VIII).
preliminary layout. The purpose of this heat treatment is primarily to reduce

the residual stresses built up during welding but, depending on the tempera-
ture achieved, it may also have a beneficial normalizing effect on the material.
The stress relieving temperature is chosen, on the metallurgist's advice, from
a range of 450-600 oc as specified by most Codes. When the lower tempera-
ture is selected, it has to be maintained for as long as 10 hr per 1 in thickness,
while only 1 hr is necessary for the higher temperature. The heating and
cooling rates are given by most Codes, and so are the maximum permissible
FIG. 3·16 Weld preparation for nozzle attachment by automatic C02 process.
gradients. It is advisable to act on the recommendation of the Codes, monitor-

ing the temperature distribution in the vessel and checking that the tempera-
ture stresses during the whole treatment do not exceed the yield stress of the
material.
The operation may be performed at the works in special furnaces, or at
site. In the first case, the only limitation on the design is imposed by the
maximum size of units which can be accommodated in the furnaces avail-
able. Long cylindrical vessels may be stress relieved in this way in more than
one heat, each time leaving a portion outside the furnace, suitably insulated
and shielded to avoid excessive gradients. Large vessel~ are sometimes stress
relieved as whole units at site, heating the vessel internally by oil burners,
gas burners or electric heaters. The vessel is then externally insulated and a
sufficient number of thermocouples are attached to its surface, monitoring
the temperature distribution. When an excessive gradient is detected, cor-
rective measures, such as the addition of insulation or the regulation of the
heating rate, are taken.
When it is not practicable to stress relieve a complete vessel, it is normal

to stress relieve portions of it in a furnace before assembly and the final
joints, locally, after assembly. This is usually done by heating a reduced area
around the weldment with electric band heaters (resistance or induction).
This system is in general application for the site circumferential joints in
cylindrical vessels and piping systems. The portion of the vessel outside the
heater is then insulated and the temperature gradient monitored. When the
weldment to be locally stress relieved is very close to massive parts of the
structure or to local discontinuities, it may well be that the required tempera-
ture can not be achieved without setting up extremely high thermal stresses.
A reduction of the stress relieving temperature in accordance with the Code
requirements is then advisable. It is recommended to position the welds in
such a way that this problem does not arise.
REFERENCES
1. M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY, Design of Piping Systems (J. Wiley, 1956).

2. LANCASTER J. F. Paper in Symposium on Pressure Vessel Research
Towards Better Design (I.Mech.E., 1962).
3. CLARKE J. S. & NORTHUP M.S., A.S.M.E. Paper No. 63-WA-195.
4. KARMAN TH. VoN & TSIEN H. S. Paper in Pressure Vessel and Piping
Design: Collected Papers (A.S.M.E., 1960).
5. GALLETLY G. D. 'Torispherical Shells-A Caution to Designers'. loc. cit.
Ref. 4.
6. WINN L. Technische Uberwachung, 1 (1960) 409.
7. 'Design of Pressure Vessel Nozzles' Brit. Welding J. 9 (1962) 500.
8. WATERS E. 0., WESSTROM D. G. & WILLIAMS F. S. G. loc. cit. Ref. 4.
9. KERKHOF W. P. Flange Design (Koninglijk Instituut van lngenieurs,
1957).
10. SIEBEL E. & KRAGELOH E. Konstruktion 4 (1955) 123 & 187.
11. LAKE G. F. & BoYD G. Proc. I. Mech. E. 171 (1957).
12. MILLER K. A. G. loc. cit. Ref. 4.
13. WEBB T. B. Design and Construction of Pressure Vessels (Babcock &
Wilcox Co. Ltd.).
14. HARRIS H. 'Heavy Plate Welding in the Power Industry' (I.I.W., 1960).
15. ROCKWELD LTD. Vertomatic, an Economic Process for Welding of Heavy
Sections.
16. SANTILHANO P. D. & HAMILTON I. G. Brit. Welding J. 11 (1964) 256.
17. HARRIS H. Brit. Welding J. 10 (1963) 132.
18. SMITH A. A. Brit. Welding J. 10 (1963) 159.
19. AMERICAN WELDING SoCIETY. Welding Handbook (Macmillan/Cleaver-

Hume, 5 Parts serially revised).
20. LAMBLE J. H. (ed.). Principles and Practice of Non-Destructive Testing
(Heywood, 1962).
21. KOENIGSBERGER F. Design for Welding (Longmans, 1943).
22. 'Fundamentals of Design and Fabrication for Welding' Report IIS/IIW-
79-61 {lnst. of Welding).
23. TRUMAN R. J., ROE W. L. & McWILLIAM J. A. Brit. Welding J. 9 (1962)
317.
24. HOLLIDAY W. C. Brit. Welding J. 9 (1962) 291.
25. BAKER B. H., COPLESTON F. W. & MORGAN L. H. Brit. Welding J. 10
(1963) 231.
26. STEPHENSON N., SYMONDS C. H. & THORNEYCROFT D. R. Brit. Welding J.
9 (1962) 301.
4 Elastic Stress Analysis: General Method
4·0 INTRODUCTION
T Cylindrical
basic shape of most pressure vessels is either cylindrical or spherical.
HE
vessels are closed at each end with a head that may be a
hemisphere, a part sphere, a part sphere with a toroidal knuckle, an ellipsoid,
a flat plate, etc. Vessels of both basic shapes have penetrations, usually
circular cylinders, that are often thickened local to the opening to diminish
the stress raising effect of the hole in the vessel. Figure 4·1 shows a cross-
sectional view of part of a vessel with a conical reducing section.
The stress system in the shells comprising a vessel vary from shape to
shape, and where one shell intersects another a disturbance is caused in the
stress distribution. Since the material of the vessel is continuous, the effect
of the intersection spreads throughout the vessel and where more than two
shapes are involved the interactions between shells are all affected by one
another. In some cases the disturbances die away rapidly with distance from
the intersection, and then the effects at each change of shape may be con-
sidered separately. To calculate the stresses in a vessel such as that shown
in Fig. 4·1, it is therefore necessary to understand the behaviour of each type
of shell and to develop a technique for calculating the interactions between
them. The study of stress systems in individual shells is deferred until the
subsequent chapters. In this chapter it is assumed that the behaviour of each
type of shell is known, and a method is developed for calculating the inter-
actions between a series of shells joined end to end.
Vessels are frequently supported by cylindrical or conical skirts which may
penetrate the basic shell to provide support for internals, as illustrated in
Fig. 1·6. Again a technique for calculating the stress disturbances is developed
for a group of shells which have a common intersection.
Both of these methods are described in §§ 4·5 and 4·6. Section 4·1 sum-
marizes the fundamental equations of elasticity and § 4·2 describes the
approximations made to make the search for solutions easier. The type of
problem encountered is described in greater detail in § 4·3, and § 4·4 con-
tains a summary of the rules for the operations on matrices which are
introduced as a shorthand for writing simultaneous equations.
83
4·1 STRESSES, STRAINS AND DISPLACEMENTS

Many pressure vessel problems can be solved
by approximating the state of stress within
the vessel wall to be two-dimensional. Some
cases, however, require a three-dimensional
analysis and the approximate theory is based
on the general case. We therefore begin by
considering the three-dimensional case.
There are two types of forces which are ex-
perienced by a volume of material within the
vessel wall. The first type acts on the volume
of the material and is called a body force.
Gravity and reversed mass accelerations are
examples of body forces. The second type of
force acts on the surface of the volume and
is applied by the surrounding material. Figure
4·2 illustrates the volume and shows an ele-
mental area dS which is orientated with re-
spect to the coordinate system by the normal
n to the surface. The two tangents s and t
form a right-handed triad of axes with n.
The force transmitted over dS by the sur-
rounding material is Fn and has components
Fn., Fnr• Fnn acting in the directions s, t and n.
The stress at P on the face whose normal to
the volume is in the direction n is
• Fnt
FIG. 4·1 Typical vessel composed (J'ns = lim Fns; unt = I1m - , etc.
of several elementary shells. dS--+odS dS--+odS
The stress unn is said to be a normal stress and uns• unt are shear stresses. It is
necessary to consider the stresses associated with three mutually perpendicular
directions in order to characterize the state of stress at P. From equilibrium
considerations it can be shown that upq = uqp for all directions p and q, so
the state of stress at P is determined by the six quantities
Working in Cartesian co-ordinates and writing Fx, Fy, Fz as the components

of the body force, the conditions of equilibrium for the volume become
auxx auxy auxz F O
-+-+-+
ax ay az
x=
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 85
oux, + ou,, ou,,. +F _ O

--
OX
--+--
ay oz
,- (4·1)
ou"'"' ou,,. ouzz F 0

--+--+--+
ox oy oz
"'=
Each point in the material undergoes a displacement from its original

position due to the forces acting upon the vessel. Let P and Q be two neigh-
X
FIG. 4·2 Stress at a point.
bouring points which are displaced toP' and Q' as shown in Fig. 4·3. The
quantities u*, v*, w* are the displacements of Q and if products of the incre-
mental lengths are ignored, Taylor's theorem gives
u* = u +~ dx+ ou dy+ i!!!. dz

ox oy oz
ov ov ov
v* = v +- dx+- dy+- dz
ox oy oz
w* = w+ ow dx+ ow dy+ ow dz
OX ay az
D
By using the co-ordinates of P', Q', P, Q and ignoring products of smaH

quantities, the increase in the incremental length ds can be calculated to be
a(ds) = ds})"(~~)(~~)
where the summation over p and q includes all combinations of x, y, z.
Q' (x+dx+u;
y+ dy+ ":
z+ dz+ w*)
p• (x+u,yu,Z+w)
p
(x,y,z)
Flo. 4·3 Displacement of two points.
In this expression epq = eqp and

-au. 2., = ov +ow
ax '
8 "'"' - "yz az ay
- av. aw au
2Bx:=- +- (4·2)
ay
llyy- - ,
ax az
- aw., av au
2Bxy = - +-
az
llu - -
ax ay
The quantities e" are called the components of strain at P. If PQ is parallel
to the x-axis a(dx) = e""" dx and a"" is referred to as a normal strain. Similarly
e11 and au are normal strains. The remaining Bpq are called shear strains be-
cause it can be shown geometrically that they represent shearing, with no
changes in length, in the direction q of the plane through P whose normal is
in the direction p.
For the materials with which we shall be dealing it has been shown experi-
mentally that the relationships between stresses and strains, whilst the
material remains elastic, are
E e"'"' = 0'"'"'-v (u11 +uu)+ EocT
Eeyy = 0'11 -v(uu+uu)+EocT
Eezz = u,,-V(O'xx+u,,)+EtXT
(4·3)
Eeyz = (l+v)uy,
E Bxz = (1 +v) O'xz
Eexy = (l+v)uxy
In these formulae E is Young's modulus, v Poisson's ratio and a the coefficient
of linear expansion. These equations are only true if the material is isotropic,
so directional properties introduced by forming processes are not catered for
in the subsequent development of the theory. A further limitation is implicit
in Eqn. 4·1, which was set up assuming that the equilibrium conditions can
be formulated using the undeflected co-ordinates of the point. If large
deflections occur this is no longer true, and the revised equations will include
products of deflections and derivatives of stress, and will thus become non-
linear.
From an inspection of Eqns. 4·1-4· 3, it can be seen that three equations
for the three deflections can be derived by expressing the stresses in terms of
the displacements and substituting these expressions in the body force
equations. All problems in the determination of elastic stresses in an iso-
tropic material, with a linear stress strain law, consist of solving these
equations with appropriate boundary conditions. Because this is extremely
difficult in most cases the problem is simplified by making the assumptions
described in the following section.
4·2 ASSUMPTIONS OF THIN SHELL THEORY
Most pressure vessels are built from shells which have an axis of symmetry,
and it is shapes of this type which will be investigated.
Consider a plane curve which is not closed, i.e. a straight line, an arc of a
circle or ellipse, etc. When such a curve is rotated about an axis an axi-
symmetric surface is generated. At a general point on such a surface there
are two principal radii of curvature whose inverses are the principal curva-
tures at the point. The product of these two numbers is called the Gaussian
curvature, and its sign conveys useful information which can be easily
visualized. If the Gaussian curvature is everywhere positive the generating
curve is convex outwards with respect to the axis, and if it is everywhere
negative the curve is concave outwards. Surfaces of positive Gaussian curva-
ture are cylinders, cones, spheres, ellipsoids, etc.
An axi-symmetric shell is defined as the structure whose boundaries are
two axi-symmetric surfaces with a common axis. Clearly the two generating
curves must not intersect, and the ends of the shell wall will generally be
formed by the revolution of straight lines joining the ends of the two curves.
Examples of shells with negative Gaussian curvature are the inner half of
toroids and hyperboloids of one sheet used in cooling tower construction.
Generally speaking shells of this type are encountered more frequently in
civil engineering, where they figure in roof construction. A further difference
between the use of shells in civil engineering and in pressure vessels is that
the shells are often incomplete in the former case. In this book we are con-
cerned primarily with shells which have no boundary parallel to the axis of
symmetry.
Usually pressure vessel shells are composed of two surfaces of the same
type, but this is not always the case; for example, taper hub flanges incor-
porate shells whose inner boundary is cylindrical and whose outer boundary
is· conical. If the two surfaces of the shell are of the same type they will
generally have a common normal and the mid-surface of the shell bisects its
own normal with respect to the inner and outer boundaries of the shell.
The thickness of the shell is the distance between the two boundary
surfaces measured along the normal to the mid-surface. For those shells
which do not have a normal common to both boundary surfaces the choice
of the mid-surface is somewhat arbitrary; formally the definition is-the mid-
surface is the surface which bisects its own normal with respect to the inner
and outer boundaries of the shell.
With the definitions given above the assumptions of thin shell theory will
now be stated:
(a) Plane sections normal to the mid-surface of the shell in the unloaded
state remain plane after the application of the load.
(b) Stresses normal to the mid-surface of the shell are negligible in com-
parison with those acting in the plane of the mid-surface.
(c) The stress induced strain normal to the mid-surface can be ignored.
It must not be forgotten that there are additional assumptions made in
§ 4·1. The most restrictive of these earlier assumptions is likely to be that
referring to the magnitude of the displacements, but it is necessary to use the
modified equations only when the shell is very thin. All of the assumptions
are reasonably true if the shell is thin, by which it is meant that the ratio of
the thickness to the smaller of the radii of curvature must be small in com-
parison with unity. Novozhilov (1) considers shells to be thin if the ratio is
less than 210 whilst Fliigge (2) and Timoshenko (3) both use -ftr. If the choice
lies between using thin shell theory or none at all it is probable that the
theory will be used in spite of the possible inaccuracies. It is often the case
that a vessel is composed of a thick shell attached to a thin one, and under
these conditions the highest stresses usually occur in the thin component at
the intersection of the two shells, where the thin shell theory can be expected
to give the least inaccurate results. Certain types of loading will invalidate
the assumptions even for thin shells. This is the case where the applied loading
varies rapidly with distance either on the surface or on an exposed edge
(unless in the latter case the variation is linear with distance from the mid-
surface). The effect of this breakdown in the validity of the assumptions is
that the stresses within the region of application of the load cannot be pre-
dicted by thin shell theory. Farther away the theory will give reasonable
results, since by St. Venant's principle the loading can be replaced by a
statically equivalent system compatible with the assumptions.
4·3 MEMBRANE AND BENDING BEHAVIOUR OF SHELLS
In a shell for which the assumptions of § 4·2 are valid, the stresses and
deflections can be calculated by supposing that the shell is replaced by its
mid-surface (which has stiffness but no thickness) which has acting upon it
certain resultant forces and which undergoes certain deflections. It is possible
to set up differential equations for these forces and displacements by means
of the relationships between them and the equilibrium conditions for an
element of the mid-surface. This process will be described in the following
chapters. It will be found that some shells can carry certain loads solely by
means of forces acting in the plane of the mid-surface, in the way in which a
soap bubble is supported by 'surface tension'. In these cases there are no
bending moments or shear forces and the state of stress is referred to as the
membrane solution.
The sphere of uniform thickness subjected to constant internal pressure P
is one such case. From conditions of symmetry the stress is the same in all
directions and by considering the equilibrium of one-half of the sphere,
a = P Rj2h where R and h are the radius and thickness of the sphere. The
mid-surface strain is the same in all directions and the radial deflection is the
radius times the strain and equals PR 2 (1-v)j2Eh.
Consider the part sphere shown in Fig. 4·4(a), under the action of internal
pressure and a tangential force at the edge of magnitude PR/2 per inch of
circumference. These are precisely the loads which the part sphere would
experience if the sphere were complete, so the deflection of the edge normal
to the axis is
PR 2 sin cf>(l-v)/2Eh
and the rotation of the meridional tangent to the shell at the edge is x = 0. If
the sphere is supported by distributed axial forces per inch of circumference,
as shown in Fig. 4·4(b), bending stresses will be induced (unless 4> = n/2).
It is convenient to obtain the state shown in Fig. 4·4(b), by adding to the
membrane solution the effect of the force shown in Fig. 4·4(c). Such a force
will produce an edge deflection and tangent rotation proportional to the force,
so we can write the deflections under the system of Fig. 4·4(b) as
<>* = PR 2 sin cf>(l-v) -aPR cos 4>
2Eh 2
-bPR cos cf>
x* = 2
In these equations a and b are two stiffnesses of the part sphere and can be
found in terms of R, h and 4> (see Chapter 6). This state of stress is known as
the free or unrestrained state because the edge loads are sufficient to hold the
(a) (b) (c)
Fro. 4·4 Edge forces in unrestrained spherical cap.
shell in equilibrium, but they do not place any restraint on the movement of
the edge radial to the axis, nor on the tangent rotation.
Closed cylindrical shells subjected to internal pressure also have a membrane
solution when the equilibrating edge loads act parallel to the axis. These
loads have a magnitude Pr/2 per inch of circumference and produce axial
stresses Prf2t where r is the radius and t the thickness. By considering the
equilibrium of one-half of the cylinder the circumferential stress is Pr/t, so
the radial deflection is
and there is no tangent rotation.

Now consider the vessel shown in Fig. 4·5 and suppose that the cylindrical
barrel is so long that each end can be treated independently. We will refer to
the cylinder as component 1 and the part sphere as component 2. From
simple geometry, R sin 4> = r, so the condition of axial equilibrium between
components is satisfied if we take the unrestrained state for the part sphere
and the membrane (also the unrestrained in this case) for the cylinder. The
displacements in this state are
o* _ Pr 2 (2-v). o* _ PR 2 sin ¢(1-v) -a PR cos cp

1 - 2Eh ' 2 - 2Eh 2 2
(4·4)
xi= O; X~=
-b 2 PR cos cp
2
h
FIG. 4·5 Cylindrical vessel with part spherical caps.
Even when ¢ = n/2 the displacements of the sphere are different from those
of the cylinder so these solutions do not represent the total state of stress.
The violation of the conditions of continuity of displacement indicates that
M M H
Sz
H
-s,
H M
-s1 -x,
)
FIG. 4·6 Interaction forces, moments and displacements at the junction of a
cylindrical and part spherical shells.
additional bending takes place. It may be assumed that an interaction force

and moment H and M act as shown in Fig. 4·6 and that they produce dis-
placements
01 = -a 1 H+b 1 M; o2 = a 2 H+b 2 M
(4·5)
Xt = b1H-c1M; X2 = b2H+c2 M
Adding these displacements to the unrestrained values leads to the final

displacements b1 +()!, X1 +xf and b2 +bi, x2 +x!. To ensure continuity
of displacement, these must be equal, so
()1-()2 = bi-bi
(4·6)
Substituting from the preceding equations leads to two simultaneous equa-

tions for Hand M:
_ PR 2 sin ¢(1-v) a2 PR cos¢ Pr 2 (2-v)
- (a1 + a2 )H + (b 1 - b 2 )M - ----"':--'-------..:..
2Eh 2 2Eh
(4·7)
When these equations have been solved the effects of the edge restraints can
be combined with the unrestrained values to give the total solution.
Equations 4·5 and 4·6 are quite general and can refer to shells of arbitrary
shape, provided that the stiffnesses and unrestrained displacements are
calculated correctly; for example, the intersection could be that between the
cone and cylinder of the vessel shown in Fig. 4·1. For some shells the un-
restrained solution will simply be the membrane solution, and for others it
may be necessary to add the effect of an edge force.
Under certain types of loading a membrane state of stress cannot exist
in cylinders and spheres, for example when there are temperature variations
through the wall thickness. Also, for some types of shell such as toroids,
membrane stresses can be calculated from the equilibrium conditions, but
may not be an accurate representation of the true state of stress, because
change of curvature takes place upon the application of load. This indicates
that the bending moments and shear forces cannot be neglected when con-
sidering the equilibrium conditions. Caution should therefore be exercised
when applying the formulae for membrane stress in a general shell of revolu-
tion (see, for instance, Ref. 4).
In the above example the loading was axi-symmetric and as a result the
treatment was relatively simple. In the following chapters it will be seen that
the stress analysis for a general case is carried out using a Fourier technique
for dealing with the circumferential variations. In this analysis stresses and
deflections are composed of series of terms such as
an cos nlJ + bn sin nlJ
where the coefficients am bn are functions of the other variable describing
position on the shell. The cases n = 0, n = 1 respectively describe the axi-
symmetric and lateral loading cases. These have the special feature that the
stresses at the edges of the shell have resultants which balance externally
applied loads parallel and normal to the axis; all other values of n correspond
to stress distributions which are self equilibrating when taken around the
circumference of the shell. The axi-symmetric and lateral loading cases repre-
sent a large proportion of the problems with which the designer is faced and
they receive more attention in the subsequent chapters than the higher
harmonics. One important class of loading which cannot be entirely covered
by these two cases is that brought about by local attachments such as pads
and gussets, and these effects can only be tackled using the higher harmonics
or the influence line technique (Ref. 5).
The interaction effects between a series of shells are calculated using the
principles applied in the above example; namely, conditions of equilibrium
and continuity of displacement must be satisfied at each intersection. For
vessels involving three or more shells the number of symbols to be handled
becomes large and matrix algebra is used as a convenient shorthand; no
advanced theorems are used and sufficient information is given in the follow-
ing section to equip the reader for the subsequent usage.
4·4 THE USE OF MATRICES
From an inspection of Eqns. 4·5, 4·6 it can be seen that the rotations are
present in equations of the same form as those containing the deflections.
This suggests that we define a generalized or matrix .displacement
D= [~]
The bracket groups the two displacements which are referred to as the
elements of D and are always written in the same relative position. Adopting
the rule that the sum of two matrices is the matrix whose elements are the
sum of elements in corresponding positions, the final displacement of the
cylinder is
1 1= [£>1]
D +D*
X1 xi
+ [£5i] =[£51 +£>i]
X1 +xi
Two matrices are said to be equal if their elements in corresponding positions
are equal, so the two Eqns. 4·6 can be replaced by the single matrix equation
(4·8)
A matrix force F can be similarly defined as

o•
F= [!]
The matrices D and F each have two rows and one column of elements and
are sometimes referred to as column vectors. To complete the analogy with
the scalar (i.e. non-matrix) relationship, displacement = flexibility x force, it
is necessary to define a matrix flexibility A. This must include a, b, c as
elements if it is to convey all the required information and is defined by
These matrices have two rows and two columns and are referred to as
2 x 2 square matrices. If the elements of the rows of A2 are multiplied by the
corresponding elements in the column ofF and summed in pairs, the product
A 2 F is obtained:
Note that the product has two rows and one column and therefore has the
same form as D 2 . The four scalar Eqns. 4·5 can now be replaced with two
matrix equations
(4·9)
Elimination of D 1 and D 2 from the above equations leads to one matrix

equation for F in place of the two scalar Eqns. 4·7:
-(A 1 +A 2 )F = D!-Di (4·10)
When the calculation is carried out numerically it is usual to consider this

matrix equation as a pair of simultaneous equations and to obtain the value of
F by a standard technique. However, it is useful to continue a stage further
with the matrix notation. To do this it is necessary to extend the definition
of matrix multiplication to 2 x 2 matrices. Let
A= [ac b]·
d '
B= [e JJ
g h
and define the product to be
AB = [(ae+bg) (af+bh)J
(ce+dg) (cf+dh)
Observe that it is not always true that AB = BA, so strict attention must be
paid to sequence of multiplication when working with matrices. A special
case arises if e = h = l,J = g = 0, and B is then written as I and is known
as the identity matrix; it has the property that AI= lA = A, IF = F,
ID = D. Suppose B has the property that AB = I and write B = A- 1 • The
reader can check that
A-1 = [ -
ad-ed be -ad:bc]
ad-be ad-be
and that AA- 1 = A- 1 A = I. Note that the inverse matrix exists only if
ad-be =I= 0. In structural problems this condition is always satisfied by the
flexibility matrix. The solution of Eqn. 4·10 can now be written as
F = [A1 +Azr 1 [Di-Di]
All of the matrices so far discussed have had two rows and two columns
(2 x 2) or two rows and one column (2 x 1). In Chapter 9 the flexibility of
piping systems is studied and matrices of higher order are used. There are
in general three forces and deflections and three moments and rotations
acting at any position in the pipe, so the force, displacement and flexibility
matrices are written
Fx (jx all a12 a13 a14a1s a16
F= FY D= (jy A= a21 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · = [aii]
Fz (jz a31 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Mx Xx a41 • • • • • • • • • · • • · • • • •
My Xy as1 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Mz Xz a61 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Again the scalar equations relating displacement and force can be replaced
by a matrix equation, and this time the one equation D = AF replaces six
scalar equations.
A further matrix operation required in the piping analysis is transposition
which changes rows into columns; thus if A' is the transpose of A it is the
matrix [ai;]. Note that if A' = A, aii = aii for all values of i and j, so the
matrix is symmetrical about its leading diagonal. Flexibility matrices which
are multiplied by unit forces always have this property, since by Maxwell's
theorem the deflection at position i produced by unit force at position j is
equal to the deflection at position j produced by unit force at position i.
All matrices can be transposed and it is sometimes more convenient to refer

to the transposed matrix, thus
F' = [FxFyFzMxMyMz]; D' = [bxbybzXxX:vXzl
Matrix equations must always relate matrices which have the same number
of rows and columns and similarly other operations can be carried out only
when certain compatibility conditions are satisfied. The rules for matrix
operations are summarized below for general matrices.
Addition: A= [aii] and B = [bii] are compatible if they are both m x n
and their sum is C = [cii] where cii = aii + bii.
Equality: A and B are compatible if they are both m x n and they are equal
if a1i = bii.
Transposition: The transpose of A, m xn is A', n x m where A'= [ai;].
Multiplication: (1) The product of a number k and a matrix A is the matrix
[kaii].
(2) A and B are compatible if A is m x n and B is n x p and their product
n
is C which is m x p and whose elements are cii = L a 1, b,i·
1
Nullity: Them x n matrix 0 has every element zero. Subject to compatibility
A + 0 = 0 + A = A and AO = 0, OA = 0.
Identity: The square matrix I whose diagonal elements are all unity and
whose other elements are zero has the property that AI = A, lA = A for
all compatible non-null matrices.
Inversion: The square matrix A whose determinant is not zero has an inverse
A- 1 which has the property that AA- 1 = A- 1 A = I.
Two useful properties which follow from the above rules are
(AB)- 1 = B- 1 A - 1 ; (AB)' = B'A'.
In the piping analysis it is found useful to partition some of the matrices
into ones of lower order. Thus the transformation matrix
Uii = [ T1 ~Ti ~]
where I, 0 are the 3 x 3 identity and null matrices, and T;. Ti are 3 x 3
matrices involving the co-ordinates of two points of the pipe. Partitioned
matrices can be treated as though the sub-matrices were elements, provided
all the operations are compatible, e.g.
UiiUik=[T1 ~Ti ~] [Ti~Tk ~]

_ [ll+O(Ti-Tk) 10+01
(T1-Ti)I+I(Ti-Tk) (T1-Ti)O+II
l
=[ I
T;-Tk I
o] = v.k '
For further reading consult Ferrar (6) or Aitken (7).
4·5 AXI-SYMMETRIC LOADING
In the example in§ 4·3 the cylinder was assumed to be so long that the effects
at each end could be considered separately. In many cases this assumption
~
Sv2
.....__,
M1
x,
FIG. 4·7 Edge displacements and forces in a general shell.
will be unacceptable and the edge conditions at each end must be considered
simultaneously.
Consider Fig. 4·7 which illustrates the edge displacements
D·1 = [Jj]·
Xi '
bVJ·
and the edge forces per radian
for a general shell. The loading system consists of thermal effects, distributed
loads and the edge forces illustrated. Suppose that the distributed loads
produce an axial resultant 2n V! and that unrestrained displacements D!,
Di, Jvi are produced when the shell is supported by an axial force only
at edge 1. The displacement Jvi is the movement of edge 2 relative to

edge I in the unrestrained state, and the axial displacement of edge I is
determined by the position of the shell in space. From the condition of
axial equilibrium
(4·11)
The displacements are related to the forces by the flexibility matrix, so
J = rAA21 A
A12A
22 A13J rFF12J +rDiJ
23
rJv2- Jv1 A31 A32 A33 l-'2 Jv!D!
1 11
D2 (4•12)
If the edge displacements are known quantities the forces can be found from
the stiffness equation which is the inverse of Eqn. 4·12
FlJ rBuB12B13J rD1-Di J

rF = B B B
2 D -D! 21 22 23 2 (4·13)
V2 B31B32B33 Jv2-Jv1-Jvi
In many problems the axial load is statically determinate and the effect of V2
can be included in the unrestrained solution. The edge displacements are
then given by
[D1 12 1
D2 ]=[AA21 A
A22 ] [FF2 ]+[D:]
(4·14)
D2
11
Jv -Jv =A
2 31 F1+A32 F2+Jv!
1 (4·15)
Since the axial load is statically determinate the axial displacement cannot be
arbitrarily imposed and is always given by Eqn. 4·15. The remaining displace-
ments can be externally applied and the forces are given by the inverse of
Eqn. 4·14:
[Fl] =[CuC12] [D1-D:]

F2 C21C22 D2-D2
(4.16)
If the shell is closed at end 2, the loads H 2 , M 2 represent internal forces

whose effect is included in the unrestrained solution and 2n V2 is a point
load applied at the apex of the shell. Equation 4·12 reduces to
[Au A13 ] [F 1] [Di] (4.17)

[D
= A31 A33 V + c5v!
1 ]
c5v 2 - c5v 1 2
As for the open ended shell, this equation can be inverted to give
[F1] [B B
V = B B
2
11
31
13 ]
33
[D1-Di
i5v 2 -i5v 1 -i5vi
] (4·18)
Again if V2 is statically determinate its effect can be included in the unre-

strained solution and
D1 =A11 F 1+Di (4·19)
i5v 2 -i5v 1 = A 31 F 1 +i5vi (4·20)
Finally, Eqn. 4·19 can be inverted to give
F 1 = C 11 [D 1 -Di] (4·21)
If the shell is closed at end 1 the corresponding equations have the same form
but relate D 2 , F 2 and contain the flexibilities A22 , etc. For a shell with only
one edge the reference number allocated to the edge is of course quite arbi-
trary, and the distinction made here between edge 1 and edge 2 is only neces-
sary because of the sign convention adopted for forces and displacements.
The coefficients in the above equations are sometimes referred to as
influence coefficients, because they are the influence of unit force or deflection
at one point of the shell upon the deflection or force at another location.
4·5·1 Co-axial Shells Joined in Series

It is now possible to determine the interaction effects between the shells of
different shape comprising vessels such as the one shown in Fig. 4·1, when
the influence coefficients and unrestrained displacements are known for each
component shell.
Consider Fig. 4·8, which is a diagrammatic representation of a series of
shells numbered I, ... , n, ... , N which intersect at the junctions / 1 , ••• , In,
... , IN+l· Each shell can be of arbitrary shape and thickness and can have
different mean radii from the shells to which it is attached. The displacements
D 1 ,n, etc., of shell n are related to the forces F 1 ,n• etc., acting upon the mid-
surface by the flexibilities A~i or the stiffnesses B;j through Eqns. 4·12-4·16.
The loading system consists of known thermal effects, distributed loads and
externally applied forces Fm Vn at a radius rn at intersection ln. The displace-
ments at the point of application of these external loads are Dn and i5v,..
This is now a generalization of the problem discussed in § 4·3 and the
solution is found by applying the principles used there, namely, conditions of
equilibrium and continuity of displacement must be satisfied at each inter-
section. The axial displacement is determined by the position in space of the
composite shell and at each intersection three quantities will be known. These
three quantities are either the external forces or the corresponding displace-
ments or a combination offorces and displacements. The unknown quantities
100 PRESSU RE VESSEL DESIGN
(a)
General Representation
~----------------~--------------------r~
L-------------------~------------------~/1
(b)
'Forces and Movements at a Point in a Junction
FIG. 4·8 Co-axial shells joined in series.

are therefore 3(N + 1) external forces or displacements and 12 N internal

forces and displacements. To determine these there are N equations of the
type 4·11, 5 N equations of the type 4·12 or 4·13 and thefollowingequilibrium
and continuity of displacement equations (see Fig. 4·8(b))
F2,n-1 +Tn,n-1F1,n+[ O.
Zn, n-1 Sln 'l'n
,~. J
Y1,n = T"F"+[
Zn Sln 'l'n
V,. } ~ ,~. J (4·22)
v2,n-1 + v1,n = v,.
,
D1,n = Tn,n-1 D2,n-1 + [z: ' n-10sin tPn] =
=(I + T'n,n-1 -T')D
n n
-[(z:-z:,0n-1)sint/Jn]• (4·23)
bV1,n = ()v2,n-1 +zn,n-1 sin tPnXn+z:.n-1 cos tPn =

= ()vn-Czn-zn,n-1) sin tPnXn-Cz:-z:,n-1) cos tPn
In these equations
Tn,n-1 = [-zn,n-1
1 cos,t..
'f'n
~]; T_[ 1 tPn OJ·
11 - 1 '
- Z 11 COS
Zn, n-1 Zn
z:.n-1 = J~Tdz; z: = J~Tdz

0 0
and z~.n- 1 , z: have been ignored in comparison with Zn,n- 1 and Z11 • Since
/ 1 and JN+ 1 are edges and not true intersections, all internal forces and dis-
placements with suffices 0 or N + 1 must be ignored and z 1,0 = zN + 1,N = 0.
There are 9 N + 3 scalar equations in 4·22 and 4·23 so it is possible to solve
for all the unknowns. The number to be solved simultaneously can be reduced
by making appropriate substitutions between the formulae. If forces are
known and deflections are required, e.g. if flexibilities or unrestrained dis-
placements for the composite shell are required, it is best to eliminate the
unknown forces by using Eqn. 4·13. The smallest number of equations to be
solved simultaneously is obtained by working in terms of the forces, eliminat-
ing deflections by using Eqn. 4·14. From Eqn. 4·11 and the second row of
Eqn. 4·22:
(4·24)
The internal axial forces can therefore be calculated for known values of the
applied loading and their effect can be included in the unrestrained displace-
ments Di,"' Dt"' (ivtn· Substitution of the values for D1 ,n, D2 ,m from Eqn.
4·14 into the first pair of equations in 4·23 leads to a set of equations con-
taining unknown forces only; the forces F 2 ,n can be eliminated by using the
first row of Eqn. 4·22. The following set of equations for the forces F l,n is
obtained:
A22 -A.23 0 ........................ 0
0 ...... 0 -An,n-lAnn-An,n+lO •••• 0 Fl,n
0 ..................... .
(4·25)
In these equations
There are 2(N -1) scalar equations contained in 4·25 and because of the
form of the matrix they can be solved by successive inversion of2 x 2 matrices.
The method is to obtain F 1 , 2 in terms ofF 1 , 3 and a known quantity, and by
substitution into the next equation to continue the process until the last
equation is reached. This equation then gives the value ofF l,N which can be
back substituted in the previous equation to give the value of F l,N _ 1 • This
process can be continued until all the F 1 ,n have been calculated, after which
all the other quantities can be evaluated by substituting the forces into the
earlier equations.
If shell n is so long that conditions at one end do not affect the stresses at
the other end
An,n+l = An+l,n = 0
and the set of simultaneous equations 4·25 splits into two independent sets.
If shell N is closed, Eqn. 4·17 must be used in place of Eqn. 4·14 and the above
equations modified accordingly, similar modifications being required if
shell 1 is closed.
Consider now the intersection at In for the case where there are no external
loads applied at this location. The forces can be resolved into components,
per unit length of circumference, tangential and normal to the shell as shown
in Fig. 4·9. The behaviour of the shells under these loads is calculated on the
assumption that the meridional stress distribution in each shell is of the form
q
N
= ---
t
12z
3 M +--
t
[
1 1
1 -v t
-I t/2
-t/2
12z
Eet.Tdz+-
3
t
t/2
f Eet.Tzdz-Eet.T
-t/2
]
(4.26)
FIG. 4·9 Resultant forces and moments at the edge of a shell.
In this expression z is the distance from the mid-surface of the point at which
the stress is evaluated, and the temperature terms produce a non-linear stress
distribution which has no resultant force or moment. The assumed stress
distribution for each shell is shown in Fig. 4·10(a). The correct junction
equilibrium condition is that the stress distribution across shell n is zero
stress for that part of the surface not in contact with n-1, and equal stress
with that in n- 1 over the common interface. This condition is not satisfied,
but provided the flexibilities are not significantly affected by this incon-
sistency the derived forces and stresses in the thinner shell will be reasonably
accurate. The stresses in the thicker shell will be the same as those in the
thinner one and to the assumed distribution must be added the self-equili-
brating system shown in Fig. 4·10(b). By St. Venant's principle this self-
equilibrating system produces no stress at points far from the edge (in this
context a few thicknesses) and any inaccuracies in the flexibilities will be due
to deformation of the cross-section through the thickness. This deformation
cannot be calculated by thin shell theory. If external loads are applied at In
the stress distributions will depend upon the manner in which the loads are
applied.
For some shells it is difficult to obtain an analytical solution for the shapes
which comprise the shell, and the actual shape can be approximated by a
series of shells for which the solution is known. In these circumstances the
calculation of the stress is best divided into two steps. First, the temperature
terms in Eqn. 4·26 should be calculated for the true thickness and then the
forces acting on the true mid-surface should be calculated from the equili-
brium condition on the edge of shell nor n-1 (each will give the same result
a
C1
(a)
Assumed Distribution
Self Equi/ihrating System

on Shelf n
FIG. 4·10 Stress distribution.
except when an external load is applied at the interface). The difference in

hoop stresses between the two shells will be small because the direct hoop
stress is very nearly proportional to the radial displacement which has been
made the same for each shell.
4·5·2 Co-axial Shells which Intersect in a Common Circle

The influence coefficients of§ 4·5 can be used to determine the interactions
between shells comprising vessels such as that shown in Fig. 1·6. Several
authors have studied particular cases of this problem, e.g. Hicks (8) and
Penny (9). Zaremba (10) generalized the problem to a certain extent but
confined his attention to shells in which the interactions at the common
intersection were not affected by conditions at the other edges. This limitation
can be overcome by using the method of § 4·5·1 to establish the influence

coefficients and unrestrained displacements of composite shells.
Suppose that each composite shell is so long that conditions at the far
edge do not affect the interactions at the common junction, or that the dis-
placements or forces at the far end are known (e.g. the far edge conditions
of the two cylinders of the vessel in Fig. 4·1 might be zero displacement and
rotation). Let the forces and displacements at the junction end of shell n
be F.., Vm D11 , ov... If the shell lies above the plane containing the junction,
the junction edge of shell n is edge 1 in the sense of§ 4· 5, otherwise it is edge 2.
Figure 4·11 shows the junction forces on one shell of each type.
[II M,£~Shellp
Shell n
FIG. 4·11 Two shells from a group with a common intersection.
The unknown quantities are the three forces and three displacements at
the junction end of each shell, i.e. 6 N unknowns. To determine these there
are 3 N flexibility or stiffness equations and the following conditions of
equilibrium and continuity of displacement:
LFn = 0
LVn = 0
(4·27)
D,. = D 1
ov.. = t5v 1
It is best to work in terms of the stiffnesses, so let
[F,.l [D,.-D! ] [F!* l

v,. = B,. ov.. - ov: + v..**
(4·28)
In this equation F!*, V!* are obtained from the knowledge of conditions at
the far end. If the junction edge of shell n is edge 2
[ F**]
n _ [Bn21 ] D
Vn** - B~1 [ 1,n
-D*
l,n]
If the junction edge is edge 1 the values of B"' etc., are most easily calculated
by temporarily re-orientating the shell so that the edge is edge 2, and using the
preceding formulae. If this is done, the signs of the elements in the last two
rows and columns of Bn and the last two rows and last column of [B~ 1 B; t1'
must be changed to allow for the fact that Mn, Vn, Xn• ovn are in the opposite
sense to M 2 ,n, V2 ,n, X2 ,m ov 2 ,n. Care must be taken to ensure that axial
deflections are all calculated relative to the same base.
The following equation can be derived from Eqns. 4·27 and 4·28:
(4·29)
Thus D 1 and ov 1 , and hence all the unknowns, can be obtained by solving
the three simultaneous equations 4·29.
If the axial loads are statically determinate for some shells but not for
others, Eqn. 4·28 will be replaced by Eqn. 4·30 for all shells for which the
axial load is known:
(4·30)
In this equation D! includes the effect of the known axial force and en, F!*
are obtained from Eqn. 4·16. The standard terms in Eqn. 4·29 must be
replaced by
If the axial load is statically determinate for all shells the axial force
condition in Eqn. 4·27 is automatically satisfied and the axial displacement
condition is no longer imposed. The remaining conditions lead to
{~en }n = ~{ enn:-F:*}
1 (4·31)
In these circumstances all the unknown quantities can be calculated after

solving the two simultaneous equations 4· 31.
As an alternative to determining the influence coefficients for composite
shells the systems contained in Eqns. 4·22 and 4·23 can be combined with that
in Eqn. 4·27 to obtain one set of simultaneous equations for all the unknown
forces or displacements. This destroys the capability for finding a solution by
operations on small matrices but results in less work once the simultaneous
equations have been solved. It is preferable to use this method if the vessel
has two circles where groups of shells meet, as is the case if a double skirt
is used.
4·6 LATERAL LOADING
Figure 4·12 shows the edge deflections and forces per radian when the loading
is not symmetrical about the axis of the shell. The lateral loading case occurs
when
Flo. 4·12 Deflection and forces in a shell under lateral loading.
= ~ cos (}; x = xcos (}; u = u sin (}; ~v = ~v cos (}

~
(4·32)
H = H cos 9; M = .M cos 9; U = U sin 9; V = V cos 9
Here ~. H, etc., are functions of the other co-ordinate specifying position on

the shell; this can be meridional angle, axial position, arc length or any other
convenient variable. Shnilarly the distributed loads and temperature varia-
tions are of the form
p, = p, cos 9; p8 = p8 sin 9; Pv = Pv cos 9; T = T cos 9

This system is called lateral loading because the integral of the edge loads
around the circumference, in the direction () = 0 has the value
s= n(H- 0)
Similarly the integral of the moment of the edge forces about the line() = n/2
has the value
G = -n(r V+M)
Consequently the system 4·32 is produced whenever there is a resultant

moment and shear force acting on the shell in the plane containing the axis
of the shell and the line () = 0.
The resultant shear force and bending moment are analogous to the
resultant axial force in the axi-symmetric case, and the reader will observe
many other similarities in the following analysis. The movement which
FIG. 4·13 Rigid body movements in a shell under lateral loading.
corresponds to the axial displacement ov is a deflection () in the direction

x
() = 0 and a tangent rotation at the point () = 0 on edge 1. This rigid body
movement is illustrated in Fig. 4·13 from which it can be seen that the com-
plete set of edge displacements is
The quantities characterizing stress-induced deflections are therefore

Consider Fig. 4·14, which shows the edge forces per radian acting at the
two edges of the shell. The systems
Fi=[~J Ri=[r~bJ
are respectively self-equilibrating and produced by the resultant forces.
The total loading system consists of thermal effects, distributed loads and
the edge forces illustrated.
Suppose that the distributed loads produce a resultant shear force and
bending moinent-Ri at edge 1, and that unrestrained displacements fii,
fi!, fi! are produced when the shell is supported at edge 1 by forces 0!,
r 1Vi only. The condition of lateral equilibrium for the shell is that the sum
t(~-~) cos e
FIG. 4·14 Edge forces per radian for lateral loading.

of the resultant shear forces is zero and the sum of the moments about any
plane normal to the axis of the shell is zero. Taking moments about the
plane containing edge 2, these two conditions can be written as
L(Rl-RD+R2 = 0 (4·33)
where
L=[ -~ ~]
As in the axi-symmetric case only one of the resultant edge loads may be
specified. The relationships between displacements and forces take the form
fill [AuA12At3l [F1l

[ ~2 = A21A22A23 ~2 +
[fiil
n: (4·34)
D3 A31A32A33 R2 D3
This equation is analogous to Eqn 4·12 and there are equations similar to
4·13-4·21 which contain fi1o D2, D3 , in place of D 1, D 2, i5v 2 - <5v 1 and F\,
F 2, R 2 in place ofF 1, F 2, V2 • These equations will not be written down here
but reference will later be made to the corresponding flexibilities A, B, C.
4·6·1 Co-axial Shells Joined in Series

The series of shells 1, ... , n, ... , N illustrated in Fig. 4·8 can now be examined
under lateral loading. The position of the composite shell in space determines
x
the values of J1, 1 and at each interface four quantities will be known. These
are either the externally applied forces Fn, Rn or the corresponding displace-
ments, or a mixture of forces and displacements. The unknown quantities
are therefore 4(N + 1) external forces or displacements and 16 N internal
forces and displacements. To determine these there are 6 N flexibility or
stiffness equations and the following 14 N +4 conditions of equilibrium and
continuity of displacement:
F2,n-1 +fn,n-1 F1,n+[ 0 .

Zn, n- 1 Sin'f'n
,~,. J
P1,n = TnFn+[
Zn Sin'f'n
?,~,. Jvn } ( 4· 35)
R2,n-t +T,;:!-1:R1,n = T; 1Rn
[ X1,n
~1,n] = T~.n- 1 [~2,n-1]+[si~
X2,n-1
c/Jn]z:,n- 1 =
[ ~ (zn, -zn,n-l)cos c/Jn] [~:]-[ (z:-z~n- 1 ) sin c/Jn]

In these equations the transfer matrices Tn,n- 1, Tn are defined in § 4·5·1 and
fn,n-1 = [ 1
-zn, n-1 cos"'
'Yn
r2,n-1
0] ; =[ 1 0]
fn
-zn cos o/n
,t,. rl,n-1
r1,n rn
Zn,n-1 Zn
z:,n- 1 = f
0
af'dz; z: = f
0
aTdz
Because / 1 and IN+t are edges and not true intersections, internal forces
and displacements with suffices 0 or N + 1 must be ignored and z 1,0 =
ZN+l,N = 0.
It is now possible to solve simultaneously for all the unknowns, but the
number of simultaneous equations to be solved can be reduced by making
appropriate substitutions between the above formulae. The smallest number
to be solved simultaneously is again obtained by working in terms of the
forces.
From Eqn. 4·33 and the second row of Eqn. 4·35
n n-1
fi
.n.l,n = '\' -
L- LnkRk- '\'
L- LnkRlk *-*
k=l k=1
(4·37)
where
Lnk = L!k+Tk,k-1-Tk
Thus the internal resultant forces can be calculated when the externally
applied resultants and the distributed loads are known, and their effects can
be included in the unrestrained deflections. Elimination of the deflections and
the unknown forces at edge 2 of each shell leads to the following set of
equations for the forces F\,n:
Azz -Az3 o ................................. o Ftz
0 .............................. 0 -AN.N-lAN,N Fl,N

X1 +Az1 F1,n
(4·38)
In these equations
A- n,n-1 = fln,n-111.21
Tn-l.A-
' n,n =
fl
,nn-1
A-n-111\
22 .ln,n-1
+Tn ·A-n,n+l =
1\.11'
Tn
A12
''fn+l,n
0
f*2, n = f n Fn + [ z n sin A.
'Yn
JV. - [
n
0
z n, n-1 sin A.
'f'n
Jv
1, n
Equation 4·38 is analogous to Eqn. 4·25 for the axi-symmetric case and can
be solved in the same manner. The reader will notice that the number of
equations to be solved and the size of the sub-matrices are exactly the same
for both types of loading. All the remarks made in§ 4·5·1 after the derivation
of Eqn. 4·25 have a direct analogue in the 1atera1loading case.
4·6·2 Co-axial Shells which Intersect in a Common Circle

The analysis in§ 4·5·2 has an analogue in the lateral1oading case and again
descriptions of the calculations have been published for particular cases:
consult, for example, Leckie and Livesley (11).
We again suppose that each composite shell is so long that conditions at
the far end do not affect interactions at the common intersection, or that
known forces or displacements are applied at the far edge. Note that the
first possibility applies only to the self-equilibrating loads at the far edge, the
resultant loads will of course affect the interactions at the junction.
Let the forces and displacements at the junction end of shell n be Fm
Rm Dm Jm Xn where
-,n= [~0 n+ Um
D -
- Xn---;: Jvn]
Again, if the shell lies above the plane containing the junction, the junction
edge of the shell is edge 1, otherwise it is edge 2. The unknown quantities
are the four forces and deflections at the junction end of each shell, i.e. 8 N
unknowns. To determine these there are 4 N flexibility or stiffness equations
and the following conditions of equilibrium and continuity of displacement:
N N
"'F
Lin =0·' L"':R
i n =0
1 1
(4·39)
It is again best to work in terms of the stiffness so let
(4·40)
where 'F:*, :R!* are determined from a knowledge of conditions at the far
- -. ]
end of the shell. The unrestrained displacements o!, i! are the movements of
l
the junction end of shell n relative to the far end. If the junction edge is
edge 2 of shell n the matrices Bn, etc., are
Dl,n-Dl,n
-(Dl~~ lnXl,n)
Xt,n
Equations 4·39 and 4·40 lead to the following equation for the displacements
at the junction,
(4·41)
o
Thus fi 1, 1 , .X 1 and hence all the unknowns can be calculated by solving
the four simultaneous equations 4·41.
If the resultant shear force and bending moment are statically determinate
for shell n, Eqn. 4·40 will be replaced by Eqn. 4·42:
(4·42)
If the resultant loads are not statically determinate for all shells, Eqn. 4·41
en
must still be used with B" replaced by and null matrices, etc., in the manner
described in§ 4·5·2.
If the resultant shear force and bending moment are known for all shells,
the second row of Eqn. 4· 39 is automatically satisfied and the conditions on
on, xn are no longer necessary for the determination of the stresses. The
remaining conditions lead to
(4·43)
In these circumstances all the unknown quantities can be calculated when

the two simultaneous equations 4·43 have been solved.
Again the composite shells can be dealt with by combining the system in
Eqns. 4·35, 4·36 with that in Eqn. 4·39 to obtain one set of simultaneous
equations for the unknown quantities.
4·7 GENERAL LOADING
Suppose the loads and deflections shown in Fig. 4·12 for the general shell
are of the form
(J = Dn cos nO; X= Xn cos nO; u = un sin nO; DV = Dvn cos nO,

(4·44)
H = H" cos nO; M = Mn cos nO; U = Un sin nO; V = V, cos nO
where n is an integer; and that the temperature distribution and distributed
loads are given by
T = Tn cos n 0, p, = Pr, n cos n 0, etc.

If a solution for such a loading system is known for any value of n, an
arbitrary loading system can be dealt with by employing a Fourier analysis.
When n >I the integral around the circumference of the edge forces is
zero, so all such systems are self-equilibrating. Further, no rigid body move-
ment can take place since any deflection implies deformation of the shape of
the shell. These two facts indicate that in the relationships between edge
forces and deflections the flexibility and stiffness matrices will have eight rows
and columns. Thus the analogue of Eqns. 4·12 or 4· 34 are
where
Dj = [ui (Jvi (ji xJ; Fj = [Ui Jj Hi MJ
The analysis for the series of shells and the intersecting shells can be
repeated for the general case. Because the overall equilibrium conditions are
satisfied by Eqns. 4·11 and 4·33 the unknowns in the equations which corre-
spond to Eqns. 4·25 and 4·38 are the vectors of all four forces at edge 1 of
each shell and the sub-matrices all have four rows and columns. Similarly,
the unknowns in the equation corresponding to Eqns. 4·29 and 4·41 are the
four deflections at the junction.
REFERENCES
I. NovozHILOV V. V. The Theory of Thin Shells (Noordhoff, 1959).

2. FLUGGE W. Stresses in Shells (Springer-Verlag, 1960).
3. TIMOSHENKO S. & WOINOWSKY-KRIEGER S. Theory of Plates and Shells
(McGraw-Hill, 1959).
4. GALLETLY G. D. 'Torispherical Shells-A Caution to Designers', Pressure
Vessel and Piping Design: CollectedPapers(A.S.M.E., 1960).
5. KENEDI R. M. Paper in Nuclear Reactor Containment Buildings and
Pressure Vessels (Butterworth, 1960).
6. FERRAR W. L. Algebra (Oxford Univ. Press, 1941).

7. AITKEN A. C. Determinants and Matrices (Oliver and Boyd, 1950).
8. HICKS R. Proc. I. Mech. E. 172 (1958) 707.
9. PENNY R. K. loc. cit. Ref. 5.
10. ZAREMBA W. A. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 1 (1959) 250, 2 (1960) 163.
11. LECKIE F. A. & LIVESLEY R. K. loc. cit. Ref. 5.
5 Cylindrical Shells
5·0 INTRODUCTION
T Lovetheory ofFliigge
HE
(1),
cylindrical shells has been studied by many authors including
(2), Novozhilov (3) and Biezeno and Gramme! (4).
In this chapter attention has been concentrated upon the derivation of the
flexibility matrices and unrestrained displacements required for the type of
analysis described in Chapter 4; the reader should consult one of the above
references for a more detailed study of the basic theory.
§ 5·1 is a very brief resume of the properties of thick cylindrical shells as
derived from the equations of classical elasticity, and includes two well-known
solutions with which the thin shell results may be compared. § 5·1·1 describes
a numerical method of calculating the stresses in a thick shell under more
complicated loading conditions.
In the sections dealing with thin shell theory, approximations have been
made wherever possible and the limitations on the generality of the solutions
have been stated. In most cases the accuracy is sufficient for engineering
calculations even when these conditions are not strictly fulfilled. An interest-
ing example of the simplicity that can be obtained without significant loss
of accuracy is contained in § 5·4·2, where it is found that the influence
coefficients for lateral edge bending are identical to those for axi-symmetric
loading.
Throughout the chapter it has been assumed that variations in the thick-
ness, Young's modulus and the coefficient of expansion are negligible unless
otherwise stated.
5·1 THICK CYLINDERS

The position of a general point P within a cylinder with internal and external
radii r~> r 0 and length I is determined by the values of the cylindrical
co-ordinates r, x, 0. At P the stress system is upq (p, q = r, x, ()) and the
deflections are w, v, u parallel to the co-ordinate axes (see Fig. 5·1).
The equilibrium equations of § 4·1 can be re-written in cylindrical form as
116
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 117
(5·1)
The relationships between stresses and deflections become
u,, = E
(1+v)(1-2v)
ow av
[ (1- v) -+v-+-
or ox
au)
v ( w+- -(1+v)tXT
r (j(}
J
Uxx = E
(1+v)(1-2v)
[vow +(1-v) ov +'dw+ ou)-(1 +v)tX
or ox T\ (j(}
r]
= E [vow +vav +(1-v) ( w+ ou)-(1+v)tXTJ
or ox r
Uee
(1+v)(1-2v) ()(} (5·2)
Uxe
E [au 1 ilv]
= 2(1+v) OX+~ o(}
X
uxr
E
= 2(1+v)
[avor+ ow]
ox
u,e = 2(1+v)
E [auor+;1 (aw()(} -u)]
The general solution of these equations
by substitution of the expressions for
stress from Eqn. 5·2 into 5·1 leads to
very complicated equations, and only a
limited number of algebraic solutions are
available.
Note that if v is a constant (v 0 say)
and the temperature and body forces
FIG. 5·1 Co-ordinate system for
are zero, all the stresses are zero pro- cylinder.
vided u = w = 0. This solution is
merely a rigid body movement of the cylinder parallel to the x-axis. Similarly
if w = ~cos(}, u = -~sin(}, v = 0 where ~ is a constant, the stresses are
again zero and the deflections are those due to a rigid body movement ~
parallel to the (} = 0 axis. Finally if the cylinder is rotated through an
E
angle x in the plane containing the () = 0 and the x-axes no stresses are
produced and the deflections are
w= - xx cos (}; u = xx sin (}; v = r x cos (}
When the applied loading is symmetrical about the axis of the cylinder
none of the stresses or deflections vary with (} and u = 0. Under these
circumstances two equations can be derived for the deflection v, w by
eliminating the stresses from Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2:
2(1-v) [ r 2 (;2w ow J
o2 w
- 2 +r--w +(1-2v)r 2 - 2 +r 2 -
or or
o2 v
ox orox
o
= 2(1 +v)r 2 -(tx T)-2(1 +v)(1-2 v)-•
r2 F
(5.3)
or E
r-
or ox
aw) o
a (r - +2(1-v)r 2 - 2 v2 +(1-2v)r-a ( r-
ox or or
av)
= 2(1+v)r 20 (txT) -2(1+v)(1-2v)r2 Fx
ox E
Filon (5) and Bezant (6) have solved these equations with zero body force
and temperature rise for a number of boundary conditions. Further sim-
plification may be achieved by supposing the shear stress to be zero and the
direct stresses to be independent of x. It is then found that when there are
no body forces
dv
A
dx
w Br + Cr
_ 1 1+v1
+ -- - fr ret T dr
(5·4)
1-v r r;
where A, B and C are constants of integration. The terms involving B and C

are the familiar Lame solution and the constant A is associated with the axial
stress. For a closed cylinder subjected to an internal pressure P but not
restricted against axial movement, the values of the constants are
u 1-3v
B -(1-2 v)+-- tx Tm;
E 2-2v
1+v
c r2 u
-
0
-(1 +v)+--tx Tm
E 2-2v
From Eqn. 5·2 the stresses are
urr = u(1-r;)+~[(1-~)Tm
r2 1-v
_ _!_
r 2 2 r 2 ,,
f' rTdr]
r
~a
u ( 1+ r ~2 ) + _
1 v
r )T
( 1+1
r 2 r
2
____!!!+ 21 f'
,,
rTdr-T J (5·5)
Ea
u+-[Tm-T]
1-v
This system is only possible if the axial stress distribution at the ends of
the cylinder is applied according to Eqn. 5·5 and if the ends are free to move
as given by Eqn. 5·4. In actual applications this is very rarely the case and
bending occurs. The bending is produced by a self-equilibrating system of
forces applied at the ends because the overall equilibrium conditions are
satisfied by the stresses in Eqn. 5·5. By St. Venant's principle the bending
decreases with distance from the ends and Eqns. 5·4 and 5·5 hold at locations
sufficiently far from the edge.
To calculate the amount of bending it is necessary to solve Eqn. 5·3 for the
case when the stresses vary with axial position. This is examined in the next
section.
Equations 5·1 and 5·2 have a simple solution corresponding to the 'engineers'
frof2"
bending theory of beams when a moment G is produced by axial stresses
uxx = Gr cos 0/I, where I= ,, 0 r 3 cos 2 Odrd() is the second moment of
the cross-sectional area about the line () = ± n/2. It can be verified by direct
substitution that the complete solution of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 for this case is
Gr cos()
u = __£_{x 2 -vr 2 ) sin()·
2EI ' I
v !!_xr cos() Upq = 0, pq =/: XX (5·6)

EI
w = _ __!!_ (x 2 +vr 2 ) cos()
2EI
The deflections parallel to the () = 0 and () = n/2 axes are respectively
o0 = w cos 0-u sin() = Gx 2 vGr 2
- - - - - - c o s 2()
2EI 2EI
vGr 2
o,12 = w sin O+u cos() = ---Sin
2EI
• 20
It can be seen that the cross-section of the cylinder becomes oval at each
axial position in addition to the overall movement. There is no simple
solution corresponding to the 'engineers' solution for a lateral shear force,
because the ovality is different at different axial positions and this causes
additional bending and shear stresses.
5·1·1 Finite Difference Methods for Axi-symmetric Loading

The solution of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 may be attempted by finite difference
methods. For this purpose the cylinder is divided into a mesh with nodes
(m, n) at
rn = r;+(n-1)h; x, = (m-1)k; 1~m~M; 1~n~N
as shown in Fig. 5·2. The method consists of replacing the differential equa-
tions of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 by linear expressions relating the values of the
function at different nodes. In the axi-symmetric case all the functions can
be expressed in terms of the deflections v and w, so the unknown quantities
are the values of v, w at each node; i.e. there are 2MN unknowns.
We may use Eqn. 5·3 as a combination of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 to provide
two simultaneous equations for each node not on a boundary, employing
the following values for the function f = u pq• v or w, and its derivatives at
f = fm,n
of - fm+1,n-fm-1,n. of = fm,n+1-fm,n-1
ox - 2k ' or 2h
0 2f - fm+t,n-2f,,n+fm-t,n. 0 2f - fm,n+t-2f,,n+f,,n-1 (5·7)
ox 2 - k2 ' or 2 - h2
02f = fm+1,n+1-fm-1,n+t-fm+1,n-1 +fm-t,n-1

oxar 4hk
This gives 2(M- 2)(N- 2) equations for the unknown displacements.
On the boundaries forward or backward differences can be used in place
of the central differences of Eqn. 5·7. For example, on the boundaries
r = r;, r0 , respectively
of =fm,2-fm, 1 of =fm,N-fm,N-1
or h or h
and on the boundaries x = 0, I,
of _f2,n-f1,n. of =fM,n-fM-l,n
ax- k ' ax k
For each boundary point we may either write the finite difference form of
Eqn. 5·3, introducing the values of the boundary deflections if these are
known, or write the finite difference form of Eqn. 5·1 introducing the known
boundary stresses. For example, suppose the boundary stresses are known
and consider the equation for the node (m,N), m ::F l,M. From Eqn. 5·1
and the above formulae,
(5·8)
+[~+1 ]uxr Im,N- ~ t1xrl I

m,N-1 +roFx m,N = 0
In these two equations, t1xr at (m-l,N), (m,N),
(m+ l,N), urr at (m,N) and F., Fx at (m,N) are all
known quantities. The finite difference form of Eqn
~
5·2 may be used to replace the remaining stresses by
terms containing the unknown displacements. When
this is done for all the boundary points a further
2(2M+2N-4) equations are obtained, thus providing
a sufficient number for simultaneous solution to deter-
mine the nodal displacements and hence the stresses. I
Hoyle (7) has proposed a method of solution for m,n
thermal loading by means of two stress functions. This
method has the advantage that the equations to be
satisfied by the stress functions have a somewhat
simpler form than those for the deflections. He has also
shown how to deal with irregular boundaries; the
"
method outlined in the previous paragraphs can also
be used for components with irregular boundaries, but
for both methods the treatment of the boundary con-
ditions becomes more complicated. James (8) has FIG. 5.2 Finite differ-
applied Hoyle's method to determine the stresses in an ence mesh for thick
autoclave with a non-uniform temperature distribution. cylinders.
Bijlaard and Dohrmann (9) have proposed a method of calculating stresses
in thick cylinders with irregular boundaries based upon a refinement of thin
cylinder theory. This method also uses a finite difference technique.
5·2 THE BASIC EQUATIONS FOR THIN CYLINDRICAL

SHELLS
The solution of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 is long and involved except for simple
conditions, so progress is made by utilizing the thin shell assumptions.
The equations governing the shell behaviour are obtained by writing the
equilibrium conditions between the resultants of the stresses acting on the
shell element, and by establishing relationships between these resultants and
the deflections of the mid-surface. There are three force but only two moment
equilibrium equations, because the condition of torsional equilibrium about
an axis normal to the mid-surface is satisfied as u,8 = u8,.
The equilibrium conditions can be obtained by drawing a diagram of the
shell element with the forces and moments acting on it, or they can be
derived from Eqn. 5·1. Adopting the latter method and writing r = r + z,
where -tf2~z~tj2, three force equilibrium equations are obtained by
integrating Eqn. 5·1 with respect to z. The moment equilibrium equations are
obtained by multiplying the last two rows of Eqn. 5·1 by z and integrating
as before. The shell equilibrium equations are therefore
a +-a N x
r- Nxx = -rpx
ax ae 8
a a
r - Nxo +-;:;- Noo +Noz = -r Po
ax o()
a a
r - Nxz +- Noz -Noo = -r Pz (5·9)
ax ae
a a ·
r - Mxx+- M x-rNxz = 0
ax ae 8
a a
r-Mx8 +-M88 -rN6 , =0
ax ae
In these equations small applied moment terms have been neglected and the
stress resultants illustrated in Fig. 5· 3 are
Nxx = f
t/2 ( z)
1+- Uxxdz
r
Noo = f
t/2
Uoodz
f
-t/2
f 1+-z) ux dz
-112
t/2
t/2 (
Nxo = 8 Nox = Uxodz
f
-t/2 r -t/2
f 1+-z) Uxzdz
t/2
t/2 (
Nxz = Noz = Uozdz
-t/2 r -t/2
Mxx = f t/2 ( z)
1+- ZUxxdz; M 00 = f t/2
za 00 dz
-t/2 r -t/2
Mxo = f t/2 (
1+-z) zux dz; 0 (5·10)
-t/2 r
Px = [(1+:)uxz]
r
+f'' 112
-t/2
2
-t/2
(1+:_)Fxdz
r
Po [(1 +~) Uoz]

= +f 112 t/2 ( z)
1+- F0 dz
r -t/2 -t/2 r
Pz = [(1+-z) Cizz]''2 + ft/2 ( 1 +-z) Fzdz

r -~2 -~2 r
(a) (b)
FIG. 5·3 Stress resultants on shell element.
The stress resultants acting on the shell cross-section whose normal is parallel
to the axis all have a factor (I +zfr) in the integrand, because they act on
the arc of a circle whereas the remaining resultants act on a straight generator.
The contribution from the term zfr is small and can usually be neglected.
In accordance with the assumption of § 4·2, the deflections at any point
can be written as
u = u+zx0
v = v+zxx (5·11)
W=W
where u, v, w are the mid-surface deflections and x8 , Xx are the tangent rota-
tions. From a geometric consideration of the movement of a shell element
the rotations may be expressed in terms of the mid-surface deflections as
Xe = -~ [:~ -u J Xx = - : : (5·12)
If Uzz = u, is ignored in comparison with the other direct stresses, and the
deflections from Eqn. 5·11 are substituted in Eqn. 5·2, expressions are
obtained for the stresses in terms of the mid-surface displacements. Some of
the terms in these expressions contain the factor (1 + zfr) - l which cancels
the factor (l+z/r) wherever it appears in Eqn. 5·10, but some terms are
left with these factors uncancelled. If the uncancelled factors are retained the
formulae for the force stress resultants obtained from Eqn. 5·10 contain
terms ·sueh as 12 t2r 02xw2 m
· a dd"1t1on
· to t he m1"d-sur1ace
"' . s·1m1"Iar1y, t he
strams.
0
moment stress resultants contain terms r x (mid-surface strains), as well as
02
r 2 0 xw2 , etc. T he Importance
· of t hese a dd"1t1ona
. 1 terms 1s
. not 1mme
. d"1ate1y
apparent because the relative magnitudes of the mid-surface strains and the
second derivatives of w are unknown. However, they will be unimportant in
the force resultants provided r 2 : x~' etc., are of the order (12r/t) x (mid-
2
surface strains) or smaller. If r 2 : 2x~ etc., are of the order (rft) x (mid-
surface strains) or larger, the additional terms in the expression for the
moments may be neglected. Hence the stress resultants can be written in the
form given in Eqn. 5·14 provided z/r is ignored in comparison with 1 in
the temperature terms and
o2 w
r2-
ox 2
o2 w (5·13)
afP
o2 w
r--
oxo()
The approximation in the temperature terms has very little significance even
for strongly non-linear distributions.
Nxx = -E-2 -t [ r ov
1-v r
-+v (w+-
ox
iaelu)J -N
(5·14)
D(1-v) aw 2
-
r2 axae
r--
In these equations
D =
Et3
· N =
ft/2 E IX T
- - dz; M =
ft/2 E IX Tz dz
12(1-v2 )' -t/ 2 1-v - 112 1-v
It is not possible to obtain expressions from Eqn. 5·2 for the radial shearing
forces in terms of the mid-surface deflections, because the assumed form of
the deflections leads to
E ZXe
C1ez=-- - -
1 +v r+z
These values are incompatible with the general boundary conditions, and if
they are substituted into Eqn. 5·10 the derived shear forces are incompatible
with the equilibrium equations. This inconsistency is a direct result of the
assumptions, and can be ignored if the above equations for CTxz' a6z are
regarded as a statement that the radial shear stresses are of order (tfr) x
(direct stresses).
Under some loading conditions the second derivatives of the radial dis-
placement are smaller than the values in Eq. 5·13 and the extra terms in the
moments may become important.
The complete expressions in terms of the mid-surface displacements are
2w au av]
r2 r d8 x2w + v a
D [ 2 2
Mxx = - a()2- v8()- r ax
(5·15)
E*
When Eqn. 5·14 is used the stresses are given in terms of the stress resultants
as
Nxx 12zM
U;:cx = -+-3 xx+u
t t
= -t +12zM
Nee
- ee+u
t3
(5·16)
where u = E rx [1
1-v t
f''2_,
12
Tdz+ 1~z
t
ft/2_,
12
Tzdz- r]
The radial shear stresses and radial stress are rarely required, but if needed
they may be taken as
U;:cz = -1 [ Uxz+Uxz
+ z [ U;:cz;-U;:cz
_] +- + 3
_] +- [N- - xz ( +
Uxz:+Uxz:
_ )] [ 1 -4-z 2]
2
2 t 2 t t
+-z [ aBZ-Uoz:
2
-1 [ Uez:+Uoz
+ _] + -] +-3 [Noz + -)] [ 1 -4z
- - ( Uoz:+Uez -
2
] (5·17)
2 t 2 t t
Uz;z; = -1 [ Uzz:+ + Uz:z:-] +-z [ Uzz:-

+ Uz:z:
-]
2 t
where u+ and u- are the stresses at the outside and inside surfaces of the
shell respectively.
There are therefore ten unknown stress resultants and three unknown
deflections when general loading is applied to a cylindrical shell. To find
these unknowns there are five equilibrium equations and eight expressions
relating the stress resultants to the deflections. Considerable simplification
is obtained when the loading is symmetrical so this condition is examined
before the general case is considered.
When the applied loads are symmetrical about the axis of the cylinder, none
of the functions are dependent upon () and the tangential displacement u is
zero.
Under these circumstances the force equilibrium conditions of Eqn. 5·9

become
d
-Nxx = -Px
dx
(5·18)
d
- Mxx-Nxz = 0
dx
The relationships between the stress resultants and the mid-surface deflections
J
given in Eqn. 5·14 become
Nxx -E- - dv
t [ r-+vw -N
1-v2 r dx
Nee -E- ~vr dv -+wJ-N

(5·19)
1-v 2 r dx
d2 w
Mxx = -D--M
dx 2
d2 w
Moe= -vD--M
dx 2
The solution of Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19 will be studied in thefollowing sections.
§ 5·3·1 describes the simple membrane solution and § 5·3·2 and § 5·3·3
examine bending of the shell and establish the values of the flexibility matrix
and unrestrained displacements for common loadings.
5· 3·1 Membrane Solutions

Under some forms of loading, the shell supports the applied forces by acting
as a membrane with little or zero bending and shear stress. Suppose the shear
stress is zero or negligible, then from Eqn. 5·18.
Nxx = V2+X
r (5·20)
Nee = rpz
where V2 is a constant of integration and
l
X = J Pxdx
X
The constant V2 is the resultant axial force per radian applied at edge 2
of the shell, as shown for a general shell in Fig. 4·7.
When the bending moments are neglected and the temperature is zero, the
displacements can be calculated from the first two rows of Eqn. 5·19. Setting
the axial displacement at x = 0 equal to zero
v = -
Et r Et
p , . +1-
V2-x- -vrx
Et
I"' Xdx
0
_ v V2 + r 2 p,. _ v r X
w (5·21)
Et Et Et
Xx = _!_
Et
[r !!.._ p,.+v Px]
dx
To test the accuracy of the membrane solution it is necessary to substitute
these values for the deflections into Eqn. 5·15 and examine the order of magni-
tude of the terms which have been neglected in the derivation of the solution.
Consider first the end load V2 which is associated with d2 ~ = 0 and
dx
dv V2
dx = Etr · These deflections imply moments
k
Mxx= --2 V2; (5·20 1)
1-v
Since the axial moment is constant, the deflections do not imply the exist-
ence of a shear force and consequently the stress resultants given in Eqn. 5·20
are an exact solution of Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19 provided that the moment is
applied throughout the cylinder.
If there is no moment applied at the ends it is necessary to add the effects
kV2
of end moments - -2 to the solution in Eqns. 5·20 and 5·21; this requires
1 -v
results derived in the next section but we can anticipate that the effects will
be very small because k ~ 1. The maximum stress due to the hoop moment is
2 ( 1 ~ v2) ~; which is approximately 0·17 tfr times the direct axial stress and
may be ignored.
If the radial pressure is due to a combination of constant inflation and
hydraulic loading it is linear with x andpz = p 1 +(p2 -p 1)xfl. If the cylinder
is closed, the effects of an end load V 2 must be added to the following values:
N"'"' = 0
Nee = r P:
v
vrx [
= --- Pt+
Et
(p 2 -p 1)
-
2
x]
l
(5·22)
w
2
r Pt- P2
Xx =-
Et
- -l -
The moments and shear force implied by these deflections are
v k r2 P:
--2
1-v
---2
1 k r 2 P: (5·221 )
1-v
N X% = _v_ kr2 P2-Pt

1-v2 l
The derivative of the shear force with respect to x is zero, so the solution in
Eqn. 5·22 is exact provided that the axial moment and shear forces in Eqn.
5·221 are applied throughout the cylinder. Therefore, if the ends are free it is
necessary to add to Eqn. 5·22 the effects of end shear forces and moments to
obtain the correct boundary conditions, but we again expect only a small
correction because k is very small.
The thick shell expressions for the surface hoop stress from Eqn. 5·5 can
be written in terms of r and t as
u; = ~r [1+ 4t:2J u~ = ~r [1- 2trJ

Ifterms of order tfr are neglected in the thin shell theory, the corresponding
stresses obtained from Eqn. 5·22 by writing p 1 = p 2 = Pare
_ + Pr
CTee = CTee = -
t
The inside surface stress is very close to the thick shell result but the error
is greater in the outside surface value; e.g. if we take the very thick shell with
rft = 5 the ratios of thin shell/thick shell stresses are respectively 0·99 and
1·23. If terms of order tfr are retained in the thin shell results, p 1 = p 2 =
P(l-tf2r) from Eqn. 5·10. The moment from Eqn. 5·221 contributes terms
of order tfr and the expressions become
u i6 = Pr
t
[ 1- _!_] [1+ 2r(1-v
2r
t
2)
J; u :0 = Pr
t
[ 1- _!_] [1- 2r(1-v
2r
t
2)
J
The inside surface stress is not altered significantly but an improvement is
effected in the accuracy of the outside surface stress. For rft = 5 the above
ratios are both equal to 0·99 when v = 0· 3. Taking the extreme case of
rft = 2, the ratios are 0·94 and 1·78 for the first thin cylinder approximation
and 0·91, 0·96 for the second. If the radial stress is taken from Eqn. 5·15,
the boundary values are correct for all ratios rjt and the deviation from the
thick cylinder values in the interior of the shell is very small. The correction
to the outside hoop stress is not very important as it is lower than the inside
surface value, but for thick shells it is worthwhile to use the pressure from
Eqn. 5·10 in Eqn. 5·22 because the mid-surface displacement is too large if
p 1 , p 2 are set equal toP, as a res.ult of the overestimate of the average hoop
stress.
These results show very good agreement with thick shell theory but the
same degree of accuracy will not be achieved under more general forms of
loading; in the case of constant internal pressure the shear force is zero, so
the assumption that plane sections remain plane has not been needed.
rw(l+~)dz~wl
When the shell is suspended under the action of its own weight from x = 0,
the surface loads are Pz = 0,
p.~q~
-t/2
where w is the weight per unit volume.

From Eqns. 5·20 and 5·21
Nxx q(l-x)
Noo = 0
v qx(l-~)
Et 2
(5·23)
w _vqr(l-x)
Et
vqr
Xx =
Et
Following the same procedure as before
k
Mxx = - -2 qr(l-x)
1-v
Moo =- _v_kq r(l-x) (5·231)

1-v 2
Again the membrane solution for displacements is exact, if appropriate small

end forces are applied. This type of load provides an example of the dis-
tributed moments which were neglected when Eqn. 5·9 was established; the
distributed moments which should appear on the right-hand side of Eqn.
5·9 are - rg", - rg0 where in the present case g0 = 0 and
f (l+~)zwdz=kqr
t/2
Ox=
-t/2
The correct value for the shear force is therefore

v2
N""' = - - -2 kqr
1-v
The usefulness of the membrane solution is severely limited because the
deflections are completely determined by Eqn. 5·21, except for the force V2 ,
and do not usually satisfy the boundary conditions. The arbitrary axial force
V2 is either statically determinate or it may be fixed by an imposed axial
deflection; it is also one of the forces whose coefficients appear in the flexi-
bility matrix.
5·3·2 Edge Bending Solutions and the Flexibility Matrix

When there are no surface loads or temperature variations the first row
of Eqn. 5·18 gives Nxx= V 2 fr, which has been established as a membrane
solution and may be added to the solution obtained by putting N"" = 0.
When N"" = 0 the first row of Eqn. 5·19 gives
dv
r-= -vw
dx
This value can be substituted into the equations for M"" and the derived
value for this moment then leads to the following equation for radial dis-
placement after elimination of the shear force:
r 4 d w +4P4 w = 0
4
(5·24)
d x4
where
1\
\
\
\
\
v
J;3=e-r>xjr cos r~X
I~
I \~ h -r>xfr . ~
"'
~ 4 =e sm 7
I \
v \
- -
~
f'--
'
0
~
-o·10 1 2 3 4 5
~X
T
Flo. 5·4a
4p4 = 1-v2 = Etr2 = 12(1-vz)(~)z

k D t
The solution of Eqn. 5·24 is

w = Ctft +Cz/2+C3/3+C4/4
where the C 1 are constants of integration to be determined from the boundary
conditions and
ft = ef1x/r cos pxjr; !3 = e-Px/r cos Pxfr
fz = ePxfr sin Pxfr; /4 = e-Px/r sin Pxfr
The use of Eqn. 5·14 as a basis for the derivation of Eqn. 5·24 is therefore
justified because the order of magnitude comparison in Eqn. 5·13 is satisfied
with this solution for w. Consequently the complete system of deflections and
stress resultants is
\\
\
1\'\J; -.4
\
o·s
\ 1\
\ \\
o·J \ \'
0
\ ~
\ .......... I-"
=--
-O·J /
~ .,~h+f.
1 ~ 2 3 4 5
J3x
r
FIG. 5·4b
Fro. 5·4 Cylinder edge bending functions.
w h h h !4
Xx PU2-!1) PC!1 +/2) PC!3+/4) PC!4-/3)
r r r r
(5·25)
Values of p, P2 , P3 are given in Table 5·1 and/3 , /4 are plotted in Fig. 5·4.
Values of / 1 (x),f2 (x) are given by
/ 1 (x) = e1 cos yf3 (l-x)+e 1 sin yf4 (l-x)

f2(x) e1 sin yf3(l-x)-e1 cos yf4 (l-x)
y Plfr
Although Table 5·1 contains values of P for r/t< 10 caution should be exercised when
applying Eqn. 5·25 et seq. within this range. If it is essential to use the table for very low
values of r/t, it is probably better to derive alternative formulae for the deflections and
stress resultants by retaining the factors (1 + z/r), (1 + z/r)- 1 when obtaining the expressions
for the stress resultants in terms of the mid-surface deflections. It is then found that the
additional term 2vr 2 ~:: appears on the left-hand side of Eqn. 5·24 and this leads to
/ 1 =emt"' 1' cos m 2 xfr ; /3=e-mt;o;/r cos m2 x/r
f 2=emtxlr sin m 2 xfr; / 4 =e-mtxlr sin m 2 x/r

where
m1 =P\)(1- 2; 2) ; m2=P'.](1+ 2 ;2)

The expression for N 89 becomes
- w]
2
Et[
Nos=-
r w+ -1-v
-2
vk r 2 ddx 2
The moments are given by Eqn. 5·15 and the radial shear force can be calculated from
Eqn. 5·18.
TABLE 5·1
FLEXIDILITY CHARACTERISTIC
rft p p2 p3 rft p p2 p3
5·0 2·8743 8·2614 23·745 50 9·0892 82·614 750·89

5·5 3·0145 9·0875 27·395 55 9·5328 90·875 866·30
6·0 3·1486 9·9136 31·214 60 9·9567 99·136 987·07
6·5 3·2772 10·740 35·196 65 10·363 107-40 1113·0
7·0 3-4009 11·566 39·334 70 10·754 115·66 1243-9
7·5 3·5202 12-392 43·623 75 11-132 123·92 1379·5
8·0 3-6357 13·218 48·057 80 11-497 132·18 1519·7
8·5 3·7476 14·044 52·632 85 11·851 140·44 1664·4
9·0 3-8562 14·870 57·344 90 12·194 148·70 1813-4
9·5 3·9619 15·697 62·i88 95 12·529 156·97 1966·6
10·0 4·0648 16·523 67·162 100 12·854 165·23 2123·8
10·5 4·1652 17·349 72-261 105 13-172 173·49 2285·1
11·0 4·2632 18·175 77-484 110 13-481 181·75 2450·3
11·5 4·3590 19·001 82·826 115 13·784 190·01 2619·2
12·0 4·4528 19·827 88·286 120 14·081 198·27 2791·9
12;5 4·5446 20·653 93-861 125 14·371 206·53 2968·2
TABLE 5·1 cont.

r/t p p2 p3 r/t p p2 p3
13·0 4·6346 21-480 99·549 130 14·656 214·80 3148·0
14·0 4·8096 23·132 111·25 140 15·209 231·32 3518·1
15·0 4·9784 24·784 123-38 150 15·743 247-84 3901·7
16·0 5·1416 26·436 135·93 160 16·259 264·36 4298·4
17·0 5·2999 28·089 148·87 170 16·760 280·89 4707·6
18·0 5·4535 29·741 162·19 180 17·246 297-41 5219·0
19·0 5·6030 31·393 175-89 190 17·718 313-93 5562·3
20·0 5·7485 33·045 189·96 200 18·178 330·45 6007·1
22·0 6·0291 36·350 219·16 220 19·066 363·50 6930·4
24·0 6·2972 39·655 249·71 240 19·913 396·55 7896·6
26·0 6·5543 42·959 281·57 260 20·727 429·59 8903·9
28·0 6·8017 46·264 314·67 280 21·509 462-64 9950·8
30·0 7·0405 49·568 348·98 300 22·264 495·68 11036
32·0 7·2714 52·873 384-46 320 22·994 528·73 12158
34·0 7·4951 56·177 421·06 340 23·702 561·77 13315
36·0 7·7124 59·482 458·75 360 24·389 594·82 14507
38·0 7·9238 62·786 497·50 380 25·057 627-86 15732
40·0 8·1296 66·091 537·29 400 25·708 660·91 16991
42·0 8·3304 69·395 578·09 420 26·343 693·95 18281
44·0 8·5264 72·700 619·87 440 26·963 727·00 19602
46·0 8·7181 76·004 662·61 460 27·569 760·04 20954
48·0 8·9056 79·309 706·29 480 28·162 793·09 22335
The boundary conditions are those appropriate to the forces shown in

Fig. 4·7 and for the radial force and moment these are
-rNxz = H1 r Nxz = H2
} }
-rMxx = M1 at x = 0 rMxx = M2
at x = l
w ~1 w ~2
Xx = X1 Xx X2
From these conditions and Eqn. 5·24, it is possible to write, in the notation
of§ 4·5
[D1]=[J11 J12]
c1
=JC; [FF21] = [ -K21
K11 K12]
-K22
c1 =KC
D2 J21 J22 c2 c2
c3 c3
c4 c4
where
[Jil Ji2] = [1 0 ] [ fli !2i !3i !4i ]
0 P/r (/2;-/li) -(fli+f2i) (f3;+.f4i) (f4i-!3i)
[K11K1zJ = [2P 3D/r2 0 ] [-{fli+f2i) (fli-fzi) {f3i-f4i) {f31+f4i)]

0 2P 2 D/r -f2i fu !41 -!31
Here the sub-matrices are a112 x 2 and i = 1,2 refers to the two edges x = 0, I
respectively.
The constants of integration are therefore
rM 1
1 2pzv
=- (5·26)
4 rz Hz
2P 3D
where
.A. 1 = (sinhycoshy-sinycosy)-r; .A. 2 = (cosysinhy-sinycoshy)-r
p. 1 = (sinh2 y+sin 2 y)-r; p. 2 = 2sinysinhy-r
v1 = (sinhycoshy+sinycosy)-r; v2 = (cosysinhy+sinycoshy)-r
-r = (sinh 2 y-sin 2 y)- 1
Values of these functions are given in Table 5·2. When the edge forces are
known, the values of the constants given by Eqn. 5·26 can be used in Eqn.
5·25 to obtain the stress and deflection distribution throughout the cylinder.
From this table it can be seen that A- 1 , p. 1 , Vc-+1 and .A.2 , p. 2 , v2 -+0 as y increases.
Thus as y increases cl, c2~o. c3~---;.- [rHl + PMl]; c4~- r ~ 1 and the
2P D 2p D
stress resultants and deflection near x=O tend to the values
[:J
r2 r
w 2P2 D (!3-/4)
2P3Df3
r 1
X,. 2p2D (!3 + j4) PD !3
= (5·27)
1 2Pf4
N;xz --(/3-/4)
r r2
1 1
--!4 --(!3+/4)
M"'"' p r
Et
r[
v-vt =v- Nxz+-
H 1] ; Nxx=O;
r
Etw
Nee=--;
r
Mee = vM""'
TABLE 5·2
LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
y At /11 Vt ).2 Jlz Vz
0·35 5·715 24·50 70·10 -2·857 24·48 69·93

0·36 5·556 23·16 64·43 -2·777 23·14 64·25
0·37 5-406 21·93 59·36 -2·702 21·91 59·18
0·38 5·264 20·79 54·81 -2·631 20·77 54·62
0·39 5·129 19·74 50·72 -2·563 19·71 50· 52
0·40 5·001 18·77 47·02 -2-499 18·74 46·82
0·41 4·879 17-86 43-68 -2-438 17-84 43-48
0·42 4·763 17·03 40·65 -2-380 17·00 40·44
0·43 4·653 16·24 37-89 -2·324 16·21 37·68
0·44 4·547 15·52 35-38 -2·272 15-48 35-16
0·45 4·446 14·84 33·09 -2·221 14·80 32·86
0·46 4·350 14·20 30·99 -2·173 14·16 30·76
0·47 4·257 13-60 29·07 -2·126 13-57 28·83
0·48 4·169 13·04 27-30 -2·082 13·01 27·07
0·49 4·084 12·52 25-68 -2·039 12·48 25·44
0·50 4·002 12·03 24·19 -1·998 11·98 23·94
0·51 3-924 11·56 22-81 -1·959 11·52 22·55
0·52 3-849 11-12 21·53 -1·921 11·08 21·27
0·53 3-776 10·71 20·35 -1·885 10·66 20·08
0·54 3-707 10·32 19·25 -1·850 10·27 18·98
0·55 3·640 9·949 18·24 -1·816 9·899 17·96
0·56 3·575 9·599 17-29 -1·783 9·547 17·01
0·57 3·512 9·268 16·41 -1·752 9·214 16·13
0·58 3-452 8·953 15·59 -1·721 8·897 15-30
0·59 3·394 8·655 14·83 -1·692 8·597 14·53
0·60 3·337 8·371 14·11 -1·664 8·311 13-81
0·61 3·283 8·101 13·44 -1·636 8·039 13·14
0·62 3·230 7-845 12·82 -1·610 7-781 12·51
TABLE 5·2 contd.

Jl l1 Ill v1 l2 Jl2 v2
0·63 3-179 7·600 12·23 -1·584 7·534 11·92
0·64 3·130 7·367 11-68 -1·559 7-299 11·36
0·65 3·082 7·145 11-17 -1·535 7·074 10·84
0·66 3·036 6·933 10·68 -1·511 6·860 10·35
0·67 2-991 6·730 10·22 -1·488 6·655 9·889
0·68 2·947 6·536 9·793 -1·466 6·459 9·454
0·69 2·905 6·351 9·388 -1·445 6·272 9·044
0·70 2-864 6·174 9·006 -1·424 6·092 8·657
0·71 2·824 6·004 8·645 -1·403 5-920 8·291
0·72 2·785 5-841 8·305 -1·384 5·755 7·945
0·73 2·747 5·685 7·983 -1·364 5·597 7-618
0·74 2·710 5·536 7-678 -1·346 5·445 7·308
0·75 2·675 5-392 7·389 -1·327 5·299 7·015
0·76 2·640 5·254 7·166 -1·310 5·158 6·737
0·77 2·606 5-122 6·857 -1·292 5·023 6·473
0·78 2·573 4·995 6·611 -1·275 4·893 6·222
0·79 2·541 4·872 6·378 -1·259 4·768 5·984
0·80 2·510 4·754 6·156 -1·243 4·648 5·757
0·82 2·449 4·532 5·745 -1·212 4-420 5·336
0·84 2·392 4·325 5·373 -1-182 4·208 4·954
0·86 2-338 4·133 5·035 -1-154 4·011 4·607
0·88 2·286 3·955 4·728 -1·127 3-826 4·290
0·90 2·236 3·788 4·449 -1-101 3·654 4·000
0·92 2·189 3·633 4·193 -1·076 3-492 3·735
0·94 2·143 3·487 3-960 -1·052 3·341 3·492
0·96 2-100 3-351 3·746 -1·029 3·199 3·268
0·98 2·059 3·224 3·550 -1·007 3·065 3·063
1·00 2·019 3·104 3-370 -0·986 2·939 2·873
1·05 1·927 2-836 2·980 -0·936 2·654 2·458
1-10 1·843 2·605 2·660 -0·890 2·405 2·115
1-15 1·768 2·406 2-397 -0·848 2·188 1·827
1·20 1·699 2·232 2·178 -0·809 1·996 1·585
1·25 1-637 2·081 1-996 -0·773 1-825 1·379
1·30 1·580 1·949 1·843 -0·739 1·673 1·203
1·35 1·527 1·833 1·714 -0·707 1·537 1·052
1·40 1·480 1·731 1·606 -0·676 1·413 0·920
1·45 1·436 1·642 1·514 -0·648 1·302 0·806
1·50 1·395 1·562 1·435 -0·621 1·200 0·706
1·55 1·359 1·492 1-369 -0·595 1-108 0·618
1·60 1-325 1·430 1·312 -0·570 1·023 0·540
1-65 1·294 1·375 1·264 -0·546 0·944 0·471
1·70 1·265 1-327 1·223 -0·523 0·872 0·410
1·75 1·239 1·284 1·187 -0·501 0·805 0·355
1·80 1·215 1·246 1·157 -0·479 0·743 0·306
1·85 1·193 1·213 1-132 -0·459 0·686 0·262
1·90 1-173 1-183 1-110 -0·438 0·632 0·223
1·95 1·154 1-157 1·092 -0·419 0·582 0·187
TABLE 5·2 contd.
i' At /.It Vt Az Jlz Vz
2·00 1-138 1-134 1·076 -0·400 0·535 0·155

2·05 1·122 1·114 1·063 -0·381 0·491 0·126
2·10 1·108 1·097 1·052 -0·363 0·450 0·100
. 2·15 1·096 1·081 1·043 -0·346 0·411 0·077
2·20 1·084 1·068 1·035 -0·329 0·375 0·056
2·25 1·074 1·057 1·029 -0·312 0·341 0·037
2·30 1·065 1·047 1·023 -0·296 0·309 0·020
2·35 1·057 1·038 1·019 -0·280 0·279 0·004
2-40 1·049 1-031 1·015 -0·265 0·251 -0·009
2·45 1·043 1·025 1·013 -0·250 0·225 -0·022
2·50 1·037 1·020 1·010 -0·235 0·200 -0·032
2·55 1·032 1·015 1·009 -0·221 0·177 -0·042
2-60 1·027 1-012 1·007 -0·207 0·155 -0·050
2·65 1·023 1·009 1·006 -0·194 0·135 -0·058
2·70 1·020 1·007 1·005 -0·181 0·116 -0·064
2·75 1·016 1·005 1·005 -0·168 0·098 -0·069
2·80 1·014 1·003 1·004 -0·156 0·082 -0·074
2·85 1·012 1·002 1·004 -0·145 0·067 -0·078
2·90 1·010 1·001 1·004 -0·134 0·053 -0·081
2·95 1·008 1·001 1·004 -0·123 0·040 -0·083
3·00 1·007 1·000 1·004 -0·113 0·028 -0·085
3·10 1·004 1·000 1·004 -0·094 0·008 -0·086
3·20 1·003 1·000 1·004 -0·077 -0·010 -0·086
3·30 1·002 1·000 1·004: -0·061 -0·023 -0·085
3-40 1·001 1·001 1·004 -0·048 -0·034 -0·082
3·50 1·001 1·001 1·003 -0·035 -0·042 -0·078
3·60 1·001 1·001 1·003 -0·025 -0·048 -0·073
3·70 1·001 1·001 1·003 -0·016 -0·052 -0·068
3·80 1·001 1·002 1·003 -0·008 -0·055 -0·063
3·90 1·001 1·002 1·002 -0·002 -0·056 -0·057
4·00 1·001 1·002 1·002 0·004 -0·056 -0·052
4·20 1·001 1·001 1·002 0·011 -0·052 -0·041
4·40 1·001 1·001 1·001 0·016 -0·047 -0·031
4·60 1·001 1·001 1·001 0·018 -0·040 -0·022
4·80 1·000 1·001 1·000 0·018 -0·033 -0·015
5·00 1·000 1·000 1·000 0·017 -0·026 -0·009
5·20 1·000 1·000 1·000 0·015 -0·019 -0·005
5-40 1·000 1·000 1·000 0·013 -0·014 -0·001
5·60 1·000 1·000 1·000 0·010 -0·009 0·001
5·80 1·000 1·000 1·000 0·008 -0·006 0·003
6·00 1·000 1·000 1·000 0·006 -0·003 0·003
The elements of the flexibility matrix associated with the bending forces
can be found by evaluating JK- 1 and using Eqn. 5·25 for the axial deflection.
The remaining terms are associated with the axial force V2 and are obtained
from the membrane solution in Eqn. 5·2l. The complete flexibility matrix is
the matrix of coefficients in the following equation:
v
Et
rp.l v2
Xt 0
2P D 2 PD
r2A.2
(5·28)
2P 3D
v2
X2 0
PD
v v l
0 0
Et Et rEt
The coefficients of V2 in Eqn. 5·28 do not include the small correction needed
to provide a moment free end, and if this were included it would be necessary
to add the effects ofM 1 = - M 2 = ~ r V2 • The deflections produced by these
1-v
moments are of order t/r times those already included and may be neglected.
The rotations lead to elements in place of the zeros, but they are usually
negligible in comparison with other effects. If the correction is included the
remaining elements should be modified by using the different exponents of
decay and oscillation, m 1 and m 2 , as this introduces terms of the same order
of magnitude as the end moment correction.
5·3·3 Unrestrained Solutions

From the definitions in Chapter 4 an unrestrained solution is one for which
the shell is supported by an axial force, but has no restraint against deflection
or rotation at the edges. The membrane solution satisfies these conditions
if the small corrections from the end forces and moments are neglected; and
from Eqns. 5·22, and 5·23 the unrestrained solutions for hydraulic pressure
in an open-ended cylinder, and for self weight when the cylinder is suspended
from x = 0, are given by Eqns. 5·29 and 5·30 respectively (seep. 141).
The unrestrained deflections due to an axial end load are the elements in
the last column of the flexibility matrix, and these can be combined with
Eqns. 5·29 and 5·30 as appropriate. For example, if the pressurized cylinder
has a closed end as shown in Fig. 5·5 with a head weight 2nWtaken through
the shell, but a water weight nrlq* taken directly through the foundations,
Pr 2
V2 =--W.
2
Hydraulic pressure in an open ended cylinder

c5f P1
P1-P2
xf l
r2
c5! Pz Et
(5·29)
P1-P2
Xz* l
P1 + Pzl
c5vi -V----
2 r
FIG. 5·5 Cylindrical tank with 'built-in' base.
Self weight suspended from x =0

Jf -vl
xf -v
qr
c5i 0 (5·30)
Et
x! -v
12
c5v!
2r
l
As an example of the method of Chapter 4, suppose the cylinder in Fig.
5·5 is semi-infinite and built-in at the foundation. The unrestrained displace-
ments at x = 0 are
-(2-v)+-+vq
Pr vW l+q*l r
D*-
1- r2 r
vq+q*
_
Et
Because the cylinder is built-in at x = 0, the boundary conditions are

.5 1 =x1 = 0 and to the unrestrained solution must be added the effects of
a force H 1 and the moment M 1 applied to the edge. The edge forces are given
by
A 11 F 1 +Df = 0
F1 = -A!/Di
[
H,
]
~ _ 4P D
[
r: ,:-,-
3 2
2 (2-v)+---;:--+vql+q
2P D] [Pr vW 1*] ;t
M1 _ _f!__ 2PD vq+q*
r
These edge forces can be used in Eqn. 5·27 to find the stress distribution
due to the bending near the base, which must be added to the membrane
values given in Eqns. 5·21, 5·22 and 5·23. Incorporated in this solution are
the edge forces imposed when a long, closed, pressurized cylinder is built-in
at one end. The edge forces dueto this effect are
H _ (2-v)Pr 2 •
1 - - 2P '
From the membrane solution and Eqn. 5·27 the stress distribution is
The maximum stress occurs in the axial direction at the edge and is approxi-
mately 2·05 Prft.
The surface loads considered so far both produce stresses and deflections
which are well approximated by the membrane solution. In general this will
not be the case and Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19 must be solved as a complete system.
From these equations the stresses and deflections have the following values
due to distributed loads and temperature variations,
Nxx X
Etw
Nee -+vX-N(l-v)
r
d2 w
Mxx - D -2 -M
dx
d2 w
Mee -vD-2 -M
dx
d 3 w dM
Nxz = -D dx3- dx
dv 1-v2
r - = - vw + - - r(X + N)
dx Et
The equation to be satisfied by the radial deflection is
r4 d4w + 4{34w = 4[34Z

dx 4 (5·31)
where
These equations have a very simple solution akin to the membrane results
when the temperature is constant through the thickness and varies linearly
with x, i.e. when
mx
T= T1 +-
r
From the definition in § 5·2, N(l- v) = tEa.T, M = 0 so the stress resultants

are all zero and
v = xaT; w = raT; Xx = -am
If the cylinder is semi-infinite and has a linear gradient in the region of one
end, these deflections can be used as unrestrained values at the end. The
gradient should be approximately linear for a distance x = 3rff3.
If this condition is satisfied and the end is attached to a rigid structure at
a temperature Tl> the edge forces are given by
so H 1 = - 2/3 2 D a.m; M1 = 2fJDa.m and the stress distribution can be ob-

r
tained from Eqn. 5·27
Nx:x- O·
-t - '
Nee Ea.m 6Mee 6M""
-=-pf4; T=vy
-1
The highest stress occurs at x = 0 and is an axial bending stress compressive

on the outside surface
umax = + (~)t Ea.m
- 1·413 r (5·32)
This formula can often be used to obtain a quick estimate of the thermal
stress at the top of a cylindrical support skirt; see § 6·3·3.
Consider now the more general temperature distribution
p,(l-x) p,x] p,l

T = [ T1 sinh - - -
r
+ T2 sinh -r cosech -r
which is obtained in a thin-walled cylinder when the ends are held at Tl> T 2
and there is heat transfer between the cylinder wall and the surrounding
media. From the definitions in § 5·2 N(l-v) = tEa.T, M = 0 and therefore
Z = ra.T.
The particular solution of Eqn. 5·31 thus leads to
dv
r dx = ra.T[l+v(l-p)]; w = pra.T
Xx = -pa.m;
(5·33)
Nee= -(1-p)tEa.T
2
N,.z = -pD(;) a.m
where
p= 4fJ4 ; m = rdT JlX- T cosh p,(l-x)J cosech ~1

- = Jl [ T2 cosh - 1
11
4fJ4 +p,4 dx r r r
This is not an unrestrained solution because at the ends rN""' rM,.,. have
the non-zero values
rNxz= -pD(~Yram1 =Hi

rMxx = -pDJ.L2 aT1 = Mi
rNxz = -pv(!fJ ram 2 = -H!

rMxx = -pDJ.L 2aT2 = -M!
To obtain an unrestrained solution it is necessary to add the effects of
H!, M! to the solution in Eqn. 5·33. The unrestrained edge deflections are
therefore
oi praT1
-pam 1
l
xi
o! praT2 +
x! -pam 2
ov~ [1+v(1-p)J[coth J.l 1-cosech J.Ll]ra[T1 +T2 ]

r r J.L
Hi
M!
(5·34)
H!
M~
If the cylinder is semi-infinite and attached to a rigid structure at tempera-

ture T1 at x = 0, o = raT1 , x = 0 at x = 0 so that
Thus the stress distribution near the fixed end is obtained by adding to the
solution of Eqn. 5· 33 the effects ofF 1 +F* from Eqn. 5·27 where
H 1 +Hi]= 2{3Da [ {3(2{3T1 (1-p)-pml)]

[
M 1 +M! r r(-{3T1 (1-p)+pm 1)
Non-linear variation of the mechanical or thermal loads can be dealt with

in a similar way if they are known functions of axial position. If the loads are
numerically known, a numerical method of calculating the stresses is often
better than fitting a Fourier series through the known values. One method is
to apply a finite difference technique, and this is discussed for a more general
case in the next section. An alternative method is to approximate the
loading terms to a series of linear variations and to use the known solution
for each of these in conjunction with the method of § 4· 5·1. Let Z = Z 1 +
(Z2 -Z1 )xfl for one of the sub-cylinders, then the particular solution is
dv 1-v2 Z 1 -Z2
r-=--r(N+X)-vZ; w=Z; Xx= - -
dx Et l
(5·35)
N X X-X·
- >
-rpz>· M X X-M
N 88- -
-
88- -
M·> N X Z_Mil-Miz
- l
The edge forces and moments associated with these solutions are
Thus the unrestrained displacements for each sub-cylinder are

<>! zl
zl-zz
xi - --
l
<>i = Zz
+
Zl-Zz
xi l
<>v! _l ((1-v 2 )(X 1 +X 2 )+NI 1 +NI 2 -v(Zl +Zz)]

2Et
Hi
M!
(5·36)
H!
Mi
Because the series of shells are all cylinders of the same radius and thickness,
the sub-matrices in Eqn. 4·25 have the simple form
A n,n-1 = An-1
21 ; An,n = A"-1 22 + A"11;
F 11 = 0; X,.= D!,,.- 1 -DT,,.
This method is particularly suitable when there are regions where the rates
of change of load variation are small, since then only a few sub-cylinders are
required.
5·3·4 Cylinders of Variable Thickness

If the wall thickness of the cylinder varies with axial position and satisfies
certain conditions of continuity and symmetry, we can set up an equation
in w governing the behaviour of the shell. From Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19 the
governing equation is
(5·37)
It is now apparent that both t and dtfdx must be continuous functions of x,

and that the thickness must be symmetrical about the mid-surface. If these
conditions are not satisfied, the cylinder must be split into sub-cylinders for
which the conditions are satisfied and the sub-cylinders combined as a series
of shells by the method of§ 4·5·1.
If the variation in thickness is not symmetrical about the mid-surface,
the cylinder can be divided into a series of sub-cylinders, each of constant
thickness, as in Fig. 5·6(a) or it can be considered as a shell of different
shape with an irregular ring at each end as in Fig. 5·6(b). The method of
sub-division is applicable if the variation is symmetrical about the mid-
surface, or finite differences may be used.
When applying a finite difference technique, it is possible to work directly
from Eqn. 5·37 or from the two equations to which it is equivalent:
d 2M
-r 2 ~+Etw = EtZ
dx 2
(5·38)
d w
2
Mxx+D-2 = -M
dx
As in § 5·1·1 it is necessary to construct a mesh over the cylinder, although
now no radial divisions are required. N nodes with axial spacing hare used
and at node n
f =J. orfl . df =fn+1-fn-1. d 2 f =fn+1-2f,+f.. - t
" "' dx 2h ' dx 2 h2
Auxiliary nodes, 0 and N + 1, are introduced at the ends to make it possible

to use the preceding equation at nodes l,N. The extra unknowns thus intro-
duced are eliminated by means of the boundary conditions. At each node,
Eqn. 5·38 may be written in finite difference form as
W,._ 1 +r,. W,.+W,.+ 1 = Y,.
where
W=
II r =
II
(a)
(b)
FIG. 5·6 Shell with variable thickness.
Note that variations in Young's modulus and the coefficient of expansion can
be easily incorporated in this method. The boundary conditions can be
specified in a number of ways; suppose that the forces are specified as
= H
M1
1
1 at x = 0
rNxz =
rMxx=M2
H2l
atx=l
rNxx = V2+V! rN:xx = V2
The boundary conditions required for the solution for radial deflection and
moment are then
These may be written in the form

ro W 0 +A 0 W 1 -r 0 W 2 = Y0
-ro WN-1-Ao WN+ro WN+l = YN+l
where
1 [
-1 0 0 0
J v._,~ [ 2h~,' J
-H -H
r,~ [ 0 0;
J A,~ [ I 0; Y,~ ~,'; 2h
Hence the equations that must be solved simultaneously for the nodal values
of the radial displacement and moment are
ro A0 - r0 0 ....................... 0
I r1 I 0 ....................... 0
0 .......... 0 I r,. I 0 .... 0 w,. = Y,.
0 .................... 0 I
0 .................... 0
(5·39)
The nodal values of the remaining variables follow easily from the finite
difference forms of Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19. This procedure can be used to find
influence coefficients, unrestrained displacements and stress distributions
under known loading conditions.
If the thickness is an analytically known function of x, an alternative to
the foregoing methods is to attempt a direct solution for Eqn. 5·37. Fliigge (2)
and Timoshenko (10) include the solution when the thickness is a linear
function of x.
Cylinders with a linearly varying thickness symmetrical about the mid-
surface are rarely used in pressure vessels, so the solution will not be given
here. If required, the analysis is very similar to that for shells with a constant
thickness, but the/; are now
F
(5·40)
where
lt 1 4 12(1-v2 )1 2 t 2-t 1
~=x+t2-tl; P = (t2-t1) 2 ; t=t 1+-z-x
The prime denotes differentiation of the Kelvin functions with respect to
their argument. Reference II contains comprehensive tables of these func-
tions and their derivatives.
We now examine the stress system which produces deflections u = u sin 0,

v = v cos 0, w = wcos 0. From Eqn. 5·14 the forces and moments are of
the form
Nxx = Rxx cosO; N 00 = N 00 cosO; Nxo = Nxo sinO
Mxx = Mxx cosO; Moo= Moo cosO; Mxo = Mxo sin() (5·41)
Nxz = Rxz cosO; Noz = Noz sinO
The values of Npq• M pq in terms of the displacements can be derived from
Eqn. 5·14 provided we remember the conditions in Eqn. 5·13. For the par-
~w ~w aw
ticular case of lateral loading a()2 = - w and raxao = - riJ x' so the last
condition at least in Eqn. 5·13 is not satisfied. However, if the first condition
a2 w a2 w
is satisfied, a02 is negligible in comparison with ax 2 and the twisting
moments are smaller than the bending moments but not necessarily negligible.
Because of this we will continue to neglect the extra terms in the expression
for the twisting moments, but must bear in mind that whilst this gives the
correct order of magnitude, the actual expressions may not be very accurate.
In cases where there is doubt about the order of magnitude of the second
derivatives of the radial displacement, reference must be made to Eqn. 5·15.
Hence Npq and Mpq are given by
Rxx = l:v2.; [r :~ +v(ii+w)]-N

= -E dv
- -t [ vr -+ii+w
1-v2 r dx
J-JV
(5·42)
1-vdw
Mox = Mxo = D -r- dx
-
From Eqn. 5·9 the equilibrium equations are
0 (5·43)
where the applied loads are

Px Px COS(}; Po Po sin lJ; Pz A cos e
N N cos lJ; M M cos e
A difficulty arises in the specification of the boundary conditions because
there are five forces at each end, Nxx• Nxo• Nxz, Mxx• Mxe whilst Eqns. 5·42
and 5·43 lead to an eighth-order equation in wwhich results in the introduc-
tion of only eight constants of integration to satisfy these conditions. This
difficulty is overcome by treating Mxe as equivalent to the combined action
of a tangential shear Mx 6 fr and a radial shear! a~xo . The boundary condi-
r olJ
tions can now be written in terms of Nxx• Nxe err• Mxx and Nxz err where
- - Afxo
Nxe eff = Nxo+-;
r
(5·44)
The tangential shear force from the bending solutions is not referred to in the
formulation of the flexibility matrix and Afxe = 0 for membrane solutions,
so the difference between Nxe and Nxe .rr has no further significance. If the
radial deflection is such that Eqn. 5·13 is true, Afxofr = 0 (; lvxz). so the
effective radial shear is equal to Nxz to the same order of accuracy as the rest
of the analysis.
5·4·1 Membrane Solutions

The shell can support certain loads by a membrane action as in the axi-
symmetric case. Proceeding as in § 5· 3·1 and neglecting the radial shear forces
in Eqn. 5·43, the direct forces are
Nee = rfi.:
= ~1[..,.~"2+U2-r-+A+~ - J
- l-x 1f E>dx
I
i7 (5·45)
-1 [- -]
U2+E>
r
where 02, v2 are constants of integration and
I I
I I
X = r ftxdx; e= r (.Pe-fi.:)dx
The constants of integration are analogous to v; in Eqn. 5·20 and whereas

that was an externally applied axial force, nU2 = S and nrV2 = G are
respectively an externally applied shear force and moment as illustrated in
Fig. 5·7.
X
N = Gcos&
"" -rrr2
FIG. 5·7 Resultant shear force and bending moment applied to end of
cylinder.
When the moments and shear forces are ignored, the deflections can be
calculated from the first three rows of Eqn. 5·42.
ii+w = !_[EJ: -vN ]+rfii(1-v)

Et ee XX Et
Xx-~ = 2(1+v) N -~[N: -vN ]-r(1-v)dN

r Et xe Et ee Et dx
- (- -) f[(- xe]ax+ A
XX
Xx-;v) -xx-
- 2(1+v)N- (5·46)
w = u+w + Et
_ (- v) f f
1
Xx = Xx-- +-1r fiixx- v Nee d X +1-

--
v N +A 2
-
r Et r Et
The constants of integration introduce terms due to a rigid body movement.
The following deflections are obtained when the values of the stress resultants
due to 0 2 , V2 are substituted into Eqn. 5·46 from Eqn. 5·45:
u+w = - - - 1-x]
V 2 + U2--
r
_ v 2+v02
Xx-- = --
r Et r
A -A x 0 2 (l-x) 3 V2x 2 (5·47)
1 2 6Etr 3 2Etr 2
2 (l-x) 2x
- 2 -
_ A U V
X -
x - 2
-
2Etr 3
+Etr 2
The values of A 1 and A 2 must be determined from a knowledge of the position
of the shell in space. For example, if w = i5 1 , Xx = i 1 at x = 0,
~ 021 3 - 021 2
A1 = <>1 +--; A2 = X1 +--3
6Etr3 2Etr
When the deflections from Eqn. 5·47 are substituted in Eqn. 5·15 it is found
that the implied moments and shear forces are
2-v
k- -2
2
1-v
[- -
V2+ U2 -- 1-x]
r
Mee = k~
1-v
[v2+ 02 l-x]
r
v -
k - U2
1+v
As Nxz is constant the membrane assumptions are justified as far as this

force is concerned. However the other radial shear, Nez• appears in the
equilibrium equation and as it is a function of x the membrane solution may
be invalid for long cylinders subjected to a resultant shear force; the radial
shear due to a resultant moment is constant and small, so the approximations
are acceptable in this case. If we restrict the value of Nez to be of order
(tfr)Nxx the length must not exceed about 30r 2 /t, which is not a very onerous
condition in most applications. When the cylinder is longer than this, there
is a tendency for significant ovality of the cross-section to appear in the centre
of the cylinder, producing hoop bending stresses. Novozhilov (3) describes
a semi-membrane theory which takes this effect into account by simpler
means than the use of the complete bending theory.
The deflection given in Eqn. 5·47 and the stress resultants in Eqn. 5·45
are only applicable if the moments in Eqn. 5·45 are applied throughout the
cylinder. If the edge is unrestrained the effect of moments and shear forces
which cancel the edge values from Eqn. 5·45 must be added to the membrane
solution. Because the moments are so small the effect is usually unimportant.
The solution of Eqns. 5·45 and 5·47 for G = nr V2 are very similar to the
accurate thick cylinder solution from Eqn. 5·6. Disregarding the difference
between rand r, the axial displacements are equal in the two sets of formulae.
The difference between the tangential displacements and between the radial
displacements is ±vGf2nrEt, but both sets of formulae give the same expres-
sions for u+ w, Xx- Vfr which are the parameters controlling edge bending
in the shell.
Consider now the deflection y = u-(u+w) cos 2 e. From Eqn. 5·47 with
A 1 and A 2 chosen so that y = vfr = 0 at x = 0, and I = nr 3 t,
y = (lx 2 _ x 3 ) ~+ Gx 2 + vr 2 cos 2 (}[G+S(l-x)]

2 6 EI 2EI EI (5·48)
~ =
r
(zx- xz)!..
2 EI EI
+ Gx
Now y is the deflection parallel to (} = -n and from Eqn. 5·48 it has the
value which would be obtained by treating the cylinder as a beam, supple-
mented by a deflection which varies with tangential position. Similarly the
rotation vfr of the (} = 0 diameter is equal to the beam bending value. The
membrane theory therefore represents an improved beam bending theory
which gives the distortion experienced by the cross-section when the loads
are applied in the manner described in Eqn. 5·45. If this distortion is pre-
vented by the provision of a stiff ring or head, extra bending will be induced
in the cylinder but the magnitude of this effect cannot be obtained from the
membrane theory.
Consider a surface loading q, parallel to the () = 0 axis, due to self-weight

in a horizontal cylinder or to shock conditions. If the shell is supported in
a membrane manner at X = 0, U2 = V2 = 0 and the component loads are
e
A = 0, ftz = - fte = q, then X = 0 and = - 2rq (I- x). From Eqns. 5·45
and 5·46,
l-x
-2rq-
u+w r2q-
-
Et
[1 r
(l-x)2]
+v---
r2 (5·49)
_ 2rq (2 +v) l-x

Et r
w= A -A x+r2q [(l-x)4- (4+v)(l-x)2]
1 2 Et 12r4 2r 2
Xx A2+-']__f(l-x)3 -(4+v) l-x]
Etl3r 3 r
When these values for the deflections are substituted into Eqn. 5·15 expres-
sions are obtained for the moments. The moments are all small and lead to
shearing forces
2kq(l-x) (3-v-v2)
1-v2
Nez = _v_ kqr [(l-x) 2 -2(1 +v)J

1-v2 r2
As both of these are variable, Eqn. 5·49 does not represent an exact solution
of the bending problem and is sufficiently accurate only when the radial
shear forces are small in comparison with the direct stress resultants.
From Eqn. 5·43 Nxz appears in the equilibrium equation after differentiation
and, because of its form in Eqn. 5·491, it is always small in comparison with
Nee· On the other hand, Nez appears without differentiation and does not
satisfy the required conditions for very long cylinders. If it is restricted to be
of order (tfr)Ne 9 the cylinder must not be longer than 6r .J(rft). For this form
of loading, the deflection parallel to () = - n and the associated slope are
2 2 lx 3 x 4 4+ 3 v 2 2} r 2cos 2 (} { 2 (l -)2}]
y = -2nrq - - [{l-x- - - +----x r r +v -x
EI 4 6 24 4 2
(5·50)
r
The deflection at the ends of the () = n/2 diameter is less than the beam
bending value because Eqn. 5·50 includes the effects of shear and hoop
stresses, which are neglected in the beam bending theory. The rotation of the
end plane is slightly higher than the beam bending value because of the
presence of the hoop stresses.
If the horizontal cylinder contains a fluid with weight y per unit volume,
the surface loads are Px =Po = 0, Pz = q*(l +cos fJ) where q* = ry. These
surface loads are composed of an axi-symmetric effect and a lateral loading
which can be evaluated separately.
The lateralloading systemfix = p0 = 0, Pz = q* also represents an approxi-
mate form for wind loading. From these loads X= 0, 0= -rq*(l-x) and
so Eqns. 5·45 and 5·46 lead to
Noo rq*
* (l-x) 2
Nxx = -rq 2T
l-x
Nxo = -rq* -r-
r 2q* [ v(l-x)]
u+w = Et 1 + 2r 2 (5·51)
v rq* 1-x
Xx-~ --(2+v)-
Et r
- r2q* [(l-x)4 (l-x)2]
w = Al A2x+ Et 24r4 - r2
rq* el-x) 3 2(1-x)J

Xx A
2 + --- -
Et 6r 3 r
Following the same procedure as before, this solution is acceptable provided
that the length of the cylinder is not greater than about 6r.J(rft). The values
of y and vfr are
y = - EI
nrq* [{l 2x 2 lx 3 x 4 2 + v 2 2} r 2cos 2 () { 2 v(l- x) 2}]
4 - 6+ 24-2 x r + 2 r + 2
[l
nrq* 2x lx 2 x 3
- - - ----+-+vxr 2
]
(5·52)
r EI 2 2 6
5·4·2 Edge Bending Solutions and Flexibility Matrix

When there is no temperature rise and the surface loads are zero, the stresses
in the shell are those due to applied edge loads. In § 5·4·1 we have already
established the effects of edge loads Nxx• Nxe• with Nxz and Mxx zero, so here
we are concerned with the behaviour when Nxz• Mxx are not zero. These
loads are analogous to those considered for the axi-symmetric case in § 5·3·2
and we may expect a solution of the same type to be applicable to the lateral
case.
Equation 5·42 is based on the supposition that r2 ~:~ = 0 Gw} so the
following argument also makes use of this assumption. The expressions for
the twisting moments give the correct order of magnitude but not necessarily
the correct values, but from the fourth equilibrium condition in Eqn. 5·43,
Mxe appears in the same equation as r:x Mxx· Hence Mxe is negligible in this
equation and therefore
(5·53)
From the last equilibrium equation and Eqn. 5·42

_ D d2 w
-Ne = - -2
z r dx
which is negligible in comparison with

d d4 w
r dx Nxz = Dr d x4
Consequently the third equilibrium equation can be written as

d - - d2 - fl"
r dx Nxz-Nee = r dx2 Mxx-1Yoe = 0 (5·53 1 )
Substitution of this value for Nee into the second equilibrium equation leads
to the following value for Nxe• which can be used in conjunction with the
first equilibrium condition and Eqn. 5·53 to give Nxx· Hence
(5·54)
These two conditions are precisely those which show that the applied loads
are self-equilibrating and that only two arbitrary forces may be specified
at each end of the cylinder.
From Eqn. 5.531 and 5·54, Nxx is negligible in comparison with Ne 8 so the
hoop and axial strains are given by
dv u+w
-=-v--
dx r
F*
The third row of Eqn. 5·42 has not been used yet, so it can be expected to lead
to the order of magnitude of il. From this equation, the above expression for
v and Eqn. 5·53 it can be shown that il = 0 Gw) which is negligible in com-
parison with w. When this result is used in the expression given for Jil66 it
follows from Eqns. 5·531 and 5·42 that the radial deflection must satisfy the
equation
(5·55)
where
This is the same equation as Eqn. 5·24 which governs the axi-symmetric edge
bending of the shell. It has a solution with the property that r 2 ~~ = 0 (~ w}
so the assumption made in the derivation of Eqns. 5·53-5·55 is justified.
The expressions for filoz and Mxo are not exact, but since they are certainly
no larger than Mxxfr, Mxx.J(tfr) respectively, they are unimportant and need
not be calculated. All the remaining quantities are accurate in the sense that
they differ from an exact solution by terms of order tfr. The axial stress
resultant is very small but it is of interest because of the equilibrium condi-
tion. The axial displacement is of order w.j(tfr) and is therefore negligible
in comparison with rxx which is of order w.j(rft).
The quantities of interest are therefore
- _ -Mxx. _ Etw
Nxx---, Noo=-;
r r
(5·56)
dv v -dw
x --=
r dx = -vw; ii+w = w; rx
-
dx
The boundary conditions can be specified either in terms of filxx and filxo or
in terms of filxz> Mxx; but the formulae for the other quantities in Eqn. 5·56
have exactly the same form in was the corresponding quantities have in w
for the axi-symmetric case so if filxz> Mxx are specified at the edges, all the
results derived for the axi-symmetric condition can be applied directly to the
lateral edge bending solution.
The flexibility matrix has six rows and columns for lateral loading and the
last two columns are obtained from the membrane solution in Eqn. 5·47.
Using the notation of§ 4·6
where
hs1 = A.2-A.t +J.ltY; b61 = J.l2-J.ll
hs2 = -(J.lt +J.l2-2v1y); b62=v2-vl
hs3 = A.t-A.2-J.l2Y; b63 = J.l2-J.ll
bs4= -(J.tt+J.l2-2v2y); b64 = vt -v2

and
P1
y=-
r
r2A.1
2p3D
rJ.lt
2P 2D
r2A.2
2P 3D
rJ.l2
2fJ2D
v1
Etr
v
Etr l r~·
rJ.lt vt rJ.l2 v2 2+v
0 Mt
2P2D PD 2P 2D PD Etr
r2A.2 rJ.l2 r2A.1 rJ.lt v
~'1
0 H2
02
2fJ3D 2P 2D 2P 3D 2P 2D Etr
(5·57)
rJ.l2 v2 rJ.lt Vt 2+v
:03 0 M2
2P2D PD 2P 2D PD Etr
r2 2 13 12
r b r b r b - 02
2E;'' J
2P3D bst 2p2D 52 2fJ 3D 53 2p 2D 54 3Etr 3
12
r b 1 b r b 1 b rV2
2P2D 61 PD 62 2P2D 63 PD 64 2Etr 3 Etr 3
Once the edge loads have been determined from the boundary conditions,
the stress distribution due to the edge bending forces can be calculated from
Eqn. 5·56 using Eqns. 5·25 and 5·26, or 5·27 if the shell is semi-infinite.
5·4·3 Unrestrained Solutions and Applications

The unrestrained displacements for resultant shear forces and bending
moments are the last two columns of the flexibility matrix and are given in
Eqn. 5·57. Unrestrained deflections for self-weight and wind loading can be
obtained from Eqns. 5·49 and 5·51.
Self-weight supported at x = 0,
-2(2+v)/
q
0
Et (5·58)
~-(4+v) 12
4r 2 2
13
- 3r2+(4+v)1
The forces which support the shell at x = 0 are
R!=
[ul-*] = [
rVi
-r
-r2 Nxx
~]
1V:x6
0
= 2 rq1
l
X=
[]
If the shell is supported at x = l the forces at x = 0 are zero and the effects
R2 must be added to Eqn. 5·58; from Eqn. 4·33,
R2 = [ V2 ] = Lii! = [ 2 ] rql
rV2 -l
Wind loading supported at x = 0,
v 12
r2+-
2
-(2+v)1
[
fii
fi~ J= 0
q*
Et
(5·59)
fij
~-12
8r2
13
--+21
6r 2
-*1 =
R [1]
112 rq *l
As an example of the method of§ 4·6, consider the semi-infinite shell shown
in Fig. 5·7 and suppose that the end x = 0 is built in to a rigid structure.
The boundary conditions are
Hence
So
- -
2+v
2P
-v
r
J
[
_(2+v)r -~
2p2 2P
where
From Eqns. 5·45 and 5·27 the most significant stresses are
Nxx G1 s1 X
t
(5·60)
The maximum stress due to G 1 occurs at the edge and is approximately

1·55cr 1 where cr 1 = Gtfnr 2 t is the membrane stress.
The maximum stress due to S 1 also occurs at the edge and is approximately
4·2cr2 /P where cr 2 = Stfnrt is the maximum shear stress at the edge. The
deflection parallel to () = n and the rotation of the end plane are given,
at x =I, by
From the last two rows of the flexibility matrix in Eqn. 5·57
Comparing this formula with Eqn. 5·48 it can be seen that the x = I deflec-
tions due to the moment are the same as the membrane values. However, the
deflection due to the shear force is increased by an amount which is quite
significant even for long cylinders; the additional deflection is less than an
increase of 10% only if the cylinder is longer than about nine times the
radius. This extra term is in fact the displacement sometimes called the shear
deflection of the beam.
If the end x = I is held circular by a stiff ring which also keeps the generators
normal to the end plane, extra bending will be induced. In this case the
1[SJ
boundary conditions are
o<1 = X_1 = 0; D- 1 = D- 2 = 0; R- 2 = ~ G
As the cylinder is long, the forces at x = 0 remain unchanged and the

displacement condition at x = I requires that
A22F2+A23R2 = 0
j
F2 = -A.2f A23R2
-2+v
-- -v
r 2/3
(2+v)r ~
r
[~]
2/3 2 2/3
21
0
·-·-
X
FIG. 5·8 Horizontal tank supported by two stiff rings.
From the definitions rMxx 1 1 = - Mt. rMxx 1 2 = M2 , so the stress distribu-

tion near x = I can be obtained by using Eqn. 5·60 with St. G1 , x replaced by
-S, G, (1-x). Theprovisionofthestiffringeliminatestheelement -vr 2 cos 2 ()
from Eqn. 5·61 without altering any of the other terms.
These results show that when a thin cylinder, provided with stiff rings at
each end, is loaded by a resultant shear force and bending moment the
relative deflection and rotation of the end rings are accurately predicted by
beam bending theory if the 'shear deflection' is included. However, at the
ends, the stresses are considerably higher than predicted by beam theory due
to local bending which prevents deformation of the cross-section generated
by the beam theory stress distribution.
Figure 5·8 illustrates a horizontal cylindrical vessel provided with two stiff
rings at the intersections of the barrel with the hemispherical heads. We will
now calculate the stresses due to the combined effects of self-weight and
hydraulic loading. The rings will be assumed to be so stiff that they maintain
both the barrel and the head circular and unchanged in radius. If the rings
are in the form of aT-section as illustrated, the web has very little stiffness
against rotation out of its plane, but for other forms of ring this may not
apply. Consequently two cases will be examined; one in which the generators
are prevented from rotating relative to the plane of the ring and one in which
this movement is permitted. From these assumptions it follows that both the
Shell 1
--·-·-·-·-·
FIG. 5·9 Forces acting on tank.
head and the barrel receive the necessary shear support in the form Nx 6 =
Nx 6 sin () at the mid-surface. In the general case the rings will tend to rotate
and there will be an overall extension of the barrel due to the mean uniform
pressure, so it is further assumed that the rings are free to move axially at
the support and that no restriction is placed upon their rotation. It is also
assumed that the supports are entirely rigid and that there is no vertical
movement at the base of the rings. It follows from symmetry that there is no
rotation of the x = 0 plane and also that the generators remain normal to
this plane. Finally the barrel is assumed to be sufficiently long for local
bending effects to be independent of one another.
The first step in the analysis is to determine the overall resultants from
equilibrium considerations. Figure 5·9 shows one-half of the vessel with both
the overall resultants and the local bending forces. The overall shear force at
x = 0 is zero from symmetry, so the half barrel is supported by a shear force

at x = I and a moment at x = 0. The loading term q* is equal to ry1 where
y1 is the weight per unit volume of the liquid whereas q = ty. where y. is the
weight per unit volume of the shell, so q* has been written as 2wrqft where
2w = y,jy•. The forces supporting the head are R1 from Eqns. 6·75 and 6·76;
the moment due to the q* term is zero because the line of action of the
hydraulic pressure passes through the line about which moments are being
taken. The moment from the head is transferred directly into the barrel,
and because the barrel is supported by a force at edge 2 the stress distribution
and unrestrained deflections are those appropriate to a support at edge 1
with the additional effects of U2 = 21(1+ ~')qr, V2 = - r 3 q. The unre-
strained stresses and deflections obtained from § 6·4 and the preceding formulae
in this section are,
N"'"'
N"'e
Nee =
(5·62)
Nxx =
Nxe
Nee =
2wr
1+v+-
t
wr) r1
2(2+v) ( 1+t 2
51 4 21 2 ) ( wr) (1- v) 12
- ( 12r4+2 r 1+-
t + 2r2
[(21 3 +
3
41) (1+ wr)-
r
(1-v)1]!
3r t r r
l
fiiz = r 2(1+~r)+v
-2(1+v)(1+~ ~r) ~
The unrestrained deflections are shown in Fig. 5·10. In this figure a value has
been ascribed to x~ 1 - v~ dr to illustrate the general case, but for the particular
loading system under consideration this rotation is zero. The position of the
·--·---· -·--·
FIG. 5·10 Unrestrained deflections of tank.
shell in space is determined from the conditions that till = 821 = 0; rigid
body movements from the position shown in Fig. 5·10 to satisfy these condi-
tions can take place without inducing any stress. Now the generators remain
normal to the plane x = 0 during these movements and there is no inter-
ference from the ring disturbance, so we can conclude immediately that
Hu = Mll = o.
The final deflections of the tank are shown in Fig. 5·11.
The determination of the bending forces at x = I depends upon the
boundary conditions assumed. Dealing first with the built-in condition, the
unrestrained movements in both the barrel and the head are completely
prevented by the bending forces. Hence
- T-1j)*21)cyl; F12
F21 = -(Azz
- =-(All T-1-*
D12)sph
The flexibility matrix for the cylinder can be taken from Eqn. 5·57, and in
§ 6·4·2 it is shown that the flexibility matrix for a hemisphere can be taken
from Table 6·2. Thus,
H21 =
r
_ 4[3 3D [{2 + (2+v) ~} ( 1 +
2 f3 r t
ror)-(1-v)] rEt2q
M21 = _2f3;D [{2+2(2/v) ~} ( 1+ ~r)-( 1 -v)] ~~
H12 -4[3
--
3D [{ 2(1+v)} (
r2
2+ - -
3[3
ror)
t
1+v]
1 +- +v+-
3[3
2
-r q
Et
M12 = 2f3 2-
-
r 3[3
ror)
- - ( 1 +-
4(l+v)}
D [{2 +
t 3[3
2
+v+ 2(1+v)J -r q
Et
FIG. 5·11 Final deflections of tank.
These forces are not self-equilibrating and the ring must be capable of
carrying loads H21 +H 12 , M21 +M12 without undergoing appreciable
deformation. The stresses due to the loads can be calculated by using Eqn.
5·27forthecylinder,withH1 = -H21 ;M1 = -M21 andj3 (l-x);fil-x).
For the sphere the corresponding equation is Eqn. 6·74.
If the boundary conditions at the ring do not prevent rotation of the
generators we must formulate compatibility of displacement and equilibrium
of force conditions at the junction. Both shells must remain circular at the
ring, they must have a common generator rotation and the moments must
be self-equilibrating. Hence
r2 _ r -
2[33D H21- 2f32D M21
r2 _ r _
2/33 D H 12 + 2/32 D (- M 2t)
r [- _ ] 2 _
2[32D H21 +H12 -[3D M21 [-* <*] [ *
ov21
x21--r-- ~*]
i5v12
X12----;:-
The same set of equations can be established by using the general formulae
in Eqn. 4· 38. Some re-arrangement is necessary to bring the equations into
the above form as the variables appearing in Eqn. 4· 38 are H w M 12 and H
where H is the total force acting on the shell from the ring. The solution of
these equations is
5
10 7 IJ I I
4 [=
30
50
J I I
f7 7 I J
100
200( 17 I
7 T(
/ /
3
/
2
7 IT
I 1/
1/ I I
I
I I I
J
~
I 10 100 1,000
at
qr
FIG. 5·12 Stresses in horizontal tank.
- _ 4P 3
H21- - - -
r2
D[{2 +---+
2+v l
2P r
l+v
- -
3P
}(t +-wr) -(3-4v)
--+-
t
l+v]r
- --
6P 4
2q
Et
- _ M21-
-M12- - _ -2P
--
2
D[{2+---+-- wr) ----+--
2+v l 2(1+v)}(t +- (1-2v) l+v]r--q 2
r P r 3P t 2 3P Et
H 2 = _ 4P 3 D[{2+ 2+v ~+ l+v} (l+

1 r2 2P r 3P t
wr)- (1-4v)
4
+ l+v]r q
6P Et
2
The force acting on the ring is the same as in the built-in case and the moment
is equal to the mean of the two built-in values. The highest stresses occur at
the ring in the built-in condition, and when the cylinder is short the highest
stresses occur in the head. However, it is necessary to add the effects of a
uniform pressure q* to allow for the mean hydraulic pressure, and when this
has been done for both head and cylinder it is found that the cylinder stresses
are higher for practicable values of the parameters. The difference between
the built-in and rotationally free solutions is small for small values of lfr,
but the built-in stresses increase more rapidly as lfr increases. The membrane
stress in the centre of the shell is given in Eqn. 5·62 and has a higher value
than the bending stresses when lfr is larger than about 3. Figure 5·12 shows
curves giving either the highest bending stress at x = I or the membrane
stress at x = 0, whichever is the higher, for the built-in case. The effects of
the pressure q* have been included and the value of ro has been taken as llr·
The lower part of the curves show the bending stress only at x = l, (} = 0
and in addition there are membrane stresses equal to ( ~r ± 1) ': acting at
x = l. The bending stress due to uniform pressure is 3·1 ror rq and the
t t
surface stresses at x = l must be combined according to the following table
in which a '+' indicates tensile stress.
Pressure Weight Pressure Weight
Membrane Membrane Bending Bending
8 ~ 0 { Outside surface +
Ins1de surface + + +
(} Inside surface + + +
-n
- Outside surface + + +
The deflections can be calculated from Eqn. 5·621 and the flexibility matrix.
We know that u2 = i5 2 = i 1 = v1 = 0 so the fifth element in Eqn. 5·621
is -i51> and u1 can easily be calculated by adding this value to the first
x
element. In the built-in case 2 = v2 fr so these rotations are given by the last
element in Eqn. 5·621• Note that the rotation can be in either direction depend-
x
ing upon the value of lfr. In the rotationally free case 2 is still given by the
x
last element of Eqn. 5·621 but v2 fr must be calculated from the 2 - v2 fr row
of the flexibility and unrestrained displacement matrices.
If the surface loads vary rapidly with x the membrane solution is unlikely
to be very accurate and it is necessary to solve Eqns. 5·42 and 5·43 as a com-
plete system.
One method is to obtain membrane solutions for the case when the varia-
tion of surface load or temperature term is linear with x, and then to apply
the method of sub-division described in § 5·3·3. It is usually difficult to
obtain an exact particular solution and judgments must be made of the
relative importance of various terms. For example, in the relatively simple
case when T = T cos (} and T is constant we find that the direct stresses are
zero if the deflections have the form
a
(5·63)
However the moments then have the values

- D(2+v) _ - vDa. T; M- O _ D(1-v)xa. T
Mxx=
r
a.T; Mee= - -
r
xe= ; Mex = 2r2
These lead to non-zero values for the radial shear forces and therefore the
force equilibrium equations are not satisfied. This does not usually matter
because the radial shear forces are very small in comparison with those
required to maintain typical boundary conditions. If the deflections in
Eqn. 5·63 are accepted and the moments are ignored, the unrestrained
deflections are
ra.T
0
ra.T
f~: J
0 (5·64)
J2a. T
2r
Ia. 'f
r
If the shell is semi-infinite and maintained circular at x = 0, then
i\ .Ail fiT
H1 Ea.T
rt p
6M1 3 -
2 = y'[3 (1- v2)] Ea. T = 1·82 Ea. T
rt
These values of the shear force and bending moment are of order rft times
those neglected in the derivation of Eqn. 5·64, so the approximation is
justified for this boundary condition. If the cylinder is short and is built-in
at both ends the boundary conditions are
fil = fi2 = fiJ = 0
From the flexibility matrix in Eqn. 5·57 and the unrestrained deflection in
Eqn. 5·64
Nxx
-ErxT
H1 Hz 2(v 2-v 1) Erxf(l+v)

=
rt rt 2 (.A-1 + Az)- C.U1- .Uz) 2
6M1 6M2 1·82 (,u 1- ,u2) Erx T
rt 2 - rt 2 2 (A.!+ Az)- (,ul- .Uz) 2
In Chapter 4 it was explained that the effects of an arbitrary loading system

can be calculated by using a Fourier technique. The three deflections for the
general term are taken as
u = un sin nO; v = vn cos nO; w = wn cos nO
These lead to forces and moments Npq,n cos nO, etc., where Npq,n is a func-
tion of Uno Vno Wn which depends upon the value of x. The trigonometric function
associated with each force is the same as that in Eqn. 5·41 and the relations
between forces and displacements are similar to those in Eqn. 5·42, although
now some of the terms are multiplied by n or n 2 •
It is again possible to seek a membrane solution by supposing that the
radial shear forces are negligible.
It is found that
Noo,n = rpz,n
l
Nxx,n = ~ [An-Bn;+Xn+~ f 0ndx] (5·65)

X
where An and B" are constants of integration which can be found from the
boundary conditions and
I P:x,ndx; I (Po,n-Pz,n)dx
l l
Xn = r en = r
X X
The membrane deflections are
" "
1 [ nC +n 2 D X-+ {n-2+
w = w (p)--
Et " "r
x 2 v} A- {n- 2x2 -2n(1+v)+v} B -
2r2 " 6r2 n r
X]
where C,., D,. are two further constants of integration and
I
I
u,.(p) = E~r [nv,.(p)+2(1+v)E>,.]dx

X
E~r I [X,.+~ I
I I
v,.(p) = E>,.dx-vr Pz,n+N,.(1-v)Jdx

X X
I
I
w,.(p) = -nu,.(p)+!.._[r Pz
Et ·
,.-vX,.-~r E>,.dx+N,.(1-v)J
X
The accuracy of the membrane solution can be checked by calculating the

radial shear forces associated with these deflections and comparing them
with the direct forces. If they are of comparable magnitude the membrane
solution is not accurate.
Bending solutions can again be found by setting to zero all surface loads
and by substituting the displacement expressions for the stress resultants
into the equilibrium equations. Eliminating u,. and v,. from these equations
leads to an eighth-order equation for w,.. The approximations which lead to
a fourth-order equation in the lateral case are not necessarily valid now
not smaII m
. companson. . h r 2 ddx w,. • If smaII terms are
2
because n 2 w,. 1s
•
w1t 2
neglected from this equation (tantamount to neglecting Noz,n) Donnell's

equation (Ref. 11) is obtained. Substituting w,. = emxfr into this equation it is
found that m must satisfy the characteristic equation
(5·66)
where
The values of m obtained from Eqn. 5·66 are of the form .

m= ± (m 1 ±im2 ); m= ± (m 3 ±im4 ) where i 2 = -1
So
L1 Cjfj
8
w=
where the Ci iue constants and / 1 = em,x/r cos (m 2 xfr), etc. Hoff (12) has
given a closed form solution for deflection and stress resultants based on
Eqn. 5·66.
It can be seen that the axi-symmetric and lateral loading solutions are
particular cases of the general solution, for when n = 0, m 1 = m 2 = p;
m 3 = m4 = 0 and when n = 1 we must have (m 2 -1 t +4P4 m4 = 0. It can
now be seen that the approximations made in § 5·4·2 amount to neglecting 1
in comparison with m 2 in which case we again find m 1 = m 2 = p; m 3 =
m 4 = 0.
Many investigators have proposed different approximations for the charac-
teristic equation, and Jaeger and Chilver (13) have compared several with
the equation obtained by retaining the small terms neglected in this chapter.
The most useful results have been obtained by Bijlaard (14) who has
calculated a sufficient number of terms to carry out a Fourier analysis giving
the stresses due to rectangular 'blocks' of surface pressure. He has published
his results in the form of graphs giving stress resultants in the shell for unit
radial force and unit moment acting upon the rigid attachments to the shell
(15).
These results may be directly used for attachments of relevant shape and
in other cases they can be used in an influence line analysis.
REFERENCES
1. LovE A. E. The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (Oxford Univ. Press,

1952).
3. NoVOZHILOV V. V. The Theory of Thin Shells {Noordhoff, 1959).
4. BIEZENO C. B. & GRAMMEL R. Engineering Dynamics Vol. 2. (Blackie,
1956).
5. FILON L. N. G. 'On the Elastic Equilibrium of Circular Cylinders under
Certain Practical Systems of Load' Trans. Roy. Phil. Soc. (1902).
6. BAZANT Z. Proc. Assoc. Bridge Structural Eng. 4 (1936).
7. HoYLE R. D. Proc. I. Mech. E. 169 (1955) 553.
8. JAMES E. in Thermal Stress, BENHAM P. P. & HOYLE R. D. (ed.) {Pitman,
1964).
9. BIJLAARD P. P. & DoHRMANN R. J. 'Thermal Stress Analysis oflrregular

Shapes', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 60-WA-131.
11. DoNNELL L. H., 'Stability of Thin-walled Tubes under Torsion', N.A.C.A.
rep. No. 479 (1933).
12. HOFF N. J. J. App. Mech. 21 (1954) 343.
13. JAEGER L. G. & CHILVER A. H. in Nuclear Reactor Containment Buildings
and Pressure Vessels (Butterworth, 1960).
14. BIJLAARD P. P. Trans. A.S.M.E. 77 (1955) 805.
15. BIJLAARD P. P. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 34 (1955).
6 Spherical Shells
6·0 INTRODUCTION
A nominal
thin spherical shell is a very effective pressure container because the
stress is the same in all directions. Furthermore, it need be only
half as thick as a cylinder of the same diameter. Unfortunately a spherical
shell is rather ineffective when subjected to loads normal to the surface and
high bending stresses are induced by this type of load. For the usual forms of
surface loading, the bending behaviour of spherical shells is only significant
near a boundary, so the analysis follows the procedure used in Chapter 5 for
cylindrical shells.
Membrane solutions in which the shell is assumed to have zero bending
stiffness are easily established from the equations of equilibrium. The dis-
placements due to the membrane stresses can be calculated and the accuracy
of the solution checked by using these displacements in the expressions for
the radial shear forces.
Edge bending solutions are more complicated than those for cylindrical
shells for two reasons. First, the expressions for the stress resultants in terms
of the displacements are more involved because the shell has no straight
generators. Second, the coefficients in the governing equations are found to be
variable and very large for some regions of the shell. The formation of
the governing equations is due to Reissner (1). The general solution of the
governing equations is possible but does not lead to a practicable computation,
so various asymptotic solutions have been proposed.
The asymptotic method depends upon a change in the dependent and
independent variable to eliminate the variable coefficients. This cannot be
completely successful but if the substitutions are useful the coefficients will
be almost constant. Methods of asymptotic integration have been proposed
by many authors including Havers (2), Geckeler (3), Hetenyi (4), Reissner
(5) and Langer (6). Some of these lead to solutions which are only valid for a
limited region of the shell, whilst others can be used throughout. The solutions
of restricted range are less involved and easier to use in numerical calcu-
ations, but evaluation of the generally applicable asymptotic solutions is
practicable. Jacobsen (7) has suggested that the variable coefficients can be
174
SPHERICAL SHELLS 175
approximated to their values at the edge of the shell when computing edge
bending effects, and Leckie and Penny (8) recommend that a slightly modified
version of this method be used to deal with the higher harmonics in a
Fourier analysis.
Once the membrane and edge bending solutions have been established the
flexibility matrix and unrestrained displacements can be calculated by apply-
ing the techniques used in Chapter 5. The interactions between a spherical
FIG. 6·1 Co-ordinate system for sphere.
shell and other shells of revolution can then be obtained by following the
methods of Chapter 4. A number of cases are studied in §§ 6·3·3 and 6·3·4,
including the intersection of a sphere with a cylindrical support and the
junction of an incomplete sphere with a cylindrical nozzle.
Throughout the chapter it is assumed that variations in the thickness,
elastic properties and the coefficient of expansion are all negligible. If varia-
tions do occur they can be treated by using the methods of§§ 4·5-4·7.
6·1 THICK SPHERES
The position of a general point P within a sphere with internal and external
radii r;, ro is determined by the spherical polar co-ordinates R, cp, (),shown in
Fig. 6·1.
At P the stress system is upq (p, q = R, cp, ()) and the deflections are u, v, w,
parallel to the co-ordinate axes.
The equations of § 4·1 can be re-written in spherical form as

a 2 • a • a(R )
a&_(R Sin cj> C1 RR) + 0 /R Sin cj> C1Rl/1) + ()(} C1R8 -
- R sin cf>(cr"'"'+cr88 )+ R 2 sin cf> FR = 0

a 2 • a • a
oR(R sm cf> C1R.fl) + ocf>(R sm cf> C1"'"') + ae (R CToo) +
+ R sin cf>crR.fl - R cos cf>cr88 + R 2 sin cf> F"' =0 (6·1)

a 2 • a . a
oR (R sm cf> C1 Ro) + ocf> (R sm cf> C11/18) + ae(Rcroo) +
+ R sin cf> crR8+ R cos cf> crl/18+ R2 sin cf> F 8 =0

and,
E 1
crRR = (1+v)(1-2v) R x
[ (1-v)R ow v (a
) ( 1 au )
0R+v ocf>+w +v w+sincf>oO+vcotcf> -(1+v)RocT
J
E 1
C1 - -X
""'- (l+v)(l-2v) R
au +vcotcf>) -(1 +v) RocT

ocf> +w) +v ( w+ sin1 cf> oO
oR +(1-v) (av
[ v R ow J
E 1
CToo = (l+v)(l-2v) Rx
The deflections associated with rigid body movements of the edge cf> = c/>1>
R = r 1 are
u = 0; v = - b v 1 sin <P ; w = b v 1 cos <P

u = - b sin 0; v = o cos <{J cos 0; w = o sin <{J cos 0
u = [Rcos<{J-r;cos<{J 1]xsin0
v = -[R-r;cos<{J 1 cos<{J]xcosO
W = r;COS </J1 sin </J XCOS 0
where the edge is moved ov 1 parallel to <P = 0, o parallel to 0 = 0 and is

rotated x in the plane 0 = <P = 0. It can be checked by direct substitution in
Eqn. 6·2 that these movements do not produce any stress.
When the loading is symmetrical about the axis none of the stresses or
deflections vary with 0 and u = 0. Under these circumstances the following
equations can be derived for the deflections v, w by eliminating the stresses
from Eqns. 6·1 and 6·2:
2(1-v{R 2 ~~~+2R ~;-2w]+(l-2v) [~:~+cot<{J ~;]+R 0:;<P +

+cot<{J R :~ -(3-4v) [:; +vcot<{J]=
o(a.T) FR
= 2(1+v)R2 aR-2(1+v)(l-2v)R 2 E (6·3)
+(1-2v) [ R 2 :~:+2R :~]=

o(Ra.T) R2 F
= 2(1+v) o<{J -2(1+v)(l-2v) ~
Further simplification may be achieved by supposing the shear force to

be zero and the direct stresses to be independent of <{J. These conditions are
a(a.T) = F = o, and if·m add"1t1on
poss1"bieon1y when ----a;p- · FR = 0, 1t
· 1s
· foun d that
v = 0
f (6·4)
R
w = AR+:2+G~:) ;2 R 2 TdR
.,
where A, B are constants of integration. For a closed sphere subjected to
an internal pressure P but not restrained against axial movement the values
of the constants are
u 2 (1-2v)
- a.T.m•·
E 3 -
A = (1-2v) -+- 1-v
r!:rl f
ro
Tm = R 2 TdR
rl
From Eqn. 6·2 the stresses are
( r:) [23 (1-R3rl) Tm-R32 f R TdRJ

R
Ea.
uRR = u 1-R3 +l-v
2
r, (6·5)
f
R
u•• = Uee = u (1+~3)+ 1~v [~ (1+;~) Tm+~3

r,
R 2TdR-T J
The remarks made in § 5·1 about the corresponding solution for cylinders
apply to this solution, and bending usually occurs at the edges of the spherical
segment.
Finite difference equations in spherical co-ordinates can be developed by
following the procedure for cylinders described in § 5·1·1 with nodes along the
lines
k
<P = t/J 1 +(m-1) -, (} = 0; R = r;+(n-1)h, (} = 0
ro
The stress distribution in a thick cylindrical vessel with a hemispherical
head can be obtained by solving a combined set of simultaneous equations
for the nodal displacements in the cylinder and hemisphere. Stresses and
deflections must be continuous at the boundary between the two shapes;
provided h is chosen to be the same for both cylinder and hemisphere there
will be a common set of nodes, and continuity of deflection will be assured
by using the same displacements in the governing equations for the two
shells.
Continuity of stress requires u•• = u'"'" u•R = uxR at the common nodes,
and these conditions make it possible to express the equilibrium conditions
at these points in terms of the nodal displacements, and thus to establish a
sufficient number of simultaneous equations.
There is no simple solution similar to Eqn. 5·6 for spherical shells, because
the variation in meridional stress brought about by the need to maintain a
constant resultant over a changing area produces deflections which cause
additional bending and shear stresses.
6·2 THE BASIC EQUATIONS FOR THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS
The equations governing the behaviour of thin spherical shells can be

obtained from Eqns. 6·1 and 6·2 by following a similar procedure to that
applied to cylinders in § 5·2. The situation here is slightly different because
all the stresses in Eqn. 6·1 are multiplied by R and from Eqn. 6·2 the first
four stresses are of the form Rupq = f (displacements) where R appears inf
only in the term R ~;,which will later be eliminated. Defining a as the mid-
surface radius, this difference makes it possible to retain the terms (1 +zfa)
without increasing the complexity of the formulae. The equilibrium equa-
(a)
(b)
tions of the shell element are therefore obtained by integration with respect
to z:
:¢ [Nsin ¢]+ :(J [N</> 8] -Nee cos¢+N<f>zsin¢ = -a sin¢ P<t>
a~ [N<t>e sinf/>J+ a~ [Nee]+N<t>ecosf/>+Nez sinf/> = -asinfj> Pe

a~[N<t>.. sinf/>]+:0 [Nez]-N8esinlf>-N<t><t>sinf/>= -asinlf>pz (6·6)
a~ [M</>sinf/>J+ a~ [M<f>e]-Meecos f/>-asin fj> N<f>z = 0

:4> [M<f>e sin 4>]+ :e [Mee]+M<t>ecosfj>-asin lf>Ne.. = 0
and
t/2 (6·7)
Pk = [ukz(l+~)I:, 2 +J(t+~)Fkdz; k = ~. 9, z
-t/2
Here t is the thickness and the applied loading terms in the moment equa-
tions have been neglected because they are usually small.
The stress resultants are shown in Fig. 6·2.
In accordance with the assumption of § 4·2 the deflections at any point
of the shell can be written as
u u+zx8
v = v+zxt/> (6·8)
w w
The terms u, v, w are the mid-surface deflections and x8 , X<1> are tangent rota-
tions. From a geometric consideration of the movement of a shell element the
rotations may be expressed in terms of the mid-surface displacements
Xo
= -1
-
a sin~ ae -usin~J
[aw
(6·9)
X<1> = - ~ [ : ; - vJ
If uRR is ignored in comparison with the other stresses and the deflections
from Eqn. 6·8 are substituted in Eqn. 6·2 expressions are obtained for the
stresses in terms of the mid-surface deflections. Substitution of these ex-
J
pressions in Eqn. 6·7 leads to the following equations:
= Et [av v au
Nt/>t/> a(1-v2) a~+sin~a9+vvcot~+(1+v)w -N
Et [ a v 1 au
Noo = a (1 -v 2) v a~+ sin~ a~ +vcot~+(1+v)w -N
J
Et [au 1 av]
Nt/>o = 2a(l+v) a~ -ucot~+ sin~ ae
D [axt/> v axo] (6·10)
Mt/>t/> = ~ a~ +vcot~Xq.+sin~ ae -M
Moe=- D [ v-+cot~xq,+--
axq, 1 --axe] -M
a a~ sin~ ae
D(1-v) [ 1 axq, axe
Mq,s = 2a sin~ M+ a~ -xocot~
J
In these equations
f
t/2 t/2
D
Et 3
= 12{1-v2); N EaT(1+=) dz
1-v a
~ f -1-v
EaT
dz
-t/2 -t/2
t/2
M = ft/2 EaT(1+_:)zdz
1-v a
~ f EaT zdz
1-v
-t/2 -t/2
The stresses can be expressed in terms of the resultants by relationships of

exactly the same form as Eqns. 5·14-5·17.
When the applied loads are symmetrical about the axis none of the functions
are dependent upon 8 and the tangential displacement u is zero. Under these
circumstances the equilibrium equations become
d~ [Nt/>t/>sin</J]-NeeCos<fJ+Nt/>zsin
d~ [Nt/>zsin <PJ -Nee sin <P-Nt/>t/> sin t/> = a(:~v 2) [~; +vcot</Jv+(1+v)w]-N

Nee = a( 1E~v 2) [v ~; +cot<Pv+(1+v)w]-N
{6·12)
M 8e = ~ [v ~~+cot<Pxt/>J-M
The solution of Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12 will be studied in the following sections.
G

Under some forms of loading, spherical shells support the applied forces by
acting as a membrane with negligible or zero bending and shear stress.
Suppose the shear force can be neglected, then the solution of the first two
rows of Eqn. 6·11 is
v2 +
Nq,q, =
a sin 2 cp
(6·13)
V2 +
Nee . cp +apz
asm 2
Vz cot cp1
(a) (b)
FIG. 6·3 Axial load per radian.
where V 2 is a constant of integration and
 = a2 f2
(pzcoscp-pq,sincp)sincpdcp
The constant V2 is the resultant axial force applied at edge 2 of the shell
where cp = cp 2 as shown in Fig. 6·3.
When the bending moments are neglected, the deflections can be calculated
from the first two rows of Eqn. 6·12. Using the deflections, the rotations can
be obtained from Eqn. 6·9. It is found that
dv dJ . dov a
dcp +w = coscp dcp -smcp dcp = -·
Et
[Nt/><1>-vNee+N(l-v)J
vcotcp+w =
o = -
a
[N66 -vN</></>+N(1-v)]
sincp Et
where o= w sin cp + v cos cp, ov = w cos cp- v sin cp are the deflections normal
and parallel to the axis of the shell. Integrating these equations and putting the
axial displacement at l/J 1 equal to zero,
u~v = ~ ""' ~ 1 cot.,""' 1 + a{l +v)

ucot-.,-u
Et
f•• N••-Noo
. ""'
sm.,
d""'
.,
•
Substitution of the values for the stress resultants from Eqn. 6·13 into
Eqn. 6·14leads to the following values for the deflections:
~ = {l+v)(V2 +<1>) a 2 • ""'

- E tsm
. 'I'
""' +E t sm., p,.
a{l+v) a dp,. 1-v dN

Et P•- Et d ifJ- Et d l/J
~v
1-cosl/J
where p =
l+cosl/J'
The externally applied load produces no rotation, and therefore from an

inspection of Eqn. 6·12 the bending moments and shear forces are zero.
Hence the assumptions made in the derivation of the membrane equations
are true for this type of loading, provided l/J 1 =F 1t and l/J 2 =F 0. At these
values of ifJ the forces given by Eqn. 6·13 become infinite, thus implying that
bending takes place. This problem is studied in§ 6·3·2. To test the accuracy
of membrane solutions in other cases, it is necessary to substitute the values
of x. implied by Eqn. 6·15 into Eqn. 6·12 and to use these expressions for
the moments in Eqn. 6·11 to derive a value for N.,.. This value for N•,. can
be used in the first two rows of Eqn. 6·11, to obtain a comparison between
the values of the terms used in establishing the membrane solution and those
which were neglected. Now from the last rows of Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12
d2 d
4P 4 Nq,z = dt/J 2 (Etxq,)+cotfjJ dlEtxq,)-(cot 2 </J+v)(Etxq,)-
4P4 sin fjJ dM ( 2 ) (E ) 4fi 4 sin fjJ dM

- a dfjJ = I:. - v t Xq, - a dfjJ (6·16)
Using in this equation the value for Xq, from Eqn. 6·15
(L2 -v) [ dpz dNJ sint/J dM

Nq,z = -~ a(1+v)pq,+a dfjJ +(1-v) dfjJ --a- dfjJ (6·161)
Considering the surface loads, it can be seen from Eqns. 6·13 and 6·161 that
Nq,z is of order (L 2 - v)Nee/4P 4 and, provided that cot fjJ is not very large nor
that the surface loads vary rapidly with </J, the approximation is accurate
because of the small term 1/4fi4. A number of common loadings will now
be considered.
For the case of a constant internal pressure P, Pz = P, Pq, = 0 and if the
sphere is closed
V2 =-! Pa 2 sin 2 </J 2 ; = -! Pa 2 (sin 2 fjJ- sin 2 </J 2 )
Hence from Eqns. 6·13 and 6·14 or 6·15
Pa
= Nee = -2
Pa 2 sinfjJ(1-v)
2Et (6·17)
Xq, = 0
Pa 2
bv = 2 Et (cos fjJ -cos </J 1) (1- v)
This is accurate for all values of fjJ because Xq, = 0.

When a spherical frustum with weight q per unit surface area is supported
in a membrane manner by compressive loads at </J 1 ,
Again from Eqns. 6·13 and 6·14 or 6·15
(cos cP- cos cPz)

Nq,q, = aq . ¢
Sill 2
cos cP- cos cPz ,/,]

= -aq [ . 2 ,/, +cos 'I'
Sill 'Y
a2 q [(l ) cos cfJ -cos c/1 2 • ,/, ,/,]

(6·18)
--E +v . ,/, +sill'Ycos'Y
t Sill'Y
- aq(2+v)sinc/J
Et
From Eqn. 6·16 or 6·161 it is found that these deflections imply the existence
of a shear force
N q,,. = - (l+v)(2+v) . ,/,

4p4 aq sm 'Y
This force is of order 1/4P4 times the other terms involved in the equili-
brium equations, so the approximation is no greater than that already
existing in the theory. If ¢ 2 = 0 the solution must be examined to see whether
the stresses or deflections become infinite. Now as cfJ~O
This expression for c5v shows that the pole of a hemisphere drops by 1·9 a2q/Et
when loaded with its own weight and supported in a membrane manner. If
cfJ 1 = n the stresses and deflections given by Eqn. 6·18 become infinite at cfJ 1 ;
this condition implies a point support for which it is known that the mem-
brane solution is invalid.
The stresses due to hydraulic pressure can also be calculated from Eqn. 6·13
or 6·15 and checked for accuracy by Eqn. 6·16. If the pressure is zero at c/1 2
the surface loads are Prz = q*(cos c/1 2 - cos cfJ); Pq, = 0 where q* = ay and y
is the weight per unit volume of the contained fluid. Assuming the shell to
be supported at ¢ 1 by membrane loads
a2q*
V2 = 0; = - 6-(cos¢ 2 -cos¢) 2 (2cos¢+cos¢ 2)
aq* (COScp2-coscjJ) 2( ,i.)

- . ,~. 2 cos.,...
,1.
+cos .,... 2
6 sm.,...
=
2
6 [(cos cjJ~:cjJcos ¢) (2 cos cjJ +cos ¢ 2)- 6 (cos ¢ 2- cos cjJ)
- aq* J
_ a2 q* sin cjJ [(cos ¢ 2 -cos ¢) 2 x
6Et sin cjJ
x (2 cos cjJ +cos ¢ 2) (1 + v)- 6 (cos ¢ 2 -cos cjJ)J (6·19)
aq*
--sin cjJ
Et
azq* [
Dv 6Et 2 (2 -v) (cos 2 ¢ 1 -cos 2 cjJ )- 3 (1- v) cos ¢ 2 (cos ¢ 1 -cos cjJ) +
sin ¢ 1) 3- cos 2 ¢ 2 (P 1) ]
+ 2 loge ( sin cjJ - 2 cos ¢ 2loge p
The value of the shear force implied by the deflections is
aq*
N.pz = - 4 p4 (1+v) sin cjJ
In the region of cjJ = ¢ 2 this is large in comparison with the applied load
and the other forces. The values of N.p.p. N 88 given by Eqn. 6·19 are therefore
a poor approximation to the actual stress resultants. This is not very important
because this is a region of low pressures and the forces and deflections will
not differ significantly from those given in Eqn. 6·19. Further away from the
edge the shearing force is small in comparison with the other terms and the
solution is valid.
As in the case of cylindrical shells, the usefulness of the membrane solution
is limited because it is usually impossible to satisfy the boundary deflection
conditions. To supplement the membrane solution the effects of edge bending
loads are required.

When there are no surface loads or temperature variations, the solution of
Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12 gives the effect of forces applied at the edges of the shell.
One such solution was found in § 6·3·1; namely, the membrane solution
for a resultant axial load.
To complete the homogeneous solution it is necessary to calculate the
effects of edge forces N.Pz• M,p,p· When the surface loads are zero, the first
two rows of Eqn. 6·11 give for the direct forces
N ,p,p = N .Pz cot c/J
(6·20)
= dN,pz
dc/J
In§ 6·3·1 the rotation X,p was found in terms of the direct forces, the mem-
brane values of which were substituted to find whether N,pz was zero or
negligible. To find the rotation in terms of N,pz• the values of the direct forces
are substituted from Eqn. 6·20 into the same expression, Eqn. 6·14
d 2 N,pz dN,pz 2 2
-EtX,p = dc/J 2 +cotc/J ~-(cot c/J-v)N,pz = (L +v)N,pz
Equation 6·16, for N,pz in terms of X,p. was derived from the last rows of
Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12. This equation always holds so the following pair of
equations govern the behaviour of the shell under the action of edge loads:
(L 2 +v)N,pz -Etx,p
(6·21)
(L 2 -v)(Etx,p) = 4P4 N,pz
The rotation can be eliminated from these equations, and when v2 is ignored
in comparison with 4P\ it is found that
(L4 +4P 4 )N,pz = 0 (6·22)
The solution of this equation is
N,pz = Cd1 +Cd2+Cd3+C4j4
where the Ci are constants of integration to be determined from the boundary
conditions, and the Jj are independent functions of c/J. Consider the second-
order equation
(6·23)
and suppose that / 1 + i/2 and / 3 - i/4 are the two independent solutions.
Both real and imaginary parts of this equation must be satisfied, so
L 2f1 = -2P 2f2; L 2f3 = 2P 2!4
(6·24)
L 2/ 2 = 2P 2 / 1; L 2/ 4 = - 2p2 /3
It is easily shown from these equations that the functions / 1 , ••. , / 4 are the
four solutions of Eqn. 6·22.
The solution of Eqn. 6·23 will be studied later, and for the present the
functions jj are assumed to be known. From Eqns. 6·12, 6·20, 6·21 and 6·24
the complete system of stress resultants is
Nq,q, f1cotc/J / 2 cotc/J 3 cot c/J / 4 cotc/J c1
Neo Pf! Pf{ Pf3 pJ; c2
Nq,z !1 !2 !3 !4 c3 (6·25)
ag2 ag1 ag4 ag3
Mq,q, c4
2p 2p 2P 2p
aG 2 aG 1 aG4 aG 3
Moo
2p 2p 2P 2p
where
. vcotc/J . cotc/J
gj =fj+-p-fi; G1 =vf1 + p j j
and the prime denotes differentiation with respect to pcfJ.

Terms such as vf1 /2P 2 have been ignored in comparison with / 2, etc., in
the derivation of these expressions for the bending moments. The value of
Xq, is known from Eqn. 6·21 and the deflections can be found by substituting
the above values for the direct forces into Eqn. 6·14.
Now
Nq,q,-Noo =
sin cfJ
-~ [N"'z]
dc/J sin cfJ
so the complete system of deflections is
[ o] = _!_ [h 1Pa sin c/J h2Pa sin c/J h3 Pa sin c/J h4Pa sin c/J] c1
Xq, Et 2P 2!2 - 2P 2!1 - 2P 2!4 P2!3 C2 (6·26)
c3
c4
ov-ov 1 = ocotc/J-0 1 cotc/J1 +

a(1+v)
E ~-~
[Nq,z Nq,zl1]
t sm 'I' sm '1' 1
In these equations, the approximations used to establish Eqn. 6·25 have
again been employed and
h.=!~- vcotc/Jf.
J J p J
When there are two edges, the boundary conditions are those appropriate
to the forces shown in Fig. 4·7, and for the radial force and bending moment
these are
() = ()1 () ()2
-x. = -x. =
}
X1 at cjJ = c/J 1 X2 at cjJ = c/J 2
aNq,,. = H1 -aNq,,. = H, )
- a sin cjJ M q,q, = M1 a sin cjJ M q,q, M2
From Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26 it is possible to write in the notation of § 4·5
C1 = JC; [F1] = [ Ku K12]

C2 F2 -K21 -K22
c3
c4
ll-!,;
Here the sub-matrices are al12 x 2 and the suffixj refers to edge 1 or edge 2,
[J.J1 J.] ~ lpasin</>1

J2 Et 0 h2j h3j
h•. J
-f,;
h,
2p2
0
!,
f1j f4j
Et
[K1, K1,] ~ [ a f2j f3j

0 ][ !., ]
a 2 sin cjJ1
0 2P -o 21 01) 04) -03)
The constants of integration are therefore

H1 -1
c~r'[::J ~ [c,] a
;[cu] =
2PM1
a 2 sin cp 1
H2
a
2PM2
a 2 sin cp 2
(6·27)
The relevant parts of the flexibility matrix are found by evaluating JK - 1
and using Eqn. 6·26, whilst the remaining elements are obtained from these
G*
results and the membrane solution for an axial load. The axial force per
radian at each edge can be resolved into membrane components per radian
V2 /sin rPt> V2 /sin ¢ 2 and radial forces H! = - V2 cot ¢ 1, H~ = V2 cot ¢ 2
as shown in Fig. 6· 3 The displacements due to the membrane components
are obtained from Eqn. 6·15, and those due to the radial forces are found from
the influence coefficients appropriate to H 1 , H 2 • The flexibility matrix is
therefore the matrix of the coefficients in Table 6·1. The stresses and deflec-
tions under known loading conditions can be calculated from Eqns. 6·25,
6·26 using the values of the constants given by Eqn. 6·27. The stress resultants
due to the axial load are the sum of the membrane values in Eqn. 6·13 and
the values obtained from Eqns. 6·25, 6·26 with Cj calculated from Eqn. 6·27
using H 1 = Hi, H 2 = H!, M 1 = M 2 = 0.
The Form of the Governing Functions All the required quantities are now
known in terms of the function jj and their derivatives and these functions
are the real and imaginary parts of the solution of Eqn. 6·23. Rewriting
this equation in full and using Pr/J as the independent variable
(6·28)
The exact solutions of this equation are hypergeometric series which con-
verge slowly and which have not been tabulated, so solutions are sought by
asymptotic or numerical methods. Adopting the former procedure, it can
be anticipated from the values of the coefficients in Eqn. 6·28 that the first
and second derivatives off have the same order of magnitude as f provided
(cot r/J)/P is a small number.
First Approximation Suppose (cot ¢ )/ p is so small that all terms containing
it can be ignored, then the equation becomes
f"-2if= 0
which has the solution
f= A1 e-<1+i)P<P+A2e(1+i)P B 2 are real, the
four functions governing the behaviour of the sphere may be taken as
j 1 = -eP<<Pt-<P)[cosp(¢ 1-r/J)+sinP(¢1-¢)]
! 2 = eP<<Pt-<P)[cosP(¢ 1-¢)-sinp(¢ 1-¢)]
(6·29)
f 3 = e-P(<Pt-[cosp(¢ 1-¢)-sinp(¢1-¢)]
Now both gi and hi involve a term (cot l/J)//3 which may be neglected and
then
f{ = 01 = h1 = 2eP<if>,-if>) cosf3(!/J 1-l/J)
!2 = 02 = h2 = 2eP<if>,-if>) sin f3(!/J 1 -l/J)
(6·30)
!3 = 03 = h3 = 2e-P<if>,-if>>cosf3(!/J 1-l/J)
!~ = 04 = h4 = 2e-P<if>,-if>>sin /3(!/J 1-l/J)
With this form of the governing functions, it is easy to see that the matrices
[bu] 4 x 4, [cij] are very similar to the corresponding matrices for cylinders.
It is found that
2.A.l Jll 2A.2 J1.2
Jl.i vl -J1.2 v2
[bij]4x4 =
2A.2 -J1.2 2.A.l -Jl.l
J1.2 v2 -Jl.l vl
(6·31)
(2.A.l- Jl.l -1) (Jl.l-vl) (2A.2 +J1.2) CJ1.2-v2)
(1- Jl.l) (1-v 1) J1.2 -v2
[cii] = !- (2.A.l + Jl.l + 1) (2A.2 -J1.2)
(J1.1+v1) CJ1.2 +v2)
(1- Jl.l) -(1+v 1) J1.2 -v2
In this equation A.i, Jl.i, vi are the functions defined and tabulated in
§ 5·3·2 with lfr = l/1 1-¢ 2. Tables 5·1, 5·2 and Fig. 5·4 are directly applicable
when evaluating the preceding formulae. The flexibility matrix predicted by
this first approximation, often called the Gecke1er solution, is therefore
obtained by substituting the values of bii from Eqn. 6·31 into Table 6·1;
the stress and deflection distributions are given by Eqns. 6·25, 6·26 with the
constants of integration found by substituting the values of cii from Eqn. 6· 31
into Eqn. 6·27.
Now from a consideration of the work done in applying unit loads per
radian at the two edges, it can be shown that the flexibility matrix should be
symmetrical about its leading diagonal. This is not the case with the values
of bii given by Eqn. 6·31 because of the approximations made in obtaining
this solution, so an improved solution is sought.
Second Approximation The coefficient of the first derivative in a linear

second-order differential equation can be made equal to zero by an appro-
priate change in the dependent variable. Writing f = (f.j sin l/J)f.j sin l/J
leads to the transformed version of Eqn. 6·28 (on p. 194):
\0
TABLE 6·1 N
-
EDGE INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS FOR THE GENERAL SPHERICAL SHELL
h11 hz1 h31 h41] [ /11 fz1 /31 !41]-1

[ -fz1 /11 /41 -/31 -g21 K11 K41 -g31
[bul4x4 = hu h22 h32 h42 -fu -fzz -/32 -/42
-fzz fu /42 -/32 K22 -gu -g4z K3z
b,s = b,3 cot rfiz-bu cot rP1
sin rPt
bsJ = b3JCOt rfiz---:--;:-btJCOt rP1
sm '1'2
sin
--:--;:- sin rP1 cot 2 rP1
bss
rPt) cot rP1 cot rfiz + b11 --:--;:-
'1'2 s1n '1'2
= b33 cot 2 rfiz- ( b31 + b13 s1n
H1 M1 Hz Mz Vz
t51 0 z sin rPtb a a2 sin rfi 1 a sin rPt -(1+v) +

~11 A I)'J r.. • I b14
2ft2D bu 4ft3D b13 Et sin rP1
a2 sin rPt '"d
+ . no~ bts :;.:!
tn
Cll
Cll
Xt a a 1 a c:::;.:!
1 b
2ftzDb21 PD sin rPt 22 2p2Dbz3 PD sin rfizb 24 2ft2Dbzs tn
<
tn
Cll
t5z a 2 sin rfiz _a_ sin r/Jz b a 2 sin r/1 2 a -(l+v) Cll
2ftzD b34 - -- + tn
4ft3D b3t 2P 2D sin r/Jt 32 4ft3D b33 Et sin r/Jz 1:""
t::l
a 2 sin r/Jz b tn
+ • n• ~ 35 Cll
......
Cl
z
rn
"=
ti:
111
~
....
0
>
1:""
rn
ti:
111
1:""
1:""
TABLE 6·1 contd. rn
X2 a 1 a a
1 b
2/J2Db.u PD sin ;1b42 2 p2Db43 PD sin ;2 44 2p2Db4s
-(1+v) -(1+v)
---+ 1+v (P1)
Etsin ;1 Etsin ;2 + 2Et log. P2 -
a 2 sin ;2 _.!!.._ sin ; 2 b a 2 sin ;2 a (1 + v) (cot ;2 - cot ;1)

15v2-15v1 + 4P3D hsl + 4P3D b53 2P2Dbs4
2P2D sin ;1 52 - ---et sin ; 2 sin ; 1
a 2sin ;2
+ 4P3D hss
10
~
-
(f~(sin4J))"-[2i- 2~ 2 +~ (co;4J)]u~(sin4J)) = 0 (6·28")
Now 1/2P2 is small and so is {(cot 4J)/P} 2 provided the angle is not too small.
If both of these terms are neglected, the equation has the same form as
Eqn. 6·28 1 and leads to the solution
!1 = - 1 ~ "' eP<.P•-.P> [cosP(4J1-4J)+sinP(4J1-4J)]

'\/ sm'+'
/ 2= -~- eP<.P•-.P> [cosP(4J1-4J)-sinP(4J1-4J)]
~sm4J
(6·32)
1
/ 3= - . - e-P<.P•-.P>[cosp(4J 1-4J)-sinP(4J 1-4J)]
~sm4J
1
!4= - .-. e-P<.P•-.P>[cosp(4J 1-4J)+sinp(4J 1-4J)]
~sm4J
!2-(1+Yft)fl; hl !2-(l+f/2)/1
U2 -11-(l +r11)f2; h2 -!1-(1+172)!2
U3 !4+(1-Yfl)f3; h3 !4+(1-f/2)!3
U4 -!3+(1-Yfl)f4; = -!3+(1-Yf2)f4
h4
1-2 v cot4J. 1 +2 v cot4J
=
Yfl 2 p ' Yf2 ----
2 p
The terms f/ 1 and 17 2 make algebraic evaluation of the matrices [b;i], [c;J
very cumbersome, so when it is necessary to include them, the calculations
are best done numerically. However 17 1, 17 2 are both small terms and the
effect of omitting them is not very great. When they are neglected, it can be
seen that
1
[b;j]4x4 2nd approx. = 0 0 0 X
~sin 4J 1
1
0 0 0
~sin4J 1
1
0 0 0
~sin 4J 2
1
0 0 0
~sin 4J 2
[bii] 4 x4 1"1 approx. ~sin 4J 1 0 0 0
0 ~sin4J 1 0 0
0 0 ~sin 4J 2 0
0 0 0 ~sin 4J2
with [cii]2nd approximation given by [cii]l"1 approximation times the same

post-multiplying matrix. Carrying out the multiplication and substituting
the values of bii in Table 6·1 and cii in Eqn. 6·27, it is found that the constants
are given by Eqn. 6·33, and that the flexibility matrix is symmetrical with the
elements given in Table 6·2 (pp. 196-197).
2PM 1
a 2 .Jsin
€/J 1 (6·33)
1
- H 2 .Jsin4Jz
4 (2A- 1 +JL1+1) CJL1+v 1) (2A-z-JLz) (JLz+vz)
a
2PMz
aZ.Jsin €/J 2
The preceding formulae simplify considerably for a semi-infinite shell, i.e.
one for which A-2 = Jlz = v2 = 0, and give
[:J
a 2 sin 4J a sin€/J
0 2P3D !3c 2P2 D sin 4J 1 Cf3c- f4c)
a 1
X~ - 2p2 D Cf3c + j4c) - PD sin 4J / 3c
= Jei~€/Jl)
sm€/J 1 2P
N~z -;;CJ3c-f4c) - a2 sin €/Jt f4c
l M~~ 1
--pf4c
1
-a sin €/Jt Cf3c+f4c) (6·34)
ov-ov1 ocot€/J-o 1 cot€/J 1 +

a(1+v) [ N~z
Et
. 4J
sm
H1 J
a sin 4J 1
These formulae have been expressed in terms of f 3 c, f 4 c because these are

the functions plotted in Fig. 5·4 if xfr is put equal to (€/J 1 -€/J). The effect of
an axial force V2 can be obtained by adding the membrane solution to the
effects of a radial force Hi = - V2 cot €/J 1 •
When the terms 1] 1 , 17 2 are retained, the matrices are best evaluated
TABLE 6·2 \0
0'1
EDGE INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS FOR SPHERICAL SHELL (10 COT </J~p)
-
(Note. * = Symmetrical Element)
H1 M1 Hz Mz Vz
(l+v)
Et sin tP1
t51 l1a 2 sin tP1 a l a2 .J(sin tP1 sin t/Jz) 2
2fi 3 D Jl 12P 2 D 2
a tP1) + 2fi3
a D[ lz cos tPz J(sin tP1)
sin tPz
2P 3 D Jlz 2P 2DJ(sin
sin t/Jz
-ll cos tPl]
X1 * vl Vz
a J(sin
-p 2 2P 2 D
t/Jz)
sin tP1 - 2fi2 sin tPz)
aD[ Jlz cot tPz Jein tP1
PD sin tP1 PD.J(sin tP1 sin t/Jz)
- Jl1 cot tP1 J

t52 •
'"C
* * l a2 sm tP 2 a (l+v) a2 [ ~
-p 12fi 2 D t"I1
- Et sin tPz + 2fi3 D ll cos tPz- til
1 2fi 3 D
til
c:
~
-lz cos tP1 Jein tPl
sin tPz)J t"I1
<
t"I1
Xz til
* * * v1 til
- t"I1
PD sin t/Jz 2p~ D[Jl1 cot t/Jz + t"'
t::l
t"I1
tP1)] til
+ Jlz cot sin tPz
tP1 J(sin ......
0
z
c:n
~
tl:l
=
~
...
('1
>
t"'
c:n
tl:l
=
t"'
t"'
c:n
TABLE 6·2 contd.
• • • • l+v 1 (Pt)_(l+v)(cot¢J2 _
2Et og. P2 Et sin fJ2
_cot fJ1) a2 sin ¢J 2 [

~v2-~v1 sin t/J 1 + 2P3 D lt(cot 2 ¢J2 +
sin fJ1)
+cot2 fJl sin fJ2
_ 2l 2 cot fJ1 cot fJ2 sin fJ2

sin fJ1)]
J(
\0
.....:!
-
l
numerically if there are two edges and the shell is short. If the shell is semi-
infinite
Au=--
1
·:~i':1, {1+ (:-~"~(1-~,)} ~
1-'lu
r (6·35)
2P2 D PDsinc/J 1
100--------------------------------------~
10
m
OL---L---L---L---L---L---L---L---L---L-~
o m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ro ~ ~
rft
FIG. 6·4 Limits of applicability of second approximation.
The quickest method of calculating the stress distribution due to known

forces is to first evaluate the constants from
1 ] [H1J:inc/J1J ( . )
6 36
_1 2PM 1
a 2 Jsin c/J 1
and then to use Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26 with values of the functions from
Eqn. 6·32.
In the following paragraphs, it is established that the complete second
approximation, often referred to as the Hetenyi solution, may be used

provided P<P--./2 ~ 6. The lower curve in Fig. 6·4 gives the limit of applicability
of the second approximation, whilst the upper curve gives the angle above
which the simplified expressions may be used, based on the criterion that
rt 1 ~ 0·02. It is recommended that this solution be used in preference to the
first approximation.
Shallow Spheres Approximation
When the frustum is shallow, <P is small throughout and the approximations
sin <P = tan <P = <P may be used. Substitution for cot <P in Eqn. 6·28 leads to
(P</J) 2!" +(ft</J)f'- [(P<P.j2i) 2 + l]f = o (6·28"')
This equation leads to
! 1 = (kerx)"; j3 = (berx)·
! 2 = (keix)"; f4 = -(beix)·
(6·37)
f{ = -.J2(keix+~} !3= -.:..;2(beix+~)
f~ = .J2(kerx-~} !4 = -.J2(berx+~)
(kerx)" = :x x,
ker etc.
Here x = P<P--./2 and ker x, kei x, her x, bei x are the four Kelvin func-
tions. Reference 9 contains comprehensive tables of these functions and their
derivatives. The functions in Eqn. 6·37 may be used to evaluate all the quanti-
ties required for the calculation of the influence coefficients, and from these
the edge forces and complete stress distribution.
Solution Valid for all Values of the Co-latitude.
All the solutions obtained so far are restricted in application because they
require assumptions about the magnitude of the angle </J. Leckie (8, 10) has
applied a method of asymptotic integration developed by Langer (6) to find
J(
a solution valid for all values of </J. Leckie's results may be obtained by
writing Eqn. 6·28 in terms of the variable f si;</J).
The equation to be satisfied by this variable is
(p</J2) (!J ei; <P)r+ (p</J) (!J ei: <P))'-
-[(ft<P../<2 i)2 +1- ~2 -~<1-</J 2 coe <P)] (1Jei;<P)) = o (6·28 1v)

Now when cp is small, ¢ 2 and 1- ¢ 2 cotl cp are small in comparison with

unity and these terms may be omitted. When cp is large, ¢ 2 and 1 - ¢ 2 cotl cp
are small in comparison with 2P 2 ¢ 2 i and can again be neglected. It is neces-
sary to restrict the value of cp to lie below an upper limit because the term
¢ 2 cotl cp increases without limit as cp approaches n; the value for this upper
limit is discussed later. Thus for all values of¢, Eqn. 6·281v can be reduced
to the same form as Eqn. 6·28111 and the solution is therefore
!1 (ker x )' J
(si! cp)
!2 (kei x)' J
(si! cp)
f{ -~2[(keix) J(si!¢)+ 1+¢2cot¢ ~]

~~ = ~2 [(ker x) J(si! ¢) 1 + cp;ot cp ~~]
J
(6·38)
!3 = (ber x )' (si! ¢)
!4 -(beix)' J(si!¢)
~~ -~2[(beix) /($--)+ l+cpcot¢

\i sm cp 2
fjx_J
~~ = _ ~2 [(berx) J($-)
sm¢
+ 1 + cp cot cp / 4 ]
2 x
These functions may be used to calculate the flexibility matrix and stress
distribution for any value of cp by evaluation offj, gi, hi and substitution into
Table 6·1 and Eqns. 6·25-6·27.
When cp is small and sin cp = tan cp = ¢, Eqns. 6·38 and 6·37 are identical,
whilst for large cp the Kelvin functions have asymptotic expressions which
lead to the same solution for flexibility and stress distribution as that given
by Eqn. 6·32.
The asymptotic expressions are commonly used when P¢,)2 ~ 6. This
inequality therefore provides a criterion for deciding whether or not the
solution obtained from Eqn. 6·34 is sufficiently accurate. The error involved
in using the asymptotic expressions is still several per cent at this value of the
argument, but this criterion represents a reasonable working rule provided
great accuracy is not required. The same inequality provides a value for the
upper bound referred to earlier, because it is now clear that the asymptotic
values must not be used if P(n-</J)../2~6 because the value of cot <Pis again
large in this region of the shell. When this situation arises, the shell must be
re-orientated when dealing with these regions so that pn.j2- 6 ~ P</J../2 ~ 0.
When the shell is a complete cap and there is no axial load present, the
constants C 1 and C2 must be zero because the functions / 1 and / 2 increase
without limit as <P decreases.
The boundary conditions to be satisfied at </J 1 are
-x.p = X1; -asin</JM.pq, M1

These boundary conditions therefore lead to
D1 = J12 [~:} F1
and the flexibility matrix becomes

a 2 sin</J 1 b
All = r 4P3D
a
11
(6.39)
2P 2 D b12 PD sin</1 1
where
b11 = (h31g31+h41g41)(f31g31+!41g41)-l
bl2 (h3d41-h4tf31)(f31931 +!41941)- 1
hzz Uf1 +JJ1)(f31g31 +!41g41)- 1
and these terms are obtained by evaluating the functions given in Eqn. 6·38
at <P = </J 1 • The stress and deflection distributions can be obtained from
Eqns 6·25 and 6·26 using
If the shell is semi-infinite with a hole at the top, the boundary conditions
at the top edge are
-aNq,:: = H 2
asin</JM.pq, = M 2
The stresses must not increase indefinitely with cp and as her, bei and their
derivatives become larger with increasing cp, C3 = C4 = 0. The boundary
conditions thus lead to
Dz = Jz1 [~:} Fz = -K21 [~:]
-l a:;~~c/Jz
and the flexibility matrix becomes
Azz -
b33 2p~D b34l (6·41)
_a_b b44
2pz D 34 PD sin c/Jz
where b33 -(hu g12 + hzz gzzHfu g12 + fzz gzz)- 1
b34 (hufzz- hzzf12)(f12 g12 + fzz gzz)- 1
b44 -(Hz+fiz)(fu g12 +fzz gzz)- 1
and these terms are obtained by evaluating the functions given in Eqn. 6·38
l l [ l[ l
at cp = c/Jz. The stress and deflection distributions can be obtained from
Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26 with
[C = 0; [C = Cfugu+f22gzz)- 1 22
213Hz~2
3 1 12
-g f (6.42)
c4 Cz -gzz -!12 --='z-._..::.-
a smcpz
The displacements and stresses due to an axial force Vz applied at c/Jz
can be obtained from Table 6·1, using the values of bii from Eqns. 6·39 or 6·41.
Suppose that there is a small rigid plug, loaded by an axial force F, at the
apex of a semi-infinite shell. If the plug subtends an angle 2cpz at the centre
of the sphere, the boundary conditions at c/Jz are Dz = 0, Vz = F/2n. The
solution can be obtained by using the flexibility matrix in Eqns. 6·41 together
with the last column of Table 6·1 to give F z = -A 2~ A 23 Vz, but it is easier
to work directly from Eqn. 6·26 for these simple boundary conditions. The
deflections produced by the bending effects must exactly cancel those pro-
duced by the membrane action, so
_ 1 l+v F
cl = fuCf12h12+f22hzz) Psinc/Jz 2nasinc/Jz = klut
_1 l+v F
Cz = fzz Cfu hu + fzz h22) . cp z 2nasm
psm . cp
2
F
where =
2na sin cp 2
(1'
These supplementary constants k1o k 2 are introduced because it is now

possible to write the sum of the membrane and bending solutions in the form
E~
r UQ
Ex.
pzu
N#
Put
Nee
Put
N • .,
Ut
j
6M••
-;rt2
6Mee
ut 2
The terms on the right-hand side of this equation are very nearly functions
of Pc/J 2 and Pc/J alone, so the quantities on the left-hand side have approxi-
mately the same values at the position Pc/J for all thin spheres. The divergence
between the values for different spheres becomes larger as c/J increases, but
at these positions the bending is reduced and the membrane solution can be
used. Curves of the terms on the left-hand side are shown in Fig. 6·5 for a
plug with Pc/J 2 = 0·03213, i.e. with a </1 2 = ( 4~J~) t.
6·3·3 Unrestrained Solutions and Applications

The membrane solution for a spherical shell is not unrestrained because the
edge membrane forces do not act parallel to the axis of the shell. To obtain
an unrestrained solution, it is therefore necessary to introduce a self-equili-
brating system of forces normal to the axis of the shell. The unrestrained
displacements due to uniform pressure, self-weight and hydraulic loading
can be obtained in this way from Eqns. 6·17 and 6·19 and the sub-matrix
of the :flexibility matrix in Table 6·1.
(a) Stress Resultan.t

o·o6-----,....----..,.---....,---.,..----,
-o·o2o·o45 1 2 3 4 5
~4>/2
(b) Deflections
Flo. 6·5 Radial load on rigid plug.
Uniform pressure including end thrusts

8! sin c/J 1
xt
8i
0
sin¢ 2 Pa2 (1- v)
2Et +
l llHl]
A Au
A, A
2t 22
0
Hi
(6o44)
xi 0 A31 A32 0
8vi cos ¢ 2-cos ¢ 1
Pa 2 Pa 2
H! -2 sin ¢ 1 cos ¢ 1; Hi = 2 sin¢ 2cos¢ 2
Self-weight supported at lower edge

cos¢2-cos¢ 1
asin¢ 1 { (1+v)
}
2 ,~, cos¢ 1
sm '1' 1
o
·,·J~::] [
xt (2+v)sin¢ 1
8i -a sin ¢ 2 cos c/J 2
xi (2+v)sin¢ 2 lA31 (
8vi a[1;v {2log.(:~::~)+cos¢2 log.(~:)}+cos 2 ¢ -cos2¢ 2] 1
Hi = a 2 q cot ¢ 1 (cos ¢ 2-cos ¢ 1)
{(l +v)(cosc/Jsm'f'
Hydraulic pressure supported at lower edge
- asincp 1 2-cosc/Jt) 2 c2 cos'f'

,~, +
6 0 ,~,
1
1
+cos ¢2)- 6(cos ¢2- cos¢ 1)}

xt sin¢ 1
8i = 0
xi
The unrestrained stress distributions for all of these solutions are obtained
by adding the membrane stresses to those produced by the forces Hi, H"i.
The unrestrained deflections for an externally applied axial load are the
elements in the last column of the flexibility matrix in Table 6· I, and can be
combined with any of the preceding solutions as appropriate. For example,
if the frustum is hanging under its own weight from edge 2, it is necessary
to add to Eqn. 6·45 the effects of an axial force V2 = a2q(cos ¢ 2 -cos ¢ 1).
The intersection of a cylindrical shell with a part spherical head was
examined in§ 4·3 and Eqn. 4·7 was derived for the edge forces and moments.
If the equation is modified by multiplying all the forces by r, the flexibilities
for the cylinder can be obtained from Eqn. 5·28 as
1
{3D
If the edge angle ¢ 1 is not too small, the flexibilities of the sphere can be
obtained from Table 6·2 as
where p is the flexibility characteristic of the cylinder.

Substitution of these values into Eqn. 4·7 leads to forces and moments per
radian
H Pr 2
4p
[ (1- v) .
(2-v)-~ +2Py'(siDc/J 1)cot¢1
SID '1'1
J + ,J.
1
1
SID
¢
1
These values for the edge force and moment have been used with the
membrane solutions to plot the curves shown in Fig. 6·6 for a cylinder with
rft = 50. For a hemispherical head, the stresses induced by bending are
quite small; but when ¢ 1 = 50° there is a region of high compressive hoop
stress accompanied by axial bending stresses which are over three times as
large as the membrane hoop stress in the cylinder. These high stresses are
primarily due to the horizontal force tPr cot c/Jt> and therefore increase as
¢ 1 decreases. Provision of a torispherical knuckle helps to reduce these
stresses, but if the knuckle radius is small the reduction is slight and the type
of stress distribution shown in Fig. 6·6 exists.
Consider the section of a vessel shown in Fig. 6·7 and suppose that the
flexibility characteristic of the hemispherical head and shell is p1 , whilst
that for the cylindrical skirt is P2 • If P1 ( cp 0 - 3/P1 ).j2 ~ 6, all the bending
effects induced in the lower section of the head will have died out within the
range of applicability of the solution for spherical shells given in Eqn. 6·34;
also if P1 (tn- cp 0 ) ~ 6, there will be no gross interference between the bending
at the edges of the upper section of the head. If the first inequality on cp 0 is
not satisfied it is necessary to use the solution given in Eqn. 6·39, and if the
cr = Pr It
'fl= 900 - - -
X
N 68 jat
r-,
-\ / ...........
;'
..._
1.--/
J·O
'\
\
.......... ,.-- -- 0
r
0 I I
\
/ I I
\
\ / \I I
I'
-4·0
0 0"2 0"6 0•6 0 0•2
z._
r
FIG. 6·6 Stress distribution in cylinder with part-spherical head.
second inequality is not satisfied the bending effects at the two intersections
must be considered simultaneously. Suppose now that n/2-6/P 1 ~cp 0 ~
6/P 1.j2+3/P1 and also that the length I of the skirt is such that P 2 1~3,
then the skirt can be considered semi-infinite. From an inspection of the
component shells numbered 1, 2, 3 as shown, it is apparent that the edges
for which the stiffness matrices are required are respectively; edge 2 for a
sphere with cp 2 = n-cp 0 , edge 2 for a cylinder and edge 1 for a sphere with
c/J1 = n-c/Jo·
The stiffness can be obtained by inverting the fiexibilities given in Eqn.

5·28 and Eqn. 6·36 or Table 6·2:
Shell 4
FIG. 6·7 Vessel with hemispherical head and cylindrical skirt.
From Eqns. 4·21 and 4·31 the edge forces on component i are given by
Fi = Ci [D1-Di] (6·47)
Dl = <2: Ci)- L CiDf
1
The unrestrained displacements due to common loading conditions can be

obtained from Eqns. 5·28, 5·33, 5·34 and 6·45-6·47. A thick skirt puts a
heavy restraint on the free expansion of the shell, so inducing high bending
stresses in all components. As the weight effects usually produce quite low
direct stresses in the skirt, a thin skirt is recommended. It is usually found
that the shell stresses can be kept quite low without generating excessively
high stresses in the skirt if the ratio of the thicknesses is kept within the
range 0·4~t2 /t 1 ~0·6.
A quick assessment of the order (a)
of magnitude of the stresses in the
skirt can be obtained by assuming
that the top of the skirt is built-in
and follows the free movement of
the head. When the weight is large,
a thicker skirt may be an advantage
as it limits the bending in the head
brought about by the change in (b)
direction between the membrane
stresses in the head and cylinder.
Under these circumstances, the skirt
diameter should be kept large to
limit this change in direction.
Another detail frequently en-
countered is illustrated in Fig. 6·8.
The cylindrical nozzle may either
protrude through the spherical shell FIG. 6·8 Cylindrical nozzles in spherical shell.
or be set on to the sphere.
Rose (11) has calculated the stresses induced in the component
shells due to internal pressure and his results have been presented in
the form of a nomogram (see Chapter 3). He used the solution for spherical
shells given in Eqn. 6·37, so these results should not be applied to large open-
ings; he also supposed that each cylindrical portion was semi-infinite, so if
the nozzle has the shape indicated in Fig. 6·8(b) where the constant thickness
cylinders are short, results will again be subject to some error. It is not
practicable to tabulate stresses for all possible shapes; but in any particular
case the stresses may be calculated by dealing with the variable thickness by
one of the methods of§ 5·34, by using Table 6·1 with [bu] calculated from
the functions of Eqn. 6·38 and using Eqn. 4·25.
Calculations similar to those of Rose have been carried out by Leckie
and Penny (8), who employed the Langer asymptotic solution and were
therefore unrestricted in size of opening. They presented their results in the
form of graphs for the maximum stress in the sphere due to internal pressure
and externally applied loads (see Chapter 8). Caution should be exercised
when applying their recommendations to provide a pad on the sphere for
certain sizes of opening. For a penetration which needs this treatment, it is
usually necessary to apply the reinforcement by providing thicker plates and
not by attaching a pad held in position by plug and fillet welds. Also, it must
be remembered that the analysis presupposes adequate connection, between
nozzle and shell, to develop the loads required to maintain equilibrium and
continuity of displacement.
If the attachment is a part penetration weld as illustrated in Fig. 6·9, the
welds must be designed to take the loads per radian as illustrated. A slight
refinement of these values can be obtained by introducing a third sub-cylinder
between the two welds and ensuring compatibility between each weld and
the nozzle, but this is hardly justified because of the inherent inaccuracies
of the analysis. The calculations required to evaluate the edge forces and
moments are those contained in Eqn. 6·47, with two component shells in the
case of the flush nozzle and three for the protruding nozzle. When all shells
are semi-infinite, the values of the stiffness matrices are
cl =
[ 4PlD,
r2 2P!D'l
c2 =
r4PlD,
- - B 33
ar
2PlD,
- - B 34
a
j
2PiDt 2P~D2 B P2D2r
2p1D1 -- 34 - - B 4 4
j
r a a
rPlD,
~
-2~lD,
c3 =
-2~iDt 2PtDt
B33 = -u~~ +!2~Hf12 h12 +!22 h22)- 1
B34 = U12 U22-!22 U12)(f12 h12 +!22 h22)- 1
B44 = -(ht2U12+h22U22)(f12h12+f22h22)- 1
where .fj, gi, hi are given by Eqn. 6·38.
The three surface loads considered so far all produce stresses and deflec-
tions which are well approximated by the membrane solutions except where
edge bending occurs.
In general this will not be the case, and Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12 must be solved
as a complete system. From Eqns. 6·12, 6·13, 6·15, 6·16 and 6·19

N.pz cot </J + .
asm 2
</J
a
dx"'
-D [ v-+cot</Jx.p
d</J
-M J
dpz dN
(L 2 +v)N.pz+Etx.p = -a(l+v)p.p-a--(1-v)-
d</J d</J
4P4
--
dM
a d</J
Fro. 6·9 Forces per radian on part penetration welds.
It is now apparent that the membrane solution is an approximation to a

particular solution of these equations. The earlier result for constant internal
pressure can be confirmed by inspection, since in this case X.p = N.pz = 0.
The governing equations for self-weight are

(L 2 +v)Nq,z+Etxq, = -aq(2+v)sincjJ
(L 2 -v)Etxq,-4{34 Nq,z = 0
These equations have the solution
N _ aq(2+v)(1+v) . ..~,.. aq (2+v) sin cjJ

t/>z - 4{34+1-v2 sm'Y, Etxq, = 1+(1-v2)/4f3 4
The shear force introduces terms of order (tfa) 2 into the membrane expres-
sions for the direct forces, and the bending stresses due to the non-zero
value of Etxq, are of order tfa times the direct stresses; this confirms the
accuracy of the membrane solution. By inspection, the solution for the
hydraulic pressure case, for which the surface loading term in the governing
equation is -aq* sin cjJ, is
aq*(l+v) . aq*sincjJ
4{34+1-v2smcjJ; Etxq, = -1+(1-v2)j4p4
..~,. ..~,. aq*(1+v)coscjJ 2
As 'I' --+ '1'2> N 4>4>--+ 4{34
this result confirms the conclusion reached in the discussion of the membrane
solution.
The governing equations for the shell behaviour under the action of a
temperature distribution are
dN
-(1-v)-
dc/J (6·49)
2 4{34 dM 4
(L -v)Etxq,-4{3 Nq,z = ----a- dcjJ
The solution of these equations when N and M are linear with cjJ is not
apparent; so it is not possible to follow exactly the techniques used for
cylinders, and to build up a solution for a general distribution from a series
of shells each with linear variations of N and M. However, a solution which
will serve the same purpose can be sought and a lead is given by the fact
that a general steady state temperature distribution in a sphere is a series
of terms of the type
T, = [cnRn+ ::+ 1 ]PJcoscjJ)
where em dn are constants, Pn(cos cjJ) is Legendre's polynomial of order n

and R = a+ z is the spherical radius.
A temperature distribution of this form will give rise to values of N, M of

the type
where an, bn are obtained by carrying out the integrations through the thick-
ness contained in the definition of N, M.
Therefore the elements on the right-hand side of Eqn. 6·49 are respectively
(1- v) an Pn sin</>, - 4p bn Pn sin</>, where the dot denotes differentiation with
4
a
respect to cos </>.
Now the Legendre polynomial satisfies the equation
so
and this leads to the solution of Eqn. 6·49 in the form
(1-v)an (6·50)
4P 4
= -abn
Solving this pair of simultaneous equations
4P 4 bnfa+[1-v-n(n+1)] (1-v)an
An=
4P4 +[1 +v-n(n+1)] [1-v-n(n+ 1)] (6·51)
4P b" [1 +v- n (n+ 1)]/a -4P (1-v) an
4 4
Bn =
4P 4 + [1 +v-n(n+ 1)] [1-v-n (n+1)]
The complete system of stresses and deflections can be obtained by substitut-
ing the values of the shear force and rotation from Eqn. 6·50 into Eqn. 6·48.
In theory, the stresses and deflections can now be calculated for any
steady state distribution of temperature, but in practice an approximate
method, which is easier to apply, is more useful. When n = 1, Pn = cos</>,
Pn = 1 and after neglecting small terms the constants are given by
H
A temperature distribution for which N = a0 , M = b0 automatically satis-

fies Eqn. 6·49, so if
(6"52)
the particular solution of the shell equations is obtained from Eqns. 6·48,
6·50 and 6·52
Nq,q, = Noo [b 1-v

-1- -
a
2
- a 1 coscf>
4P4
J
Nq,z = a- 1-v
[b 1
4p4 al
2
J. smcf>
Mq,q, Moo -b 0 - [ b 1 - a(1-v

2
)
4p4 a 1 coscf>
J
(6·53)
0 = a sin cf> (1-v) [

~ a0 + ( a 1 +-;
b 1) coscf> J
Xq, 1-v
- - [b
Et
1
-+a
a
1 smcf>
J.
ov-ovl = o cot cf> - o1 cot cf> 1
At the edges c/> 1 , c/> 2 of the shell, the shearing force and bending moment
have the non-zero values given by
-aN41 z = -asmc/> -1- -

. 1[b 1-v 2
-a1
a 4P4
J =
H'1 }
J
at c/>1
=
2
a sine/> Mq,q, . 1 [ b0 +a (b(i-
-asmc/> 1 1-v
4p4 a 1) cosc/> 1 Mi
aNq,,. = . 2 [b
asmc/> 1-v
-1- - - a1
2J
a 4P4 H! }
4p 4 a ) cosc/>2J = M!
at c/> 2
-asincf>Mq,q, = . [b +a el--;;- 1-v

asmcf>2 0
2 1
To obtain an unrestrained solution it is necessary to add the effects of Hf,

Mt, H!, M! to the particular solution in Eqn. 6·53.
...., (I>
t:r '"0
s:: ::r:
"' m
;. ~
(II
.....
(')
s:: >
t:S I""
d (I>
.....
'"I
"' ::r:
II) m
I""
s·
(II I""
(I>
asinc/>1 [ 1 0..
b*1 Et-(1-v) (b
a 0 + -;+a 1) cosc/> 1 J 0..
~
II)
1-v(b1 R
xi -B -;+a 1) sinc/> 1 Au A12l
rHtl s
(II
a sinc/> 2 1 M! a
II)
"'
£>*2 Et (1-v) [ (b
a 0 + -;+a 1 ) cosc/> 2 J +I A21A22 I I Hi (6·54) '"I
(II
1-v(b 1 )
-Et -;+a 1 sinc/>2 I I Mi
xi A31 A32
a(l-v)[ 1
t5vi -_-- a 0(cosc/> 2-cosc/> 1)+ ~+a(b J
1 ) (cos 2 c/> 2-cos 2 c/> 1)
1-.)
Vl
-
When the temperature is constant through the thickness and has the values
T 1 , T2 at c/J1, cP2•
T 1 cos c/J 2 - T2 cos c/J 1+(T2 - T 1 ) cos cjJ
T
cos cjJ 2 -cos cjJ 1
therefore
(1-v)(a 0 +a 1 coscjJ) = tEa.T
b0 = b 1 = 0
The particular and unrestrained solutions are identical and stress free if
a1 is small and the deflections are
b asincjJa.T
dT
Xq, = -a.- (6·55)
dcjJ
The criterion for deciding whether or not Eqn. 6·55 can be used must be
based on the stresses produced by edge restraints and the solution in Eqn.
6·53. If the edge restraints produce stresses r:r when Eqn. 6·55 is used, the
approximation is acceptable if
a 1 cos cjJ . Ea. dT
2t <r:r, I.e. 2(1-v) dcjJ <r:rtancjJ
When applying this criterion and Eqn. 6·55 it must be remembered that it
is only true for the special form ofT given above; if the values are being used
in a compatibility problem at cjJ = c/J 1 it is sufficient for T to have this form
within a region l/3(c/J-c/J 1) I :::::;3. For all other cases Eqns. 6·53 and 6·54 can
be used for a series of spherical frusta in an analysis of the type described
in§ 4·5·1.
The method of analysis described for thermal loading can be easily adapted
to cater for variations in the surface load terms in Eqn. 6-48. Alternatively,
a completely numerical approach such as the finite difference technique
described in Chapter 7 can be used for all forms of loading.
Equation 6·50 was obtained in the course of deriving the thermal solution
and leads directly to the exact solution for the edge bending problem. When
there are no surface loads or temperature terms an = bn = 0 and Eqn. 6·50
has a non-trivial solution if the two constants are not linearly dependent.
This is the case if
(n2+n-1)2 = -4P4+v2
The second equation gives two independent complex values of n which lead
to two independent Legendre polynomials of complex order. The real and
imaginary parts of these polynomials are the four independent functions
which govern the edge bending of the shell.
When the component deflections have the form u = asin (), v = v cos (),
w = wcos () where a, v, ware functions of¢, the remaining deflections and
stress resultants have the form
Xq, iq, cos e; Xo = io sin()

Nq,q, Nq,q,cosO; Noo = N89 cos() Nq,o Nq, 8 sin0
Mq,q, Mq,q,cos(); Moo M 80 cos(); Mq,o Mq,o sin()
N.pz Nq,zcos(); No:z N0 zsin()
1
io -----;---:;:_ [ w+ usin ¢]
a sm'l'
i"' = -~ [~: -v]

N"'"'
Et 2) [ d¢
a(1-v d v +v ( sin¢
u +vcot¢) +(1+v)w -N J -
Roo Et
a(l-v 2)
[ dv u
v d¢ +sin¢ +vcot</J+(l+v)w -N
J-
Nq,o Et [ du v
2a(1+v) d¢ -ucot¢- sin¢
J (6·56)
D
- [diq,
-+v ( iq,cot¢+-.-
io )] -M
-
.M"'"' a d¢ sm¢
Moo D [ diq, io
~ v d¢ + iq, cot ¢+sin ¢ - M
J -
Mq,o D(1-v) [di8 _ ¢ Xq, J
2a d¢- Xo cot - sin¢
The surface loads which generate these stresses and deflection have the form
Pz = p,.cosO; P.p = jj.pcosO; Pe =fie sinO; T = Tcos(}
From Eqn. 6·6 the forces must satisfy the equations
d~ (N.p.psin rp)+ N.pe- Nee cos rp + N.p,. sin rp = -a sin rp jj.p
d~ (N.pe sin rp)- Nee+ N.peCosrp +Nez sin rp = -a sin rp Pe
ddrp (N.pz sin rp) +Nez- N.p.p sin rp- Nee sin cjJ = -a sin rp p,. (6·57)
d~ (M.p.psinrp)+M.pe-Meecoscp-asincp N.pz = 0
d-. -- . -
drp (M.pesm rp)-Mee+M.peCOS cp-a sm cp Nez= 0
The twisting moment at a boundary is eliminated by the technique used

for cylinders in § 5·4 and
u- M.pe (6·58)
lV ,Pz eff = N,Pz + ----:--;;:
asm'+'
The solution of Eqns. 6·56 and 6·57 is studied below.
6·4·1 Membrane Solution

For certain loading systems the shell acts as a membrane with the radial
shearing forces and the moments zero or negligible.
When the radial shearing force terms are omitted from Eqn. 6·57 it is found
that
N.p.p = .1 3 rp [ V2 sin r/J 2 + V 2 (cos rp 2 -cos rp)+~+ a'¥ cos rp]

asm
Nee= .1 3 r/J [ V2 sin r/J 2 + V2 (cos r/J 2 -cos r/J)+~+a '¥cos cfJ] +aflz (6·59)
asm
where
.p .p
= a2 I (flecosrp-P.p)sinrpdrp; '¥=a I (pzsinrp+p.pcosrp-pe)sinrpdrp
.Pz .Pz
and U2, V2 are constants of integration. These constants are U2 = 8 2/n

and V2 = G2fna sin cp 2, where S2, G2 are the resultant shear force and
bending moment over the complete cross-section at cp 2 •
When the bending moments are neglected, the deflections can be obtained
from the expression for direct forces in Eqn. 6·56. As in the axi-symmetric
case the radial and tangential displacements can be combined to give move-
ments normal and parallel to the axis of the shell. It is found that
_ asincp _
u+o =~ [N99 -vN.,..]
_ ov
X~+-.-=
2(1+v) N~ 9 cotcp - - 1 d ~ N
-.-+--[N~~-vNoo]-- -[lvoo-V ~~]
a Sin cp Et Sin cp Et Et dcp (6.60)
asincp _ _
o= A +A2acoscp- a(1+v)
1 Et [I 1 -12 coscp]+Et[N99 -vN~~]
1+ v [ . dl 1] 1 d -
-[N -v N~~]
_
X~= A2+ - 12+sincp- --
Et dcp Et dcp 99
The constants of integration, Al> A 2 introduce terms due to a rigid body
movement and
2N~9 + (N~~- lV99) cos cp
sin 2 cp
2N~coscp+N~~-Noo
= -~-~~~--
sin2 cp
The displacements due to a resultant shear force are found by substituting
the expressions in U2 from Eqn. 6·59 into Eqn. 6·60;
ii+o = _1+v u2 coscp2-coscp

Et sin 2 cp
i~+-- =
ov (1+v)U 2
a sin cp Eta sin 2 c/J
(6·61)
0 (1+v) u2 [
= A 1 +acoscpA 2+ 4Et 2(1-coscpcoscp2)x
X
cotcp
~ + (1 +cos cp cos cp 2) loge p J
Sin
x. = U2coscp2 [2cotcp -lo

A2 (1+v)4Eta sin cp ge p
J
The constants A 1 and A 2 must be determined from a knowledge of the

position of the shell in space. In these equations p = (1 -cos cjJ)/(1 +cos cjJ).
Similarly the displacements due to the moment rca sin ¢ 2 V2 are
(1+v) V2 sinc/J 2
---
Et sin 2 cjJ
5v
- +--
X~ a sin cjJ
0
J
(6·62)
A1 +acoscjJA 2 -1+v
4-
.
V2 smcjJ [2cotcjJ
2 coscjJ ----=---T-log.p
Et sm'f'
A 2 -1-+-v V
4Eta
_ smc/J
2
.
2
[2-.--log
cot cjJ
sm cjJ •
p
J
If the deflections from Eqns. 6·61 and 6·62 are substituted in Eqn. 6·57,
the moments implied by these solutions are found to be
_ _ 1-v 2 [ _ • _ J 1
M~~ - M 66 = 4/3 4 V2 sm c/J 2 + U2 cos cPz sin 3 cjJ ( 6.63 )
When these values for the moments are substituted in the last two rows of
Eqn. 6·57 the two radial shear forces are found to be zero. This confirms the
accuracy of the membrane solution; in fact, when the moments in Eqn. 6·63
are included, the solutions for 0 2 , V2 contained in Eqns. 6·59, 6·61 and 6·63
are the exact solutions of the bending problem. The stresses due to the
moments are of order tfa times those due to the direct forces and may be
neglected. As cjJ tends to zero the forces increase without limit and in a
similar way to those due to the axi-symmetric axial load. This indicates that
additional bending takes place when the shearing force and bending moment
are applied as point loads.
Surface loads can be treated by following the procedure used for the
externally applied edge forces. For example, if the shell is subjected to a
surface load q per unit area parallel to 0 = 0 and is supported in a membrane
manner at c/J 1 ,
h = qcos¢; Pe = -q; A = qsin¢; U2 = V2 = o
From the definition of ij), '¥and Eqns. 6·59 and 6·6.0,
(6·64)
_ bV
Xq,+--
a sin fjJ
If a horizontal spherical frustum contains a fluid with weight y per unit
volume, the surface loads are Pq, = Pe = 0; ftz = q* (sin r/J 1 +sin fjJ cos(})
where q* = ay. The stresses produced by the constant pressure q* sin f/J 1
can be calculated by using the formulae in § 6·3. The variable pressure
q* sin fjJ cos (}, which also represents a wind loading, produces stresses due
to the system of surface loads Pq, =fie = 0; ftz = q* sin r/J. If the shell is
supported in a membrane manner at r/J 1 , 0 2 = V2 = 0 and from Eqns. 6·59
and 6·60,
_ cosrp
Nq,q, '¥--
sin 3 fjJ
_ cosrp *.
Nee -'¥ ~+aq smf/J
sm
'¥
Nq,e = (6·65)
sin 3 cf>
a(l+v) 'Pcosrp a2 q* . 2 fjJ
u+5 . +--sm
Et sm 2 cf> Et
bv l+v '¥
- +--
Xq, a sin fjJ B sin 2 cf>
where
'¥ aq* [cos rp 2 - cos fjJ -Hcos 3 rp 2 -cos3 fjJ)]
The expressions for i>, iq, have not been included in Eqn. 6·64 or 6·65 because
they are cumbersome and are not often needed.

When there are no surface loads or temperature variations present, the
solution of Eqns. 6·56 and 6·57 gives the effects of forces applied at the edges
of the shell. The solutions for 0 2 , V2 obt~ined in § 6·4·1 were shown to
H*
satisfy all rows of Eqns. 6·56 and 6·57, so results which make it possible to
specify Nq,z, Mq,q, at the edges will complete the homogeneous solutions.
When the surface loads are zero, it is possible to satisfy the first three rows
of Eqn. 6·57 by writing
(6·66)
Now Eqn. 6·60 relates the displacements to the direct forces, and substitution
from Eqn. 6·66 leads to
(6·661)
Et~ -n- • dNoz (1+v)Noz

- .-,~,. = -(L2 +v)(JV 8,smc/J)+(l+v)coscjJ dA.. + . cjJ
a sm 'I' 'I' sm
In these equations L 2 is the operator defined in§ 6·3·1. These displacements

lead to a circumferential tangent rotation given by
(6·67)
It is now apparent that
and if this value is substituted into Eqn. 6·56, the following expressions are
obtained for the moments.
M~~ - 4; 4 [(L2 -v)(Etx6 sint/>)-(1-v)costf> d~ (Etx8 )]
Mee = - 4; 4 [v(L2 -v)(Etx6 sint/>)+(1-v) {cost/> d~ (Etx 8) -
-(1 +v)Et x8 sin t/>}]

a(l-v) d _
4P4 dtf> (Et Xe)
When these values are substituted into the last row of Eqn. 6·57 it is found
that
From Eqns. 6·67 and 6·671 the radial shear force must satisfy the following
equation
(6·68)
There is one further equation to be satisfied because the penultimate row
of Eqn. 6·57 has not been used. When the moments are substituted into this
equation, it is found that
4P4 N~z = - ~ (L2 -v)(Et Xe sin t/>)

From the relationship in Eqns. 6·66 and 6·68 it can be seen that this expres-
sion is consistent with the other equations but that it adds no new information.
From Eqns. 6·67 and 6·681, when the terms containing variable coefficients in
the operator L 2 can be neglected, an equation can be derived for N~z which
has the same form as that for N~z in the axi-symmetric case. The variable
coefficients are of the form (cot t/>)/P and can be neglected when 4> is close to
!1t. Hence spherical shells with boundaries close to !1t have identical stress
resultants for lateral and axi-symmetric edge loading.
For general values of the co-latitude the solution to the lateral edge bending
problem is obtained from Eqn. 6·68 as
2p Noz sint/> = C 1F 1 +C 2 F 2 +C 3F 3 +C4F4
where the Ci are constants of integration and the Fi are the four indepen-
dent solutions of Eqn. 6·68. The Fi have exactly the same form as the jj
in section 6·3·2 and again ignoring F 1 in comparison with 2P 2F 2 , etc. the
stress resultants and deflections are given by the expressions on pp. 224, 225.
In these expressions the functions introduced are defined in terms of the Fi
on p. 226 and it is important to remember that the jj here are different from
those in section 6·3·2.
IV
IV
""'
N"'"' ~\ )
I I (11cot¢+ ~~¢ (12cot¢+ ~\ ) (13cot¢+ ~\ ) (14cot¢+ ~\¢) 1 r c1
~~¢ ~~¢ ~~
Nee I I P!I Pn Pf3 Pf4 I I c2

I ( !1 F 1cot¢) ( !2 F2cot¢) ( ! 3 + F3cot¢) ( ! 4 F 4 cot¢) I I c3
N"'e I • sin ¢ + 2 p sin cp sin¢+ 2Psin¢ sin¢ 2Psin¢ sin ¢ + 2 p sin¢
N<f>z !1 !2 !3 !4 I L c4
( (1-v)/2 ) ( (1-v)/1) (t + (1-v)/4 ) ( (1-v) 3 ) I (6·69)
N<f>zeff = ! 1- 2P 2sin2 cp ! 2+ 2P 2sin 2¢ 3 2P2 sin2 ¢ !4- 2P2 sin2 q;
F1 F2 F3 F4
Nez I I 2/Jsincp 2Psin¢ 2Psin¢ 2/Jsin¢
a a a a '1:l
~
M"'"' I I 213 g2 -2pg1 -2pg4 2/3 g3 m
(/l
(/l
a a a - a - c::
~
Meo I I 2/3 G2 -2P G1 -2PG4 2/3 G3 m
<
m
(/l
-a(1-v) a(1-v) a(1-v) -a(1-v) J (/l
M"'e 3 m
I I 2/3 2sin¢ ! 2 2f3 2sin¢ / 1 . 2P 2sin¢ / 4 2f3 2sin¢ t"
t1
m
(/l
......
0
z
1',1.1
"'I
1:!:1
=
+i5 ...lid
(")
i5v >
t"'
r- + -
1',1.1
=
1:!:1
=
t"'
t"'
1',1.1
l:: asin~
f3a sin cf> 1i 1 f3a sincf>Ti 2 f3a sin cf> Ti 3 f3a sin cf> 1i4
2/3 2]2 -2/3 2]1 -2/3 2/4 2/3 2]3

1
Et
(l+v)F 1 ]) ( [ (l+v)F 2 ] ) ( [ (l+v)F 3 ] ) ( [ (l+v)F4 ] )
( f3a sin cf> [ Ti 1+ 2132 sin 2 cf> f3a sin cf> Ti 2+ 2132 sin 2 cf> f3a sin cf> Ti 3+ 2132 sin 2 cf> f3a sin cf> 1i4 + 2132 sin 2cf>
2/3 2!2 -2/3 2!1 -2/32/4 2/32 !3

cl
C2
(6·70)
In these equations the prime denotes differentiation with respect to f3cf> and c3
f 1 + if2 ,f3 - i/4 are the two independent solutions of Eqn. 6·23. The remaining
quantities are c4
IV
IV
VI
The boundary conditions when edge forces H;, M; are applied as shown in
Fig. 4·14 are u+b = u1 +b 1
_ bv 1
- ( x +--
<P
Jv )
a sin <jJ Xt- a sm
. </J
1
at ..1..1
'I'
a R.pzelf =Ill
- a sin <jJ M .p.p M1
u+J u2 +b2
- +Jv _ Jv 2
- (X --) xz----,.,...::..,,...
.p a sin <jJ a sm<jJ 2
-a N.pzeff Hz
a sin <jJ M .p.p Mz
From Eqns. 6·69 and 6·70 it is possible to write in the notation of§ 4·6
C1 = JC;[~t] = ["Kt~K12 _ ] C1 = KC
Cz Fz -Kzt-K22 Cz
(I>
'1:1
The constants of integration are therefore ::r:
!!1
::a
(l
->
C1 I I R1 t"'
a (I>
::r:
!!1
2p.M1 t"'
C2 I t"'
(I>
2
a sincfo1 I; [cil]=
= [cij]
R2
c3 I -
a
2p.M2
c4 I I a 2sin cP2
(1-v)/21) ( (1-v)/41 ) ( (1-v)/31 ) , - 1
(!u 2P 2 sin 2 cP1 /31 +2p2sin2cfo1 /41-2p2sin2cfo1
-g21 g11 g41 -g31
(1-v)/12 ) (6.71)
(1-v)/22) ( ( (1-v)/42) (1-v)f,) I
. ( - !12 + 2P2 sin2cfo2 - - /32 -
( -/42 + 2P2 sin2 cP2
!22 2P 2sin 2 cP2 2P 2sin 2 cP 2
l g, -g., -g42 g32
N
N
....:1
The leading 4 x 4 sub-matrix of the lateral flexibility matrix therefore has

the same form as the corresponding matrix in Table 6·1 with [b 11]4 >< 4 replaced
[v,
by 1] 4 x4 where li11 li21 1i31 1i41
-121 11 ,41 - 31
The first four elements in the last two rows of the flexibility matrix are
obtained from Eqns. 6·70 and 6·71. From the first,
[l52~li1~li1] = [P•S:,<P, 2
:,] [auaua13a14] .c
x2-x1 o -Et a21a22a23a24
where dli = :~::: (nJ2+2p2ls::c/J2 FJ2)-(nJ1+2/321s::c/J1 Fi1)

a11 = d
u-
2{32 cosc/J2-cosc/J1 f .
sinc/J 1 21•
a21 -- f 21-f 22
'::J
uu
= d cos4J 2-cosc/J1 f . u22
u+ 2112
P • ,~.. 11•
:J f f
= u- 11
sm '1' 1
:J
U13
= d
13+ 2132
cos c/J2 -cos c/J1 !. . :J
. ,~..
!. !.
41• U23 = 42- 41
s1n '1' 1
a14 = d14 -2{32 coscp2-coscp1 f 31 ; a24 = f 31 -!32
sin c/J 1
When the values of C1 are substituted from Eqn. 6·71 it is found that
[A31 A32] =
a 2 sin c/J1 a a 3sin c/J 1 a sin c/J1 ]
4{33D Ds1 2{32D Vs2 4{33D Ds3 2{32D sinc/J2 Ds4
[ (6·72)
_a_ z; 1 z; _a_ z; 1 z;
2{32D 61 f3Dsinc/Jt 62 2f32D 63 f3Dsinc/J2 64
4 4
where Dsj = L alkckj;
k=l
z;6J = L a2kckj
k=1
The remaining elements of the flexibility matrix are obtained by using the results
already derived, in conjunction with the membrane solution for the resultant
shear force and bending moment over the complete cross-section. The effects
of a resultant moment applied by forces acting parallel to the axis are found
by adding the membrane solution in Eqns. 6·59, 6·61 and 6·62 to the effects of
-. . -n I cotc/J1 [.,. . ,~.. - ,~.. ]
H 1 = -a SID c/J 1cos c/J 1 lYif>if> 1 = ---:--;;: Y 2 SID '1' 2 + U2 (cos '1' 2 -cos c/J 1)
SID '1'1
H1 = a sin c/J 2 cos c/J 2 Nif>if> 12 = P'2 cot c/J 2
Thus
tn
"'d
A13
ttl
=
~
(")
A23 >
t"'
tn
A33 ttl
=
t"'
t"'
tn
_ (1+v) cos¢ 2-cos¢ 1_+ a 2 sin¢ 1 5 (1+v) asin¢ 1 r
Et sin 2 ¢ 1 4f3 3D 15 +--o
Etasin 2 ¢ 1 4f3 3D 16
(1+v) 1 +-a- 5 1
Et a sin 2 ¢ 1 2f3 2D 25 2 f32D 526
• ,/..
a 2 sm'l' 2 5 (1+v) asin¢ 25
4 f33D 35 2
Eta sin ¢; 4/3 3 D 36
1+v 1 +_a_ 5 1
Et a sin 2 f/J 2 2/3 2 D 45 2f32D 546
2 2 2 1 + v[
Et 2(cos¢2- sin
14+v[ ¢ (P2)] + } (cot¢ 1 cot¢2)
4Eta 2cos¢2 sin ¢1- sin ¢2 +cos¢2loge (P2)] )
8i112 q; 1cos¢1)+(1+cos </J 2)loge ~ 1 .P1 +
( 2 (
a sm¢ 1_ asm¢ 1
+ 4 f33D b55 + 4 f33D 556
(1+v)[ (cot¢ 1 cot¢ 2) (P2)] } {-1+v

-[ 2 (cot¢
- -2-cot¢
- -1) -lo (p
- 2)] +-- 1 5 }
- 4Eta 2cos ~' sin~'- sin~' +cos~, log. p,a' 4Eta 2 sin ¢ 2 sin ¢ 1 ge p 1 2f3 2D 66
IV
~
f
+2 f32D 565 (6·73)
where
The solution of Eqn. 6·68 has been studied in § 6· 3·2 and the results of this
investigation are directly applicable in the present case. Thus when (cot f/1)/fJ
is a small number, the expressions for Nq,q,, N00 , Nq,z• Mq,q,, M00 , 8, Xq, given
in Eqns. 6·69 and 6·70 all have the same form as those in Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26
for the axi-symmetric condition. Also Nq,z efr• u+8, Xq, +8vf(a sin f/J) are
negligibly different from N<Pz• 8, i.q,, therefore the leading 4 x 4 sub-matrix in
Table 6·2 is also the flexibility matrix for lateral loading. The first four ele-
ments of the last two rows of the flexibility matrix can be calculated direct
from the leading 4 x 4 sub-matrix because
Finally, the last two columns are given by Eqn. 6·73 with the values of
[5ii] 4 x 4 implied in Table 6·2. When the edge forces are known, the stress
distribution can be obtained from Eqn. 6·69 using the functions in Eqn. 6·32
and the constants from Eqn. 6·33 with Hi, Mi replaced by Hi, Mi.
When the shell is semi-infinite, the deflections and stress resultants are
a 2 sin fjJ a sinf/J

2{J3D f3c 2{J2 D sin fjJ 1(f3c- f4c)
a 1
[!J
Xq, - 2{J2 D (f3c +f4c) {JD sm
· fjJ 1 f3c
= Jei~f/11)
smf/J 1 2{J
Nq,z - (f3c-f4c)
a -
a sm fjJ 1 f4c
2 ·
1 1
Mq,q, -pf4c - • fjJ (J3c +f4c)
asm 1
l+v - a(l+v) N
u . 4J Mq,q,; i5v
Etsm Et q,z (6·74)
EtJ Nq,z
Nq,q, N:q,zCOt 4J; Roo Nq,o
a sin 4J' sin 4J
Mq,q, . D(l-v) _
Noz Moo v Mq,q,; Mq,o - Xq,
a sin 4J' a sin 4J
f3c = e-P<4>t-4>>cosfJ(4J 1 -4J); f4c = e-P(4>t-4>>sin{J(4J 1 -4J)
The range of angle for which these results are applied should be limited
to that for which the simplified Hetenyi solution is valid, because of the
presence of the terms (F; cot 4J )/p in the definition of};. If it is desired to
use the full range of the functions in Eqn. 6· 32, i.e. {Jn:.j2- 6 ~ fJ4J.j2 ~ 6,
the coefficients cii• aii must be evaluated from Eqns. 6·71, 6·72 et seq.
retaining terms of order (f cot 4J)/ fJ whilst neglecting those of order
/[(cot 4J)/fJ] 2 •
If 4J is sufficiently small for sin 4J = tan 4J = 4J, the functions in Eqn. 6·37
may be used in Eqns. 6·69-6·73. As in the axi-symmetric case the
functions given in Eqn. 6· 38 may be used for all angles in the range
fJn:../2- 6 ~ P4J../2 ~ o.
When the shell is semi-infinite the flexibility matrix for edge forces can
be calculated from Eqns. 6·69 and 6·70 by following the procedures used to
establish Eqns. 6·39-6·42.
Suppose that there is a rigid plug, loaded by a shear force Sand moment G,
at the pole of a semi-infinite shell.
If the plug subtends an angle 24J 2 at the centre of the sphere, the boundary
conditions at 4J 2 are D2 = 0, U2 = Sjn:, V2 = Gfn:a sin 4J 2 • Worki!}g
directly from Eqns. 6·70 and 6·71 and imposing the condition that the
deflections produced by bending must exactly cancel those produced by
the membrane action leads to
c2 =
(
~ 1i 22 )-1 (111
112 1i 12 +122 tl22
fJ . 4J
u2 tli12 )
. 2 '+'
2{32 sm ,/,.
sm 2 2
where
G S
u 1 = na 2 tsin 2 cp 2 ; CTz = nat
If the membrane solutions from Eqns. 6·59, 6·61 and 6·62 are added to the
bending solution from Eqn. 6·69, the total stress distribution due to each of
these loads can be expressed in terms of functions of fJcp alone multiplied
by appropriate powers of fl.
These calculations lead to equations analogous to Eqn. 6·43, and the
stresses are then known for all thin spheres with a plug size f3cp 2 •
6·4·3 Unrestrained Solution and Applications

The unrestrained deflections for resultant shear forces and bending moments
are the last two columns of the flexibility matrix and are given in Eqn. 6·73.
Unrestrained deflections for self-weight and wind loadings can be obtained
by adding the membrane solutions to the effects of appropriate forces normal
to the axis.
The unrestrained deflections needed for the solution of problems in which
the resultant forces are statically determinate are:
Self-weight supported at lower edge
Au] [Hi]
[::] ~ (1 + v){cos ..t,. _
'1'1
2 coscp 2 -COScp 1}
. 2 ../,.
Sill '1'1
~~ + [.A12 o (6·75)
a sin 2 cp 2
(1 +v)coscp 2
The forces which support the shell at edge 1 are
If the shell is supported from the upper edge, the forces at cp 1 are zero and
from Eqn. 4·33
U2 ] [ 2(cos¢ 2 -cos¢ 1) ] 2
liz = [ = L:R.i = a q
a V2 sin¢ 2 -a(cos¢ 2 -cos¢ 1) 2
The unrestrained displacements for this type of support can be obtained
by adding the effects of these forces, given in Eqn. 6·73, to those in
Eqn. 6·75.
Wind loading supported at lower edge (see p. 234)

The stress distributions for each of these solutions is obtained by adding the
membrane stresses to those produced by H~. If the resultant loads 0 2 , V2
are not statically determinate, it is necessary to calculate the deflections
b2 -b1 +li1 , iz- i 1 from Eqn. 6·60 in order to obtain the loads from the
known deflections at a point of redundancy.
Consider the section of vessel shown in Fig. 6·7 and suppose that ¢ 0 has
a value for which the simplified Hetenyi solution is valid. Suppose also that
the bending effects at the intersection of the vessel and head are independent
of those at the support. From Eqn. 4·38 equilibrium and continuity of dis-
placement conditions at the junction of the barrel and head are satisfied if
(6·77)
From the discussion in § 6·4·2 the flexibility matrix for the sphere can be
obtained from Table 6·2; the flexibility matrix for the cylinder is given in
Eqn. 5·57.
Thus the forces on the cylinder are
The resultant loads applied by the barrel to the head are a shear S in the
direction fJ = 0 and a moment G producing membrane compression at
1'.)
w
-1:>-
cotcf> 1 ( cos 3 cf> 2-cos 3 cf> 1) }

= 3 -sin 2cf>1 aq*
-a sinc/> 1 (1+v) coscf>2-coscp1-
r { l
[::] (1 +v)
--.- 2-
( cosc/> -cosc/> - cos 3cf> 2-cos 3cf> 1)
2 1
J Et +[~::] [:!]
sm cPt 3
a sin 2 c/> 2
l (6•76)
Ht = -a2q* cotl cPt (cos cP2 -cos cPt- cos3 cP2 ~cos3 cPt)
"d
~
t!l
c:n
1
At = [ -acoscf>t
i\* a2q *
J (coscf>2-coscf>t cos 3 cP2;cos3cf>t) c:n
c:::
~
t!l
<
t!l
c:n
c:n
t!l
l""'
t:l
t!l
c:n
....
0
z
() = 0. From the flexibility matrices for the cylinder and sphere, the un-
restrained deflections for S and G are
The unrestrained displacements in the cylinder due to q and q* are given in

Eqns. 5·58 and 5·59, and it can be seen that the contribution from the terms
containing I can be included in the values of Sand G. The remaining terms are
identical to the unrestrained displacements in the hemispherical head, so
they do not produce any local bending. Therefore the edge values of the
local bending forces and moments for all three forms of loading are
- G - aS
Ht,4 = 4--a;
np a
Mt,4 = 8npa3
1 1
The stress distributions depend upon the relative magnitudes of q and q*

and the force and moment due to piping reactions, etc. The distribution in the
head due to Sand G in the absence of surface loads is found from Eqns. 6·59
and 6·74. The meridional force N"'"' and the shear Nt/> 9 due to bending are of
order (cot ¢)/P times the membrane values, but
Nee = n~z [ G (sinl3 ~- 2J:i~ ~)+aS(~:~~+~~~~~)J

Mt/>t/> _1_
4naP 2
[o ~-aS .Jsin~
f3c+f4c]
2P .Jsin~
M99 = vM<Pt/>
The twisting moment is of order I IP times the bending moments. In these
equations, f 3 c, f 4 c are the functions plotted in Fig. 5·4 with xfl = !n-~.
When Sis zero, the largest bending stress occurs at~ = tn(2-I/P) and is
approximately ±0·3Gfna2 t. When G is zero the largest bending stress due to
. . I 0·45 S
S IS approximate y a--. + p nat
Consider now the intersection between the head and the skirt which is
assumed to be semi-infinite. The stiffnesses are the same as those for axi-
symmetric loading given in § 6·3·3 and from Eqns. 4·42 and 4·43 the edge
forces on component i are given by
'F.\
.ri "-'; [-*
= :;;=; -*]
Dl-Di
The resultant shear force and bending moment are transmitted down the
skirt and, in the absence of surface loads, there are no membrane stresses
in the lower part of the head, so fii = 0. The resultant loads applied at the
top of the skirt are 02 , 2 = -S0 fn, rV2 , 2 = -G0 /n where S0 = S and
G0 = G-aS cos <Po are the resultant loads at the skirt intersection.
From the flexibility matrices for the cylinder and the upper part of the head
fii 1 [
=; ~)
0
E;0 rl [Sol
2
G 0
D~ 1 [
0
Et 1 ~;:2 4J0 a2~~~0 l [Sol
n -(1+v) -cot</J 0 G
Et 1 asin </J 0
2 2f3iD 1 sin</J 0 °
The unrestrained deflections for the upper part of the head are the sum of
the deflections produced by H~ = -(G0 cot </J 0 )/n a sin <Po and the membrane
values fi;m. The total system of bending forces which act on the edge of
the upper part of the head can be expressed in the form
[H3;~;] = C[fi!-n:mJ
3
The stress intensifications at the support are considerably higher than those
at the junction of the head and barrel. For example, when aft 1 = 50,
<Po = 50° and ttft 2 = 2, the maximum bending stresses induced at the support
by the moment are respectively 1·8u, 2·4u, 2·4u where u = G0 fnr 2 t 2 is the
membrane stress in the skirt. The bending stresses are tensile on the inner
surfaces at 0 = 0.
The step change in stress from 1·8u to 2·4u from the lower to the upper
part of the head cannot occur in practice, but no information on the actual
distribution can be obtained from a theory in which the junction geometry
is approximated to the intersection of two surfaces. The surface stresses at
the junction can be significantly higher than the values calculated unless
suitable fillet radii are provided. Peterson (12) gives values of stress concen-
tration factors at fillets in plates and his results may be used to find approxi-
mate peak stresses in shells by applying the factors to the meridional stresses.
The bending stresses due to the moment and shear force can be reduced
by providing a thicker skirt and increasing its diameter. The latter measure
reduces the value of cot </J 0 , which is the predominant term in the expression
for the unrestrained displacements. However, a thicker skirt produces higher
stresses due to axi-symmetric pressure inflation and temperature gradients,

so the choice of thickness depends upon the particular combination of loads
to be carried by the vessel.
The stresses due to a shear force and bending moment on a nozzle can be
calculated by using Eqn. 6·77 with appropriate stiffnesses and unrestrained
displacements. For the cylinders, the stiffness matrices are identical to those
used in § 6·3·3 for axi-symmetric loading. The stiffness matrix for the sphere
has the same form as the axi-symmetric matrix but contains Bii in place of
B;i where
B33 = -[(t12- 2~2~i~t~:)112 +(t22 +2~2~i~[¢2/22)]u12Ti12 +J22Ti22)-l

Jj34 = -(!22 g12 -112 g22)(J121i12 +J221i22)- 1
1i44= -(g121i12 + g221i22)(J121i12 +J221i22)- 1
The unrestrained displacements for the nozzle and sphere are the same as
those in the skirt and sphere in the previous example. Indeed there are only
two differences between the two problems; the Langer solution must be used
for most nozzle sizes whereas the Hetenyi solution is usually acceptable for
most skirt sizes, and the shell with no membrane loads is cylindrical in the
case of a protruding nozzle and spherical in the case of a skirt. Leckie and
Penny (8) have prepared curves giving the maximum stress in the sphere
for semi-infinite flush and protruding nozzles loaded with a shear force and
bending moment. Nozzles of variable thickness can be dealt with by using
the results derived for an individual shell in an analysis of the type described
in§ 4·6.
The axi-symmetric and lateral loading systems considered so far are particular
terms in a general Fourier series with deflections of the form
u = u,sinnO; v = v,cosnO; w = w,cosnO
The analysis of a general loading system, such as that imposed when a sphere
is supported at discrete points, can be carried out by taking more terms in a
Fourier series, or by some numerical technique such as the influence line
method. The procedure for a Fourier analysis follows the stages adopted for
lateral loading and the stress resultants are of the form
cos nO cos nO
Npq " -.--n ;
' sm nv
Mpq" -.--n
' sin nu
The trigonometric function associated with the stress resultants are the same
as those for lateral loading. Again a membrane solution can be sought by
supposing the radial shears to be zero or negligible. The solution of Eqn. 6·6
for the direct forces is then
Nq,q,,n = sin12 cp [(An+ ci>n) p -n/2 +(Bn + 'Pn) pnf2]
Nee,n = apz,n-Nq,q,,n (6·78)
Nq,e,n = sin12 cp [(An +ci>n) p -n/2 -(Bn + 'Pn) pn/2]
f{n
where Am Bn are constants of integration and,
([>n = 2a +cos cp } n/2 . 2

sin cp Pzn- Pq,n- Pen P sm cfJ dcp
-2 f a {n-coscp } -n/ 2 • 2
sin cp Pzn+ Pq,n- Pen P sm cfJ dcp
1- COS cp)n/ 2
( = tann-cp
1 +cos cp 2
When n = 0, 1 these equations give the same values for the stress resultants
as Eqns. 6·13 and 6·59 respectively. The deflections can be expressed in terms
of the direct stress resultants by integrating the first three rows of Eqn. 6·1 0
and using the results in Eqn. 6·9
Un a ~;v) sin cp [(Cn+ln) P-n/ 2+(Dn+Jn) pn12 ]
a sin cp
-nun+~ [Nee,n-VNq,q,,n]
-a(~;/) [(Cn+ In) (n cos cp-1) p-n/ 2+(Dn+Jn) (ncos cp + 1) pn12 ]

= 2n(I+v)N_,_ +(1+v)cotcp[N _,_ -N ] - (6·79)
Et sin cp .,e, n Et "'"'' n ee, n
1 d n(1+v) -n/ 2
- Et dcp [Nee,n-v Nq,q,,n]- lEtsincp[(Cn+In)(n-coscp)p
-(Dn+Jn)(n+cos cp) pn12 ]
In these equations Cn and Dn are two further constants of integration and
din 2Nq,e n-Nq,q, n-Nee n n dJn 2Nq,e,n+Nq,q,,n-Nee,n -n
d cp = . sin cp. , p ; dcp sin cp p
If the values of the stress resultants due to the terms A"' Bn are substituted
into these formulae and constants of integration are absorbed in e"' Dn
2Anp -n(n-cos cf>)
(n 2-1) sin 2cf>
If these values are substituted into Eqn. 6·79, the moments can be obtained
from Eqn. 6·10
-M88,n
(6·80)
Me .. ,n = !__ n(n2-l)[e p-n/2 -D pnf2]
'I' 24a sin 2 cf> n n
When the moments are used in the last two rows of Eqn. 6·10 it is found
that N~z,n = N 8z,n = 0. This means that the terms containing Am Bn in
Eqn. 6·78, which were obtained by assuming that the radial shears could be
neglected, are in fact exact solutions of Eqns. 6·6 and 6·1 0. Similarly the terms
in Eqns. 6·79 and 6·80 containing e"' Dn are exact solutions of the bending
problem. The A"' Bn solution consists of a pure membrane behaviour of the
shell, as the bending moments are identically zero, whereas the en, Dn solu-
tion consists of inextensional bending behaviour because the direct forces
are identically zero.
Taking both solutions together, there are now four constants available to
satisfy the edge boundary conditions whereas eight are needed if the loads
U, V, H, M (Fig. 4·14) are specified at both edges of the shell. Neither of the
solutions obtained so far can be used to specify a radial shear force at the
boundary, and it can be anticipated that general bending of the shell will
produce extension in the shell. Consequently, we can expect that the extra
solutions we need will be strongly associated with N~z and M~~· and will
probably be of the highly damped edge effect type. This indicates that a
solution can be found by following the procedure used in § 6·4·2, where all
the stress resultants and deflections were found in terms of N 8z sin cf> and the
equation to be satisfied by this variable was obtained from the moment
equilibrium equation. When these calculations are carried out, it is found
that all the variables can be expressed in terms of four constants of integra-
tion, elm •.. , e4n• and four independent functions,ft,fz,/3,/4 where
Nez,nsincf> = C1nf1 +C2n/2+C3n/3+C4nf4
and / 1 + i/2 , / 3- i/4 are the independent solutions of
If (cot cp)f{J is small and n is not too large, the solution to this equation can
be approximated to the Hetenyi type given in Eqn. 6· 32 and used for both the
ctxi-symmetric and lateral loading cases. For this to be acceptable, n 2 ~ 1 +
2{J 2 sin 2 ¢, so if rft = 100 for example and !n~c/J~tn, n should not
exceed 3.
The solution of the governing equation is presented by Fliigge (13) and he
includes tables originally calculated by Havers (2). Leckie and Penny (8)
have applied Langer's method of asymptotic integration to this equation and
they also include the expressions for all the stress resultants in terms of
N 8 z sin¢.
When the shell has two edges, all eight constants of integration are required
and the flexibility matrix is obtained by eliminating the constants of integra-
tion between the expressions for edge forces and edge deflections. If the shell
has only one edge the two oscillatory solutions which produce stresses that
decrease with distance from the edge should be selected, together with
functions from the other solutions which remain finite at the pole. For
example, if the shell is a cap containing the pole ¢ = 0 the constants Am Cn
must be taken as zero; this leaves Bm Dn and two of the Cin to satisfy the edge
conditions.
REFERENCES
1. REISSNER H. Spannungen in Kugelschalen (Miiller-Breslau, 1912).

2. HAVERS A. 'Asymptotische Biegetheorie der unbelasteten Kugelschale'
lngen-Arch. 6 (1935).
3. GECKELER J. W. Forschungarb. 276 (1926).
4. HETENYI M. Bull. Int. Assoc. Bridge Eng. 5 (1938).
5. REISSNER E. J. Math. Phys. 25 (1946).
6. LANGER R. E. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 37 (1935).
7. JACOBSEN A. 'Beitrag zur Theorie der Kugelschale auf Einzelstutzen'
lngen-Arch. 8 (1937).
8. LECKIE F. A. & PENNY R. K. Welding Res. Council Bulletin No. 90 (1963).
9. LoWELL H. H. N.A.S.A. Tech. Rep. No. R-32.
10. LECKIE F. A. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 3 (1961).
11. RosE R. T. 'New Design Method for Pressure Vessel Nozzles', The
Engineer 214 (1962) 90.
12. PETERSON R. E. Stress Concentration Design Factors (Wiley, 1959).
7 General Shells of Revolution
7·0 INTRODUCTION
Tto calculate
analysis in Chapters 5 and 6 is often sufficient to enable the designer
HE
the stresses in the basic shell of a pressure vessel, but in
many cases it must be supplemented by a knowledge of the behaviour of
cones, toroids, ellipsoids, etc. These shapes of shell are usually employed as
transition pieces or end closures and because they introduce a rapid change
of shape they are often highly stressed.
The procedure used for cylindrical and spherical shells is applicable to the
general shell of revolution, although it is often more difficult to obtain an
explicit solution because the radii of curvature are variable. The starting
point of the analysis is the set of equilibrium equations and stress-deflection
relations for thick shells which are quoted in§ 7·1. No closed form solutions
are given, but a numerical method of solution for axi-symmetric loading is
suggested. The basic equations for thin shells are derived from the thick shell
equations in§ 7·2 and the rest of the chapter is concerned with axi-symmetric
loading on thin shells.
Formal membrane solutions, obtained from the general equations by
neglecting the radial shearing force, are derived in§ 7·3·1, but it is found that
the accuracy of these solutions depends upon the rapidity with which the radii
of curvature change. The regions where membrane solutions may be used are
established in the sections dealing with the different shapes of shell.
The bending behaviour of a general shell of revolution has been studied
by many authors including Fliigge (1) and Timoshenko (2), who terminate
their examination after establishing two governing differential equations in
the radial shearing force and tangent rotation. These authors continue their
analysis by transforming these equations into co-ordinates appropriate to
shells of different shape. In §§ 7·3·2 and 7·3·3 it is shown that a single formal
solution is possible for a wide range of shells if appropriate changes in
variables are made. The range includes all shells commonly used in the
construction of pressure vessels, and when the relevant co-ordinates are
used the solution reduces in each case to that given by the authors cited above.
This unified theory can be carried even farther when dealing with shells
241
which are truncated sufficiently far from the poles, because the governing
functions in Eqn. 7·37 are then applicable for all shapes of shell. The flexi-
bility matrix in Table 7·1 is applicable under this condition and reveals
clearly the similarity in the behaviour of all shells of revolution loaded by
edge forces. The bending behaviour under surface loading can be determined
now that the general governing functions are available, but numerical
integration is necessary in most cases. Two alternative numerical methods
of analysis are given in § 7·3·4 and in some cases it is quicker to use one of
these instead of employing the closed form results.
7·1 THICK SHELLS
The position of a general point P0 on the mid-surface of a shell of revolution

can be defined by the co-ordinates 4J,O shown in Fig. 7·1. The co-latitude 4J
Flo. 7·1 Co-ordinate system for general shell of revolution.
is the angle between the axis and the normal to the mid-surface at P 0 , 9 is
the angle between the meridional plane containing P0 and a reference plane.
For some shells the surface is most easily defined by an equation of the type
Z = Z(r) giving the height of P0 above a reference plane in terms of the
cylindrical radius. When this is the case the co-latitude and the two principal
radii of curvature at P0 are given by
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 243
dZ
tanc/J
dr
1 d 2Z
-cos 3 cfJ- (7·1)
Rt d r2
1 sin cfJ
R2 r
The radii of curvature are illustrated in Fig. 7·2 where C 1P 0 is the radius of the
meridional plane and C 2 P0 is the second radius. A third co-ordinate is
C 1 P =R1 +z
C2 P = R 2+z
z
~---------------------1
FIG. 7·2 Principal radii of curvature for general shell of revolution.
required to specify the position of a general point P within the shell so let z
be the distance from P 0 toP along the normal through P 0 • It is assumed that
the normal to the mid-surface is also normal to the surface z = constant, so
the radii of curvature and the cylindrical radius at P are
R1 = R 1 +z; R 2 = R 2 +z; r = r+zsincfJ (7·2)
The elemental lengths along the chosen axes are R1dc/J, rdO, dz and from
Eqns. 7·1 and 7·2 and the known cylindrical radius
oR 1 or . or
oz = 1; oz = smc/J; ocfJ = R 1 cosc/J (7·3)
Equilibrium equations for a general system of orthogonal axes are given by

Love (3) and these are now written in the following form:
a a a
a4> [raq.<f>] + ao[R 1 O'q.o] + az[r R 1aq.,J +ra<t>,.- R 1cos t/>a99 +rR 1 F4> = 0
a~ [raq.o] +a~ [R10'ooJ +a~ [rR1ao,.] + R 1 sint/>a9,.+ R 1 costf>a<t>8 +rR1F 8 = 0
(7·4)
From the same source the strains can be calculated from the displacements
u, v, w parallel to 9, 4>, z and after substitution into the stress-strain equations
it is found that
(7·5)
It can be confirmed by direct substitution that the deflections associated with

a rigid body movement do not produce any stress.
When the loading is symmetrical about the axis none of the stresses or
deflections vary with () and u = 0.
Under these circumstances the following equations can be derived for v, w

by eliminating the stresses from Eqns. 7·4 and 7·5. Defining f-l to be R 2 /R 1
the equations are
cos¢] v oT Fz
+ { 2(1-v)+(1-2v)t-t 2} - - - = 2(1+v)oc-;--2(1+v)(1-2v)-
r R2 uz E ( 7 ·6)
+ 1+t-t
R2
ov] = 2(1+v)
oz R
oc oT _ 2 (l+v)(i- 2v) Fq,
o¢ E
1
When the shell is spherical R 1 = R 2 , f-l = 1 and Eqn. 7·6 reduces to Eqn. 6·3.
Similarly when R 1 d¢ = dx, 1/R 1 = 0, R 2 = r = constant and f-l = 0 the
shell is cylindrical and Eqn. 7·6 reduces to Eqn. 5·3. When the shell is conical
R 1 d¢ = ds, 1/R 1 = 0, (1/R 2 ) :; = 1/r, f-l = 0 and ¢ is constant. If these
values are substituted into Eqn. 7·6 and then¢ is set equal to zero, the equa-
tions obtained are merely a re-arrangement of the cylindrical form given in
Eqa 5~. _
For the general shell it is not possible to find solutions corresponding to
those for the cylinder and sphere given in Eqns. 5·4, 6·4 because the coeffi-
cients in Eqn. 7·6 are functions of both ¢ and z. However, it is quite feasible
to attempt a solution by finite difference methods using nodal points at the
intersection of the surfaces ¢ = constant, () = constant, z = constant.
Equation 7·6 holds only when the radii of curvature and their derivatives are
continuous, so caution should be exercised when setting up difference equa-
tions involving two shapes. Specification of the boundary conditions for the
difference equations can be a source of error, and this situation may be
worsened if there are discontinuities in the radii of curvature and their
derivatives.
7·2 THE BASIC EQUATIONS FOR THIN SHELLS
The equations governing the behaviour of a thin shell of revolution can be

obtained from Eqns. 7·4 and 7·5 by following the procedure applied to
cylinders and spheres in Chapters 5 and 6. In § 5·2 it was found that small
terms of order zfr appeared in the formulae for the stress resultants because
the cylindrical shell element is not geometrically symmetrical.
For the same reason, terms of order z/Rl> z{R 2 appear in Eqns. 7·4 and
7·5 and can be accommodated without increasing the complexity of the
formulae only in the case of the spherical shell. In Chapter 5 it was concluded
that the retention of these small terms had no significant effect on the stresses
for the types of loading considered, and although this does not constitute a
proof for all shapes of shell it will be assumed that the terms z/R 1, z/ R 2 may
be ignored wherever they occur.
The force equilibrium equations are therefore obtained by integrating
Eqn. 7·4 with respect to z between the limits ±-!t. The moment equilibrium
equations are found by multiplying the first two rows of Eqn. 7·4 and integrat-
ing as before:
a a
a~ [r N</>4>]+ ao [R 1 N4>8]+rN</>z-R 1 cos~N88 = -rR 1 p4>
a a .
iJcp [r N</>8]+ i)(} [R 1 N88]+R 1 sm~N8z+R 1 cos~N</> 8 = -rR 1 p8
a a .
a~ [rN</>z]+a() [RtN8z]-[R2N</>4>+R 1 N88]sm~ = -rR 1 pz (7·7)
a a
a~ [rM4>4>]+a() [R 1 M4>8]-R 1 cos~M88 -rR 1 N</>z = 0
a [rM</>8 J+ aoa [R M88.]+R

a~ 1 1 cos~M4> 8 -rR 1 N8:: = 0
In these equations the stress resultants and surface loads are

t/2 t/2
Npq = Japqdz; Mpq = J zapqdz
-t/2 -t/2
p,q,k ~. (), z (7·8)
J Fkdz
t/2
t/2
Pk = [akz] +
-t/2
-t/2
Again, small applied moment terms have been neglected in the last two rows
of Eqn. 7·7. The stress resultants are shown in Fig. 7·3.
In accordance with the assumptions of§ 4·3, the deflections at any point
of the shell can be written as
u u+zxo
v v+z X.p (7·9)
w w
The terms u, v, w are the mid-surface deflections and Xq,, Xe are tangent
rotations. From a geometric consideration of the movement of a shell element,
the rotations are given in terms of the mid-surface deflection as
(a)
X.p = - ; 1
[:; -v} Xe = --r1 [ow
af}
. un]
--u sm (7·10)
If azz is ignored in comparison with the other stresses and the deflections
from Eqn. 7·9 are substituted into Eqn. 7·5, expressions are obtained for the
stresses in terms of the mid-surface deflections. When z/R 1 , z/R 2 are ignored
in comparison with unity and these expressions are substituted into Eqn. 7·8,
the following values are obtained for the stress resultants:
_!!.!___
1-v2
[~ (ov +w)+~r (ou
R 1 oc/J iJfJ +wsinc/J+vcos¢)]-N
_E_ [~ ( 8 v +w)+! (au +wsin¢+vcos¢)]-N
1-v2 R 1 o¢ r ofJ
Et [__!:_ ou _ucot¢ +! ov]
2(1+v) R 1 oc/J R2 r ofJ (7·11)
Mq,q, = D [~ oxq, + vcot¢ X.p+~ ox9 ]-M

R 1 o¢ R2 r ofJ
v oxq, cot cP 1 oxe] M
D [ Rl o¢ +R'; X.p+; ae -
D(1-v) [ 1 ox9 1 oxq, cot¢]
2 R 1 a¢+~ ae -xo Tz
In these equations
f:~~ f
t/2 t/2
EaTz dz
dz; M 1-v
-t/2 -t/2
The stresses can be expressed in terms of the stress resultants by relation-

ships of exactly the same form as Eqns. 5·14-5·16.
When the applied loads are symmetrical about the axis, none of the functions
are dependent upon() and the tangential displacement u is zero. Under these
circumstances the equilibrium equations become
(7·12)
The relationships between the stress resultants and mid-surface deflections

are now
Et [Rv (dA:+w
--2
1-v
- v ) +-1 (wsmc/J+vcoscjJ)
d'f'
1 r
. J-N
(7·13)
v dxq, cot¢
Moo = D [ - --+--Xq, -M
J
R 1 dcp R2
The solution of Eqns. 7·12 and 7·13 is studied in the following sections.

Under some circumstances the shell supports the loads acting upon it by
acting as a membrane with negligible or zero bending and shear stress.
Suppose the shear force can be neglected, then the solution of the first two
rows of Eqn. 7·12 is
V2 +<~~
R 2 sin 2 l/J
(7·13 1)
V2 +<~~
· 2 ,~,. +R2Pz
R 1 Sill 'I'
where V2 is a constant of integration and
<ll = J"' R R (pzcosljJ- pq,sinljJ)sinljJdljJ

1 2
t/>2
The constant V2 is the resultant axial force per radian applied at the edge of
the shell where ljJ = ljJ 2 • When the bending moments are neglected, the
deflections can be calculated from the first two rows of Eqn. 7·13. Working
in terms of the deflections normal and parallel to the axis
r
() = Et [N88 -vNq,q,+N(1-v)]
cot ljJ 1 d ()
Xq, = ~ [Nq,q,-vN88 +N(1-v)]- R 1 sinljJ dljJ (7·14)
r['~;' {N,.-' N oo+ N (I-')}+ X• cos¢}' d¢
"'
The deflections produced by an axial load V2 applied in a membrane
manner at l/J 2 can be found by substituting the stress resultants from Eqn.
7·13 1 into 7·14. Retaining the notation Jl = R 2 /R 1 these deflections are
(JJ.+v) v2
(j =
Et sin ljJ
Xq, = V2. ,~,. [ Jl dJJ.

Etr Sill 'I'
d,~,. +(1-JJ. 2 )cotljJ
'I'
J (7·15)
The axial force therefore produces a rotation which implies the existence of
moments and shear forces which were neglected in the derivation of Eqns.
7·131 and 7·15. These forces and moments are negligible if p?, p(dJLfdc/>) are not
too large provided the co-latitude is not too small. The region of applicability
of the membrane solution is examined in subsequent sections.
When the normal pressure Pz = P = constant and pq, = 0, ~ = !P(r 2 - d)
where r2 is the cylindrical radius at the edge c/> 2 • If the shell is closed, or is
attached to another shell which contains the pressure, there is an applied
axial force V 2 = tPr~, so the stress resultants and deflections from Eqns.
7·13 1 and 7·14 are
PR 2
Nq,q,
2
Nee PR 2 ( 2 -JL)
2
PrR 2
J - (2-JL-V) (7·16)
2Et
Xq, PR
- 2 [ Jl dJL
2Et
--(3-JL)(1-JL)cot¢
de/>
J
Dv-Dv 1 = I
2~t "'' rR{1-(2-JL)v+cot¢{Jl ~; -(3-JL)(1-JL)cot¢}] de/>
"'
Again the rotation has a non-zero value and the membrane solution may be
used for only a limited range of co-latitude.
7·3·2 Edge Bending Solution and the Flexibility Matrix

When there are no surface loads or temperature terms the solutions of
Eqns. 7·12 and 7·13 give the effect of forces applied at the edges of the shell.
A membrane solution was obtained for an externally applied axial force in
the previous section, but it was found that this force produces a rotation which
implies that bending occurs. Consequently the axial force term must be
retained in the bending theory equations in those cases where the membrane
rotation is large.
The analysis can be completed in terms of the stress resultants Nq,q,, Nq,z
and the angle ¢, but it is easier to work in terms of the arc length s, given by
Jds JR dc/>
s "'
s = = 1 (7·17)
0 0
Adopting the notation of § 4·5 the forces per radian normal and parallel to
the axis are H and V2 as shown in Fig. 7·4. The stress resultants in the
curvilinear co-ordinate system are
N"'"' !r [Hcoscf>+ V2 sincf>]
Nee = H'
NI/Jz !r [Hsincf>- V 2 coscf>] (7·18)
~ ~
H2 H2
FIG. 7·4 Forces per radian acting on shell.
, coscf>
M 88 = D [ vxl/1+-r- X"'
J
In these equations the prime denotes differentiation with respect to the arc
lengths. The values for N"'"'' NI/Jz have been calculated by resolving H, V2
parallel and normal to the shell and Nee was obtained from the first two rows
of Eqn. 7·12. Both of the force equilibrium equations are satisfied by the
stress resultants in Eqn. 7·18 because the axial force V2 is constant. The
deflections normal and parallel to the axis can be calculated by substituting

Nq,q,, N 88 from Eqn. 7·18 into the first and last rows ofEqn. 7·14:
b = _.!._ [rH 1 -v(Hcoscp+ V2 sin¢)]

Et
(7·19)
bv-bv 1 = J[r ~~¢ (Hcos¢+ V sincp-vrH )+xq,coscpJds

2 1
The second row of Eqn. 7·14 gives an expression for the tangent rotation Xq,
in terms of the stress resultants and D; the last row of Eqn. 7·12 gives the
radial shear in terms of the moments. Substitution of the values from Eqn.
7·18 into these two equations and use of Eqn. 7·3 leads to the following
conditions on H and Xq,:
cos¢ 1 (cos 2 ¢ cos cf> ( 1
v )
H + - - H - - - - - - H+-
11 Etxq,
= - - +Jlv) -V 2
r r2 R 1R 2 R2 r R2 (7.20)
" cos cp 1 (cos 2 cp
= -cos
v ) H cp V2
Xq,+--xq,- --2-+-- Xq,--- -- -
r r R 1R 2 DR 2 D r
These equations are analogous to Eqn. 6·21, which is the form taken by
Eqn. 7·20 when R 1 = R 2 = constant. A particular solution for Hand Xq, in
terms of V2 can be found by the method of variation of parameters once the
homogeneous solution in which V 2 = 0 is available. This process is described
later and for the moment we take V 2 = 0.
The first step in the search for a solution of the homogeneous equations is
to multiply the second equation by a constant C and add it to the first
equation. This leads to
( H+ C Xq, ) 11 cos cp
+-- ( ) 1 cos 2 cp (
H+CXq, - - -
C )
H+ Xq,-
2 -
r r
(7·21)
-(D~ 2 -R:RJ H-(;1~ 2 -::) Xq, = O

This equation will contain H + Cxq, as the only dependent variable if it is
possible to express the last two coefficients in the form
C v vC
--- = k; - - E t = kC
D R1 R1
These two conditions can be regarded as alternative expressions for C which
are equal and therefore consistent when
k2 = - ~t ( 1-1: 1;;i)
v2
Now tfR 1 is a small quantity which has been neglected in comparison with
unity during the derivation of Eqn. 7·20, so there is no point in retaining it

here. Neglecting this term leads to
k = +i-
Et
J
-D = -+2i y
'{3(1-v2 )}
t = +2ip
-
2 (7·22)
When these values for k are substituted into the equations for C and the
terms of order t/R 1 are neglected, it is found that C = Dk, which is constant.
Hence Eqn. 7·21 can be written in the following form:
(H+Dkx.;)
, cos tjJ
+ - (H+Dkx.;)- - +- 2-
t/J)
(2i p 2 cos 2
(H+Dkx.;) = 0
r R r2
There are two linearly independent complex solutions to this equation,

which provide four independent functions that satisfy the pair of equations
in 7·20 with V2 = 0. No further information is obtained when the negative
square root is taken since this merely changes the sign of i throughout.
Suppose the solution to the equation
!"+cos tjJ !' -(2i p 2 + cos 2 t/J) f = 0 (7·23)
r R2 r2
is known to be
f = H +2i p 2 D X.; = (C 1-i C2)(f1 + ij2)+(C3 + i C4){f3- ij4)
where Cl> ... , C4 are real constants and / 1 , ••• , / 4 are real independent
functions of s. The force Hand rotation X.; are real, so they can be obtained
by equating the real and imaginary parts of this system:
H Cd1 +C d2+Cd3+C4j4 (7·24)
2p2
X.;= Et [Cdz-C2ft-C3f4+C4f3]
These values may be substituted into Eqn. 7·18, to give the remaining stress
resultants in terms of the constants of integration c1, ... , c4 and the
functions/!> ... ,/4 :
/ 1 cot tjJ / 2 cot tjJ / 3 cot tjJ / 4 cottjJ
N.;.; c1
R2 R2 R2 R2
Nee f{ !2 ~~ ~~ c2
!1 !2 !3 /4 c3 (7·25)
N.;z R2
R2 R2 R2
g2 gl g4 g3 c4
M.;.; -2p2 -2p2 2p2
2p2
G2 G1 G4 G3
Moo -2p2 -2p2
2p2 2p2
I*
In this equation
g}.
__ f·'+v cot cj> f·. G.J
, cot cj> f·
= v1·+--
J R2 J' J R2 J
The deflections can be found from Eqn. 7·19 and the normal deflection and
rotation have the values
(7·26)
where
h . = !~ _ v cot cj> f·
J J R2 J
These equations for the stress resultants and deflections have almost the
same form as Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26, and the formal algebra leading to the
flexibility matrix is very similar and will not be repeated here. In particular,
the matrices [bii] 4 x 4 , [cii] have the same formal definition but the values of
jj, gi, hi are those yet to be found from the solution of Eqn. 7·23. When the
edge forces are known, the constants are given by
The flexibility matrix appropriate to the forces Hl> M 1 , H 2 , M 2 shown in

Fig. 4·7, is the array of coefficients in the equation on page 255. All the
required quantities are now known in terms of the functions jj and their
derivatives, so we now examine Eqn. 7·23. Adoption of {f.J(rfs)} as the
dependent variable makes it possible to eliminate the (cos cf>/r) coefficient
from the first derivative, and after a term (1/2R 1 R2 ) has been neglected in
comparison with 2p 2 IR 2 ), the complete equation becomes
s2 [ J']" [ J']'
f -
s
+s
s R2
[2i
f - - - p 2 s2 + 3s 2 cos2 2 cj> +!
4r
J[f J']-s = 0 (7·29)
This equation is now very like Bessel's equation and is the central equation
in the theory. It can be solved explicitly for the degenerate cases of the cone,
cylinder and flat plate. For the cylinder it leads to the same result as the
analysis in Chapter 4 and the flat plate and cone results are given in later
sections of this chapter.
0
til
ztil
:=
>
t"'
tl.>
II:
til
t"'
t"'
tl.>
FLEXIBILITY MATRIX FOR GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 0

'!1
R 2, 1 sin </J 1 b12 R 2, 1sin </J 1 R2, 1 sin <Pt b14 :=

til
151 I I 4 p4 D b 11 2 p2 D I I H1 <
0
4p4D bl3 2R 2, 2 p 2 D sin </J 2
t"'
b21 b22 b23 b24 e
>-l
X1 I .....
2p 2 D R 2, 1 D sin </J 1 2p 2 D R 2, 2 D sin </J 2 0
= I I M 1 I (7·28) z
R 2, 2 sin</J2 R 2, 2sin </J 2 b 32 R2, 2 sin</J2 b34
b2 I 4 p4 D b31 2R 2, 1 p 2 D sin </J 1 4 p4D b33 2p 2 D I I Hz
b41 b42 b43 b44

X2 I I 2p2D R 2, 1D sin </J 1 2p 2 D R 2, 2 D sin </J 2 I I M2
Note: See Table 6·1 for formal definition of [bjj] 4 x 4.
N
Vl
Vl
McLachlan (4) gives several forms of Bessel's differential equation and

the form nearest to Eqn. 7·29 is
d 2y dy
Z 2 -+Z --{A 2 Z 2 +r 2 ) y =
dZ 2 dZ
o (7·30)
where A and r are constants. The linearly independent solutions of Eqn. 7·30
are l.(AZ), K,(AZ) where I, K are known as modified Bessel functions of the
first and second kinds.
Equation 7·29 is identical in form to Eqn. 7·30 for a cylinder, because
rjJ = !n and R 2 is constant. Also
A = ±(1+i) .J~ 2 ; r =!
( =J
1112 AZ) 2 smh
-A
n Z
. (AZ); K 112 (AZ) = J-2 e -AZ
nAZ
(7·31)
so the solution ofEqn. 7·29 under these circumstances leads to the exponenti-
ally damped oscillating solutions found in Chapter 5.
For the general shell of revolution Eqn. 7·29 has the same form as Eqn.
7·30, but A and r are functions of rjJ instead of constants. It is possible to
change the independent variable in Eqn. 7·29 to Z = Z(s) in such a way that
the coefficient of Z 2(f.J(rfs)) becomes constant. If the dependent variable is
changed simultaneously to make the coefficient of the first derivative equal
to Z, the following governing equation is obtained.
d 2+
Z2 - YZ - . 2 Z 2 +it/! 2 cot 2 r / J1+ -Z+ -d- ( -
d Y- [ 2zp Z d IX)] y = 0
dZ 2 dZ 41X 2 IX dZ .JIX -
dZ 2.J
The variables in this equation are
Y = R:/4 Ji f = f Jsi:rjJ
f.JR2
s
ds
z (7·32)
0
t/1 =
f
1
.JR2 .JR2;
s
ds
IX
1
0
We now definer by the equation
r
2 • [
=~~~ it/!
2 2 1 Z Z
cot r/J+41X 2 +2.J1XdZ .JIX dZ
d( diX)] =~!
. G=Go (7·33)
and the governing equation takes the form
Z 2 d2 y z d y [2. 2 z2 2 G GJ -- 0 (7·34)
dZ 2 + dZ- 1 p + 't + - 0 y
If the radii of curvature are not changing too rapidly near <P = 0, the term
G- G0 is much smaller than the remaining coefficients. When this term is
neglected, Eqn. 7·34 is identical to 7·30 and therefore has the two independent
solutions
1, (xJi); K, (xJi)
where
x = Pr/JJ2; P = t'{3(1-v 2)} J~ 2 0·35)
From the properties of Bessel functions and the preceding formulae, the
values of the functions/1 , ••• ,J4 in Eqn. 7·24 are
/1 = J(si~</1) ker,x; !3 J ."'

(sm </J) ber,x
!2 = J(si~</J) kei,x; f4 = -J(si~</1) bei,x

f{ = PJ2 [J-"'- (k -)' 2-(l+Jl)r/Jcot</J ! 1]
R2 (sin</J) er,x + 4 x
(7·36)
!2 = PJ2 [J-"'- (kei x)' + 2-(l+Jl)r/Jcot</J f 2 ]

R2 (sin</J) • 4 x
J; = PJ2
R2
[J~ (ber,x)'+2-(l+Jl)r/Jcot</J
(sm</J) 4 x
.bJ
!4. = PJ2
R2
[_ J-"'-
(sin</J)
(b . )' 2-(l+Jl)r/Jcot</J f 4 ]
et,x + 4 x
where the dot denotes differentiation with respect to x.
The stress distribution in a general shell of revolution for which the limit
defined in Eqn. 7·33 exists, can be calculated by using the functions from
Eqn. 7·36 in Eqns. 7·25-7·28. When the shell is spherical R 1 = R 2 = R =
constant, s = R</J, r/1 = </J, ex = 1, • = 1, Jl = 1, and the above formulae
reduce to those given in Chapter 6.
For large values of x, the Kelvin functions may be replaced by their
asymptotic expansions which introduce sinusoidally damped, exponenti-
ally decaying functions. This result can be obtained directly from the
differential equations by supposing large Z to imply large <P and a value of ex
which is approximately unity. If terms containing cot¢ and drxfdz are ignored
the governing equation takes the form ofEqn. 7·30 with t = !, so the solution
under these circumstances is that given in Eqn. 7·31. Mter some manipula-
tion, it can be shown that it is possible to write the four solutions of Eqn.
7·29 as
!2 114 1 . e<Ptofi,-PofJ> [cos(P11/11-Pl/l)-sin(P11/11 -Pl/1)]

R2 .Jsm¢ (7·37)
1
RY\/sin ¢ e-(p,ofJ,-m[cos(P11/11- Pl/l)-sin(P11/11- Pl/1)]
1
R114.J . ¢ e-<P'"'' -m[cos (P11/11- Pl/1) +sin (P11/11- Pl/1)]
2 Sill
This equation is analogous to Eqn. 6·32 and when R 1, R 2 are constant the
only difference between the two sets of functions is a constant multiplier,
which can be incorporated in the constants of integration. The derivatives
of R 2 - 114, and (sin ¢)- 1' 2 both contain cot¢ as a multiplying factor and if
these terms are retained, a solution equivalent to the Hetenyi solution for
spherical shells is obtained.
By analogy with the solution for spheres, it is reasonable to neglect the
cot ¢ terms if the shell is such that all values of ¢ lie above the upper curve
in Fig. 6·4. When these terms are ignored hi = gi = f} and
p
f{ = : 2 U2-f1); !3 = R2 (!3+!4)
(7·371 )
n= p
- R2 U1 +!2); !4 =
p
-
R2
(!4-!3)
The values of the functions from Eqns 7·37 can now be substituted into
Eqn. 7·27 to give the expression (on p. 259) for the constants in terms of
the edge forces. In this equation A.l> JI1, etc., have the same form as the
expressions in Eqn. 5·26 with y = P11/1 1-P2 1/1 2 • The values listed in Table
5·2 and the curves plotted in Fig. 5·4 are directly applicable when
evaluating the preceding formulae. The flexibility matrix associated with
the edge forces H, M is found from Eqn. 7·28 using Eqn. 7·37 to find the
elements b ii defined in Table 6·1. This matrix is given in Table 7·1 (p. 260).
0
tt1
ztt1
~
>
t"'
til
::c
tt1
t"'
t"'
til
0
"fl
~
tt1
Ri~i H1 Jsin </>1

<
(2A.2 + Jl2) (Jl2- v2) 0
r(U,-~,-1) (",-v,) t"'
rc,1 l 2/3 1M 1 e
...,
c2 (1-Jll) (1-vl) R3/4 0
~' -v, j 2, 1 Jsin </> 1 I (7·38)
-z
c3 =! (2A.t+Jlt+1) (Jlt+v1) (2A.2- Jl2) (Jl2 + V2) Ri~1H2Jsin</> 2
2f32M2
C4 J (1-JLt) -(1+v1) Jl2 -v2 R3/4
l l 2,2 Jsin </> 2
N
VI
1.0
~
TABLE 7·1
FLEXIBILITY MATRIX FOR GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION (10 cot <f>~/3)
H1 Mt Hz Mz
Ot ltRi,t sin tPt lltRz,t lzRz,tRz,zv'(sin tPt sin t/Jz) /lz(Rz,tRz,z)t Rz,t)tJsin tPt
2P~D zp:n 2<PtP2P 12 D 2PtPzD Rz,z sin t/Jz
Xt * ~ -pz(Rz,tRz,z)t(Rz,z)tJsin t/1 2 Vz
P 1 Dsin tPt 2PtPzD Rz,t sin tPt (PtPz)t D v'(sin tPt sin t/Jz)
Oz * * ltRtz sin t/Jz -ptRz,z

zp;n 'tl
2P'J.D :=1:!1
tt>
xz tt>
* * * Vt c::
PzD sin t/Jz :=1:!1
<
1:!1
* Denotes symmetrical element tt>
tt>
1:!1
t"'
lj
1:!1
tt>
0
-z
The flexibility matrix is symmetrical about its leading diagonal and reduces
to the spherical form given in Table 6·2 when R 2 is constant. However, the
length characteristics have different numerical values from those in Table
6·1 unless the shell is spherical. When the shell is semi-infinite the 2 x 2
matrix associated with each edge is the same as that for a tangent sphere at
the edge, but the stress distribution is different because IN is different from
pcjJ.
We now return to Eqn. 7·20 with a view to finding a particular solution
that provides the stress distribution due to the externally applied axial force
V2 • If the various transformations of variables are applied to the right-hand
side of Eqn. 7·20 and terms of order t/R are neglected, the equation can be
reduced to the form of Eqn. 7·34 with a term on the right-hand side. Neglect-
ing the quantity G- G0 this can be written
d2 y 1 d y [ . 2 -r2] 2i p 2 Rif4 cos cjJ
(7·39)
dZ2 + Z dZ- 21 p + Z2 y = .J(Z sin cjJ) V2
Applying the method of variation of parameters, we know that the solutions
of the homogeneous equation are I,, K, so we try a solution of Eqn. 7·39
in the form
Y = Y1I,+y2K,
If we choose y 1 and y 2 so that
dy1 I+ dy2 K 0 (7·40)
dZ ' dZ '
the first and second derivatives of y are
dy di, dK,
dZ y 1 dZ+y 2 dZ
d 2y d 2I, d 2K, dYt di, dy 2 dK,
dZ 2 = y dZ 2 +Yz dZ 2 + dZ dZ+ dZ dZ
1
Substituting these values for y and its derivatives into Eqn. 7·39 leads to
the condition that
2i p 2 Ri' 4 cos cjJ
.J(ZsincjJ) V2
Equations 7·40 are now two equations for the first derivatives of y 1 and y 2
which have the solution
dy 1
dZ
2ip 2 Ri 14 coscjJ [ di,
.j(Zsinc/J) K, K, dz-I• dZ
1 dK,J-
2ip 2R 21 ' 4 cos..l.
.J(Zsinc/J)
.,.. I
•
[ K ___!-I
di
• dZ
dK•
-
• dZ
J- 1
The factor in brackets is known as the Wronskian of I., K, and always

has the value 1/Z. Substituting this value, changing the variables by means of
Eqns. 7 ·32 and 7·35 and using f = H + 2ip 2 Dx.p the solution is
H = 2P 2 [-rxd4+rxd3-rxd2+rx4/d v2
(7·41)
where
Now that Hand X.p are known, the remaining stress resultants and deflec-
tions can be obtained from Eqns. 7·18 and 7·19. Employing the notation of
Eqns. 7·25 and 7·26 they are as shown on p. 263.
The values for the stress resultants and deflections in Eqns. 7·41 and 7·42
are a particular solution of the bending equations for which H = M.p.p = 0
at s = s2 • However, at edge 1 the functions rxi are not zero, so this solution
requires the application at edge 1 of
Hi -Hit
(7·43)
To obtain an unrestrained solution at edge 1 it is necessary to add to the

solution of Eqn. 7·41 the effects of H~ M~ by using Eqns. 7·25-7·27. The
remaining elements in the flexibility matrix can be calculated as part of this
process.
7·3·3 Surface Loads and Temperature Gradients

When surface loads and temperature gradients are present, extra terms must
be added to the stresses and deflections in Eqns. 7·18 and 7·19. From the
equilibrium conditions and the relationship between deflection and stress
resultants given in Eqns. 7·12-7·14, these extra terms are
~ ~~¢
Nee = r(pzsin¢+p.pcos¢); N.pz = - - -
R/ R2
Mee = -M
!___ [r(pzsin¢+ P.pCos¢)- v~ +N(l-v)J (7·44)

Et R2
0
trl
ztrl
~
>
t""
(/l
::c
trl
t""
t""
(/l
0
"rj
~
-2{3 2 cotcjJ 2 /3 2 cot cjJ - 2 /3 2 cot cjJ 2/3 2 cot cjJ trl
v,
N.pq,- R2 C(l I <
R2 !4 R2 ft 0
r R 2 f3 R 2 !2
t""
IX2
e
Nee -2{32!~ 2{32 !~ -2/32!~ 2/32!{ I >-l
V2 .....
0
Mq,q, = -R2g3 -R2g4 R2g1 R2g2 IX3 I (7·42) z
Mee -R2G3 -R2G4 R2Gt R2G2 IX4
v V, sin</> J -2{3 2 r 2 {3 2 r -2{3 2 r 2{3 2 r

~ f- Et --eth4 Et h3 Et h2 ---et h1
1-.)
0'1
t..>
When these values are substituted in the moment equilibrium equation and
the expression for Xcot</J
X<P11 +-- X<P- --2-+-- X cot <P .
(1 + JlV) - -2 - - Pz sm <P cos <P (2+ Jl)- P<P {(2+ Jl)cos 2 </J+v- Jl}
R2
We can obtain a particular solution to these equations using the method

described in the preceding section to derive the results for an axial edge load.
When the calculations are completed it is found that
H = 2/3 2 [- rxd4 + rx2f3- rxd2 + rx4J1J
(7·47)
where
(7·48)
f ~:~Jcos - M' R 2 tan term in L may be neglected because
it is of order t/R 2 times the term fi which appears in all the formulae. The
remaining stress resultants and deflections can now be calculated from H
and X
t""
1:1)
11:1
=
t""
t""
1:1)
<1> -2P 2 cotcf> 2P 2 cot cf> - 2P 2 cot cf> 2P 2 cotcf>

.,0
N •• - - IX1 I :=
Rz Rz !4 Rz !3 Rz fz Rz ! 1 11:1
<
0
N 88 -r (p,.sin cf>+ p•cos cf>) -2P 2 f~ 2P 2!3 -2P2 !2 2p2j{ Ctz t""
c:::
M••+M -Rzg3 -Rzg4 Rzg1 Rzgz IX3 (7·471) ....~
0
M 88 +M -R 2 G3 -RzG4 RzG1 R 2 G2 IX4
z
rz
fJ- Et(p,.sincf>+p.coscf>)+
+ rN(l-v} __v<l>_sin_cf> -2pzr 2Pzr -2P 2 r 2p2r
Et Et £th4 Eth3 Jithz £th1
~
VI
These formulae give a particular solution of the bending equations and in

general, the edge forces are not zero. To obtain an unrestrained solution it
is necessary to add the effects of edge forces Ht, Mt, H~, M~ which exactly
cancel the edge forces obtained from Eqn. 7·47.
Equation 7·47 contains the solution for constant pressure, Pz = P, p~ = 0;
for weight, Pz = -q cos ¢, p~ = q sin¢, etc. If M' = 0, ¢is large and N' is
not varying rapidly, an approximate solution of Eqn. 7·45 analogous to the
membrane solution for mechanical loads is
0 = r N(l-v)
Et
-R 2 N'(1-v)
X~=
Et (7·49)
.,
c5v-ov 1 = JN(l-v)ds
Et
s
with all the stresses zero.
7·3·4 Numerical Methods of Solution

Several authors have proposed numerical methods of solution for the axi-
symmetric problem; generally, these require access to a computer. Galletly
(5, 6, 7) has used the Runge-Kutta integration process whilst Sepetoski eta!.
(8) and Penny (9) have set up finite difference equations.
Sepetoski refers to the Runge-Kutta method, but points out that it is
susceptible to error when the shell is long because of the local nature of the
edge bending effects. The difficulty arises because it is necessary to specify
four boundary conditions at the boundary from which the integration is
started, and subsequently to calculate influence coefficients, etc., by matrix
inversion. When the shell is long, the specification of forces and deflections
at one edge requires the action of extremely large forces at the other edge,
and errors are introduced because of inability to handle numbers of such
widely varying magnitude. This difficulty can be avoided by dividing the shell
into a series of sub-shells, each of which is reasonably short, and by com-
bining the sub-shells using the methods of Chapter 4.
The numerical integration can be applied to Eqns. 7·23, 7·29 or 7·34 which
are all equivalent to one another. Equation 7·23 is probably the most satis-
factory choice because it leads directly to the values of H and x~ in terms of
four constants and fewer calculations are needed after the differential equa-
tion has been solved. The first stage in the calculation consists of dividing
Eqn. 7·23 into its real and imaginary parts by taking a solution in the form
f = P + iQ. The equations to be satisfied by P and Q are

2
= _cos cjJ P' + cos2 cjJ p _ 2 p Q X (P Q P')
2
P"
r r R2 ' '
2 = y (P,Q, Q') (7·50)

Q" = _ coscjJ Q'+ cos2 c/J Q+ 2p p
2
r r R2
To perform the integration it is necessary to choose a mesh of step length h

so that the meridional arc is divided into points for which s, = (n-1)h,
n = 1, ... , N. The Runge-Kutta formulae relate the value ofP,+ 1 , P~+l to
Pm P~ by the equations
Pn+l P,+i-(kl +2k2+2k3+k4)
P~+t P~+i-(k~ +2k;+2k3+k~)
where
kl hP~; k'1 hX(P,, Q,, P~)
k2 h (P~+t k~); k; hX(P,+!h, Q,+!k 1, P~+!kD ( 7.51 )

k3 h(P~+!k;); k; hX(P,+!h, Q,+!k2, P~+-!k2)
k4 h (P~+ k;); k~ hX(P,+h, Q,+k3, P~+k;)
The equations relating Q,+ 1 , Q~+l to Qm Q~ have the same form with Pm
Q,, P~ replaced by Qm Pm Q~ and X replaced by Y. Hence it is possible to
calculate values for Pm P~, Qm Q~ for all values of n if the starting values at
s 2 are known. Four sets of starting values are arbitrarily chosen, e.g.
[A 1 0 0 0], [0 A 2 0 0], [0 0 A 3 0], [0 0 0 A4 ].
If [1 0 0 0] produces at node n values [P, 1 Q, 1 P~ 1 Q~ 1 ] and [0 1 0 0]
produces values [P, 2 Q, 2 P~ 2 Q~ 2 ], etc., the values at s, for a general loading
system are
P, P,t P,2 P,3 P,4 At
Q, Q,l Q,2 Q,3 Q,4 A2 (7·52)
P'II p~l p~2 p~3 p~4 A3
Q~ Q~l Q~2 Q~3 Q~4 A4
The force normal to the axis and the tangent rotation are given by
and are now known in terms of four arbitrary constants.

The nodal values of the remaining deflections and stress resultants can be
expressed in terms of the constants by using Eqns. 7·18 and 7·19. The con-
stants are determined in the usual way from the boundary conditions:
Hl H ) at s = St Hz = -H ) at s = Sz
M1 = -rMq,q, Mz = rMq,q,
When the constants have been found, the stress and deflection distributions
are completely determined. To calculate the flexibility matrix, it is necessary
to find four sets of constants by putting [H1 M 1 Hz Mz] equal to [1 0 0 0],
[0 1 0 0], [0 0 1 0] and [0 0 0 1] in turn. These four sets of constants can also
be used to find the stress and deflection distributions due to unit force or
moment at the edges.
The particular solution of the governing equations required when there is
an axial load, surface load or a non-uniform temperature distribution can
be found by including the appropriate terms in the functions X, Y used in
Eqn. 7·50. The extra terms, obtained from an inspection of Eqns. 7·20 and
7·45 are respectively
cos<f>(l ) Vz Lcot<f> cos¢ M'
-- +JlV - + - - ; ---(Vz+<l>)+-
r Rz Rz Dr D
The starting values for the integration can be chosen to suit two boundary
conditions at s = Sz. For example, if edge 2 is unrestrained, H = Mq,q, = 0
at n = 1 ; two further conditions are required and these may be arbitrarily
taken as D = Xq, = 0 at n = 1. The choice of the last two conditions will in
general imply the existence of a force H and moment Mq,q, at edge 1. If
this edge is also unrestrained the effect of the implied force and moment
must be removed by using the solution for edge loads. If this procedure is
adopted the starting values are
[P 1 Q1 PJ. QJ.] = [o 0 {vRzVz -r(pzsin</>+ pq,cos<f>)} {2pz M}

s2 s2
J
The finite difference technique also depends upon the use of a mesh and
the substitution of the following difference equations for the derivatives of
a function f:
!. 1 = fn+l-fn-1
n 2h
!.n"= fn+l-2fn+fn-l
hz
When the applied loading terms from Eqn. 7·45 are included, the finite
difference form of Eqn. 7·20 may be written as

r,,,_ 1w,_ 1+r,,, W,+r,,,+1 w,+1
where
r,,,
(7·53)
and </J,., r,., etc., are the values of </J, r, etc., at node n. This equation must
be satisfied at all nodal points within the shell. The values of W at the
auxiliary nodes 0 and N + 1 are eliminated by means of the boundary con-
ditions and hence
r 0 W0 +A 1 W 1 -r 0 W 2 = Y0
-ro WN-1-AN WN+ro WN+t = YN+t
where
r, ~ r: _] ~ ~ [: 2'h::s~,J A• ~ [: 2'h~~s~,J
Y, [~H(~'+Mf,)JY.., ~ [~H(~'-Mf,)J
The equations that must be solved simultaneously for the force normal to
the axis and the tangent rotation are therefore
~
trl
r:...
'-'
....
~
0
~
. ~
+
:.;
II
....
-;
+
~ . ~
:.;
== = ....
+
:.;
:i 0
j;..,j j;..,j
:.;
=....
:i :.;
j;..,j
<I
....
.
I
+ :.;
:i
j;..,j"
0
j;..,j j;..,j
. I
j;..,j" ==
....
.
I
j;..,j"
== =
.....
rl
0
j;..,j j;..,j
I
.... ,..;'
< j;..,j
.....
0
0
j;..,j j;..,j
= ==
This equation may be solved for a number of. different right-hand sides to
obtain the influence coefficients and the values for Hand X.p due to a particular
loading system. Once the equation has been solved, the remaining stress
resultants and deflections can be calculated from Eqns. 7·18 and 7·44. When
the shell is complete at 4J = 0, an alternative formulation is required because
the values of H 2 and M 2 are then unknown. It is possible to derive alternative
equations by considering the limits of the stress resultants as 4J approaches
zero, but the easiest method consists of using Eqn. 7·54 with a very small
value of 4J 2 and applying the boundary conditions () 2 = x2 = 0.
7·4 FLAT ANNULAR PLATES
The co-ordinate system for a thick flat plate is the same as that for a cylinder,
but when the plate is thin the stress resultants are found by integrating with
respect to axial instead of radial distance. The curvature is zero in all direc-
tions and the arc length is equal to the radial distance from the inside boun-
dary, so
1 1
- = - = 4J = 0: s = r
Rt R2
The governing variables are H, the radial force per radian, and x, the tangent
rotation. Combining Eqns. 7·18, 7·19 and 7·44, the remaining stress resultants
and deflections under general axi-symmetric loading are
H
N,
r
Noo H'+rp,
J
r
N,"' -- 1
V2- - rp dr
r r "'
rz
(7·55)
M, = D [x;+~ x,J-M
Moo D [vx;+~ x,J-M
'•
J x,dr
1
() = - [rH'-vH +r 2 p,+rN(1-v)]; bv-bv 1 =
Et
r
The stress resultants and deflections are shown in Fig. 7·5 (p. 272).
The governing equations for Hand x, are independent because l/R 2 = 0.
Including in Eqn. 7·20 the loading term from Eqn. 7·45leads to the following
governing equations:
H"+ H'- H = -(2+v)p,-r p;-N'(l-v)

r r2
(7·56)
J
r
M'- -
- 1
V2 - - rp dr
D rD rD z
The effects of edge radial forces and

bending moments are found by solving
Eqn. 7·56 with the surface loading terms,
temperature terms and v2 equal to zero.
These solutions are
N,,
FIG. 7·5 Stress resultants on
H = C 1 r+-;
c2 c4
Xr = C3 r+-
flat-plate element. r r
The constants are found in the usual way from the boundary conditions
H1 H } H 2 = -H }
at r - r 1 at r = r2
M 1 = -rM,, M 2 = rM,,
After evaluation of the constants and substitution into Eqn. 7·55 it is found that
the equation becomes as shown on p. 273, where rdr = a, r2 /r = b.
The independence of the two governing equations is reflected throughout the
stress system, which splits into two separate parts. The first part is the Lame
solution for thick cylinders and the second part is a pure bending system.
The stresses due to an axial force V2 applied at the inner boundary are
obtained by finding a particular solution of Eqn. 7·56 1• The particular solution
may be taken as
H = 0
and this leads to

Xr = r
V2 [ rlog.a+ l+v
2D J
V2
N,, = Noo = (j = 0; N,z
r
V2 (1+v) 1
M,, = 2 og.a (7·5611)
v2
Moo =2 [(1+v)log.a+1-v]
ov- ovl = -8D

-
V2 [ 2r 2 log a -3+v
•
- - (r 21 -r)
l+v
2 J
0
m
z
m
~
>
t"
(/l
m
=
t"
t"
(/l
0
r,(l_:a') "!j
[ N" r, (1-b') ~
NBB 1 r1(1+b 2 ) r 2(1 +a 2)
l [ = -2-2
r1-r2 rr rr 2
l [=:l m
<
0
t"
() E: {(1-v)+(1+v)b 2 } Et {(1-v)+(1+v)a 2 } c
....>-l
0
M,, r r, (1-b') r, (1-a') z
MBB r 1(1+b 2 ) r2 (1 +a 2)
l rr2 2
l [::]
Xr I -1
= 2--z D( 1rr, 2) {(1-v)+(1+v)b, } D(1 -v 2) {(1-v)+(1+v)a} (7·561)
r 1-r2 -v
{Jv-()vl I
l r1 { rr-r 2 d
D 2(1+v)+1-v 1og.a
} r2 { rr-r~ ri
D 2(1+v)+1-v 1og.a
}
~
~
The meridional moment has a non-zero value at r 2 , so the effect of V2 is

obtained by adding to the above solution the stresses and deflections pro-
r (r
duced by
M *-
2 - -
2 V2 (1+v) 1
og. - 1 )
2 r2
The stress distribution due to this moment can be calculated from Eqn. 7·56.
In particular, the flexibility matrix for the system of loads shown in Fig. 7·6
is the matrix of coefficients in Table 7·2 (p. 275).
FIG. 7·6 Edge loads per radian on flat plate.
Consider the temperature terms in Eqn. 7·56. It is apparent that particular

solutions of these equations are
r
H = _( 1 ~v) f rNdr
r
x' = Dr
2_ f rMdr
These values can be substituted in Eqn. 7·55 to obtain a particular stress
and deflection distribution. In general, there will be edge forces associated
with this solution and edge moments and forces must be added to obtain an
unrestrained state. When these calculations are carried out it is found that
N, 1-b
= - - (1-v)
ri-d
2
I' rNdr--
1
1-v I' rNdr
r2
(7·57)
-1+b
r 1-
2
2- -2
2 r
(1-v) I' rNdr+-
1
1-v I' rNdr-N(1-v)
r
2
The moments have exactly the same form and can be obtained from Eqn.
7·57 by changing N to M. The shear force is zero and the deflections are
TABLE 7·2 0
trl
FLEXIBILITY MATRIX FOR FLAT ANNULAR PLATES ztrl
~
>
t"'
H1 M1 H2 M2 v2
til
0 0 0 1:1::
~1 1 2b1 trl
_!_e+bi_ J t"'
Et 1-b 1 v Et 1-b~ t"'
til
0
0 "!j
X1 • 1 2b1 r1 e-v ~
1 2)e+bi
D(1-v 1-bi -v J D(1-v 2) 1-bf - D(1-v 2) 2 - trl
<
0
- (l+v)bi log b J t"'
1-bi c 1 c::>-l
......
0
t52 • • 0 0 z
1 [l+bi
Et 1-b1 +v J
X2 • • • -r2 [1-v
1 2)e+bi
D(l-v 1-bi +v J D(l-v 2) 2 -
-bf log.b1
- 1l+v J
Jv2 -Jv1 • • • • 2
rf [ hi l+v
2D 1-bi 1-v (log.b 1) -
1+v 1
- 4! . 3+v(l-b2)]
N
*Denotes symmetrical element; b 1 = r2/r1 -...l
Vl
obtained in the usual way from the formulae

r
Et [N88 -vN,,+N(l-v)]
D [M88 -vM,,+M(l-v)]
r
=
It must be remembered that the stresses are given by

N,, 12z M,,
u,, = -+ +u
t t3
N 88 12zM88
Uoo = -t+ t3 +u
where u is given in Eqn. 5·16.

These results are an extension of the formulae given in Eqn. 5·5 to cater for
the situation which arises when the temperature is not uniform throughout
the plate thickness.
The particular integral of Eqn. 7·56 for the mechanical loads can be found
by using the method of variation of parameters described in the previous
section. It is found that
H = -('J.lr+-
r
('1.2
Xr =D
1 ( -('J.3r+-;
('1.4)
where
('1.1 =! I r2
[(2+v)p,+r p;] dr
! I
r
('1.2 r 2 [(2+v)p,+rp;]dr
(7·58)
r2
f[ ~ f J
r r
('1.3
! r Pz dr dr
r2 r2
f[ f
r r
('1.4 =! r r Pzdr] dr
r2 r2
The stresses and deflections associated with this particular solution are
0(2 0(2
N,, = -0(1 +2; Noo = -0(1-2+r Pr
r r
0 r [ !X 1(1-v)+ !X2
--
Et
2 (1+v)-rp,
r
J
1-v
M,, -!X 3 (1+v)-!X4 - 2-
r
!X4(1-v)
Moo -!X 3(1+v)+ - 2-
r
r
N,z: -~I rpz:dr (7·59)

r2
Xr = D
1 [ -0(3 r+-;
0(4]
[
rt
ov-ov1 = ~I -!X3r+a; Jdr

The radial force and moment have non-zero values at r = r1 , so the effects
of Hf, M! must be added to Eqn. 7·59 to obtain an unrestrained solution
for a plate which is supported at r1 against axial loads. The values of Ht, M!
are chosen to make H and M,, zero at r1 so
(7·60)
If there is no central hole in the plate, r 2 must be put equal to zero in all the
preceding formulae. As an example of the application of Eqns. 7·59 and
7·60, suppose p, = 0, Pz = P = constant as in Fig. 7·7. Then
0(1 = 0(2 = 0
0(3 4 2 2
p [ -2-+r2loge ( r )]
r -r2 2 r2
p
0(4 = - [r2-dJ2
16
K
The stresses and deflections can be found by direct substitution in Eqns. 7·59,
7·60 and 7 ·56. When there is no central hole in the plate the a functions become
(%1 0(2 = 0
Pr 2 Pr 4
0(3 (%4 =
8 16
z
Prt/2
FIG. 7·7 Flat plate subjected to uniform pressure.
The complete system of stresses and deflections for the plate loaded and
supported by the forces shown in Fig. 7·7 are therefore
N,, Noo = (> = 0
Pr
N,,.
2
p 2 2
M,, - - (r -r 1)(3+v)
16
Moo p [ r 2(1+3v)-r 21(3+v)]

- 16 (7·61)
Xr - Pr {r2- 3+v ri)

16D 1+v
Dv-Dv 1 = -p
64D
(r 21-r)
1+v
c+v
2 - - r 21 -r2)
The edge values of the displacement and rotation under this form of loading
are
This result may be used in conjunction with the unrestrained deflections

of a cylinder under pressure to determine the bending behaviour of a cylinder
with a flat head. Let the thickness of the head be d and suppose the forces
required to maintain continuity are Hand Mas illustrated in Fig. 7·8. It is
usually found that the head must be made thick in comparison with the
cylinder, so we will include the effect of the offset of the forces from the mid-
surface of the plate. The forces H and M could be considered as distributed
loads on the underside of the plate, and then it would be necessary to sub-
divide the plate into two regions and compute the effects of p, and Pz on
the outer annulus by employing Eqns. 7·58 and 7·59. There is no difficulty
in principle, but the algebra becomes laborious; furthermore t/r 1 is small and
the distributed loads can therefore be replaced by a statically equivalent
system by St. Venant's principle.
The forces acting at the mid-surface of the plate are therefore
Hd
H1 = -H; M 1 = -M-2
FIG. 7·8 Discontinuity forces on a flat head.
From Eqn. 7·561 the flexibility matrix related to the displacements and forces
at the cylinder to head junction may be written as the matrix of coefficients
in the equation
l -l{-~>D,~:+v)} 2D,!l+v)llHl
li 1]
Xt
=
2D 1 (11-v) D 1 (1+v) M
A1F
The total deflection of the head and cylinder are respectively
A1F+ rl6~Efv)l; Az,zF+ r~::(20-v)l

8D 1 (1+v)
where A2 , 2 is obtained from Eqn. 5·28. These must be equal, so the force
and moment are obtained by solving the equations
[2;3iD+ ~~v + 4D 1t:+v)]H-[2;21D-2D1tl+v)] M =

Pri(2-v)
2Et
Usually the bending stresses are high because most of the pressure expansion
of the cylinder is prevented, and there is a large rotation due to the high
value of the unrestrained rotation of the head. Graphs of maximum stresses
are given in Chapter 8.
The design of tube plates in heat exchangers sometimes requires a knowledge
of the behaviour of a flat plate which is supported by an elastic foundation
provided by the tubes. Suppose that the foundation modulus is such that
Pz = P-k4 D()v (7·62)
The rotation Xr is related to the displacement Dv by the equation
Xr = -Dv'
and the second row of Eqn. 7·56 becomes an equation for Dv. Multiplying
this equation by r and differentiating leads to
d 4 ()v +~ d 3 ()v _.!._ d 2 Dv +~ d()v +eDv = -:_~

dr 4 r dr 3 r 2 dr 2 r 3 dr D r
(rM')'D
(7·63)
The solution of this equation when the surface load and temperature terms
are zero is
(jv = Cd1 +Czfz+Cd3+C4j4
where the Ci are constants of integration and
ker(kr) /2 kei(kr)
(7·64)
ber(kr) /4 bei(kr)
For convenience, we will write x = kr and let a dot denote differentiation

with respect to x. The second row of Eqn. 7·56 can now be regarded as an
equation for the shear force giving
... (jv (jv]

N,z = -k 3 D [ (jv+~-x 2
Hence the non-zero deflections and stress resultants are as shown on p. 281,
0
t!l
zt!l
::c
>
1:"'
(I>
::r:
t!l
1:"'
1:"'
(I>
0
l'!j
::c
t!l
DV l r fl fz !3 !4 <
cl l 0
1:"'
c::
L -~ -~ -~ -~ Cz ::l
0
M,, = k 2 D(g 1 +f2 ) k 2 D(gz-f1 ) k 2 D(g 3+f4) k 2 D(g4-f3) c3 (7·65) z
Mee -k 2 D(gl-vfz) -k 2 D(gz+vf1 ) -k 2 D(g 3 -vf4) -k 2 D(g 4 +vf3) c4
.
Nrz k 3 Dfz -k 3 Dft k 3 Dj4 -k 3 Dj3
N
00
-
where
g; = (1-v) -'
f.·
X
There are four constants of integration because it is possible to specify two

axial edge forces as well as two edge moments, since the elastic foundation is
capable of supporting the axial loads. The constants are determined in the
usual way from
M1
V1
= -rM,,
= r N,,.
l at r = r 1
V2 = - r N,,.
M2 = rM,,
at r = r 2
l
When there is no central hole, C1 and C2 must be taken as zero because
ker x and kei x increase without limit as x approaches the origin. The remain-
ing constants can be found in terms of the edge forces from the above boundary
conditions at r1 :
(7·66)
· · 1-v(· •)
where
.!J. = !3, d4,1-!4, d3, 1 - ~ !371 + !4:1
[l [ l[l
If the foundation has no influence on radial movement, the flexibility matrix
for the forces Hl> M 1 and V1 is the matrix of coefficients in the equation
<5 1 Et 0 0 H1
1-v (7·67)
X1 0 a2, 2 a2, 3 M1
bv1 0 a2, 3 a3, 3 v1
where
. .
a2,2 = <if.1+if.1)/D!J.x1; a2,3 = {f3,d3,1+!4,d4,1)/kD.!J.x1
a3, 3 Uf.1 +ff.1 +h 1g3,1-!3,1 g4,1)/k 2D.!J.x1
Returning to Eqn. 7·63, it can be seen that when Pis constant a particular
integral may be taken as
C5v = Pjk4 D
(7·68)
x' = o
There are no forces or moments associated with this solution, which gives
the deflections when all the load is transmitted into the foundation. If all
the load is supported at the edge, V1 = -Pd/2 and there is no resultant load
on the foundation. However, there is a non-uniform deflection under these
conditions, so part of the foundation is compressed whilst the remainder is
I
FIG. 7·9 Heat exchanger.
extended. The stress and deflection distribution is obtained by adding Eqns.
[: l
7·68 and 7·65 with C 1 = C2 = 0 and C3 , C4 calculated from Eqn. 7·66
with M 1 = 0. In particular the edge values of the displacements are
= - ~ ~(!3,
U
[ J3,1 +!4, J4,1)
U
]--:- (7·69)
kD
bvt ff.t +ff.t +!4,1 g3,t-!3,t g4,1- x 1
Consider the vessel shown in Fig. 7·9. There is symmetry about the plane
z = 0 and the barrel is assumed to be semi-infinite so that each half may be
considered separately. If there are n tubes of cross-sectional area a and
radius r0 with Young's modulus E,, the extension of the tubes from z = 0
under a load nP(d- nr~) is
(a) (b)
Flo. 7·10 Forces acting on tube plate.
Comparing this with Eqn. 7·68 we see that the foundation constant k is
given by
k4 = E,na
1r (r~- nr~) lD
The axial load in the barrel is statically indeterminate and must be found
from a compatibility of displacement condition at the intersection of the
barrel and tube sheet. The unrestrained state can be taken either as the
condition when the tube sheet is held in equilibrium by an edge force, in
which case Eqn. 7·69 should be used, or as the condition when the axial loads
are supported by the tubes, for which the unrestrained displacements are
given by Eqn. 7·68. The axial loads acting in the first of these alternative
conditions are shown in Fig. 7·10(a), and Fig. 7·10(b) shows the edge forces
required to maintain continuity of displacement. The unrestrained displace-
ments from Eqns. 5·28, 5·29, 6·44 and the preceding work in this section are
p 2 vP 2 r~
c5~ 1r1---
2 1
X~ 0
Eltl'
l l•(P,- l
c5v1 z(Pzr~
- -vP 1r 1)
2r 1
c5*
[ x* - Iroo . rc5;l - rP2 r~(1-v)J
2E3t3
bv' - P~:.:l- "'~) 1 , xi - 0
The conditions of equilibrium at the intersection of the head and tube sheet
give
Employing the flexibility matrices from Eqn. 5·28, Table 6·2 and Eqn. 7·67
the displacement conditions at the junction of the tube sheet with the barrel
and head lead to the equations in Table 7·3 (p. 286).
These equations can also be used for other forms of loading provided the
appropriate unrestrained displacements are used. Once the edge forces have
been calculated, the stress and deflection distributions can be found from
Eqns. 5·27, 6·34 and 7·65. Allowance is made for the presence of holes in
the tube plate by adjusting the value of E, v and D as discussed in § 16·3·1.
See also Chapter 16 for simplified design methods.
7·5 CONICAL SHELLS
The co-ordinate system for a cone is shown in Fig. 7·11. The co-latitude is
constant and the meridional curvature is zero. Defining s to be the length
along the generator from the apex, we have
1
c/J = constant; R 1 = 0; R 2 = scot¢; r scos cP
N
00
0\
TABLE 7·3
HEAT EXCHANGER PROBLEM (FIG. 7·10)
y21 Yt (1-v) t v t I Ht t
2P~Dt - 2PfDt -Et - 2 a22 Etft- Z023 o*+ 2-x* -o*1
Yt 1 0 -a22 -a23 I Mt x*-x*

- 2PfDt PtDt
v 0 0 a23 . ovt-ov*
I H
Etft E 1 t 1r 1 + G33
-r~- P3t) - -ri

r3- { - - ( 1+- -r3
P3t) + } - a-22 t
J~-J*+ ~ * --
--l-M
2P~D3
(l +-
r3 2/P,D3 2fJiD 3 2r3 - 2/JiD 3
- - -2t =2t a23
1-v ~
-P2r~(r1 -r3)
~
+Et tTl
4PiD3 (/l
(/l
1 1 I x~-x* c::
P3t) v ~
-r3- ( 1+2P3t)
- - r3- ( 1+- a23 -P2r~(r1-r3) tTl
2P~D3 r3 P3D3 2P~D3 r3 P3D3 + 022
2P3D3 <
tTl
(/l
(/l
tTl
t""
t:l
tTl
(/l
......
0
z
It is sometimes more convenient to write expressions in terms of r instead

of s, and both quantities will be used in the following equations. A knowledge
of the behaviour of conical shells is particularly useful, because the general
shell of revolution can be approximated to a series of cones and can therefore
be analysed by the methods described in Chapter 4.
From the definition, f.l = 0 for conical shells and as the variation of f.l
is the main limiting factor on the accuracy of the membrane solution, we
can expect the membrane results to be applicable for a wide range of cones.
From Eqns. 7·13, 7·15 and 7·16 the membrane solution for constant internal
pressure and a resultant axial load applied in a membrane manner is
FIG. 7·11 Co-ordinate system and stress resultants for cone.
V Pr
N •• -- 2
+--
r sin cp 2 sin cp
Pr
sin cp
(7·71)
----+v V2 Pr (2
-v)
2
Et sin cp 2 Et sin cp
= V2 1 _ 3 Ps cot 2 cp
Xs Ets sin 2 cp 2 Et
Etsm
•
V2
2 cp
cos
(s
cp log. - 1) + P(sf-s
s 4
Et
2)
coscp[1-2v-3cot cp]
2
When this value for the rotation is substituted into the expression for the
moments it is found that
M,. D [V2 (1-v) 3

= --
Et s sm
2
2 • 2 A. +-.Pcot </J(1+v)
'I' 2
J
[Vs sm(1-v)
I
Moo = D
-
Et
2
2 . 2 </J - -
3 2
2 Pcot </J(1+v)
J
If these moments are substituted into the moment equilibrium equations, it
can be shown that N,z is zero, so the assumptions of the membrane solution
are justified. I
The moments in Eqn. 7·71 1 are small for a wide range of angles and can
usually be neglected. If the cone is so shallow that the moments are significant,
they must be included with the other stress resultants. To obtain an unre-
strained solution, the effects of edge momentslwhich cancel the value of M •• at
the edges must be added to the solution in Eqn. 7·71. Similar results may be
derived for other forms of surface loading.
When examining the bending behaviour o~ cones, we can therefore restrict
our attention to edge bending, with the possible exception of temperature
gradient effects, unless the surface loading is varying rapidly with distance
from the apex.
The governing variables for the bending behaviour of a cone are H, the
radial shear force, and x., the tangent rotation. The analysis in § 7·3·2 gives
all the required results in terms of the variables introduced in that section.
1
2; 1{1 = 2 tan <P
(7·72)
Hence the quantity G is given by
= 3 •"~'• cot '~'~1

12 2 A.
G = 4
4
As G is constant, the value of-r is 2 and the term G-G 0 in Eqn. 7·34 is zero
for all values of Z. Consequently, the solutipn contained in Eqn. 7·36 is an
exact solution of the governing equations. The term (1{1/sin </J) 112 is constant
and can be incorporated in the constants of integration. The four functions
and their derivatives which should be used in pqns. 7·25 and 7·26 are therefore
fl ker 2 x; !2 = kei 2x
f{ 2xs (ker 2 x)"; !2 ~(kei 2 x)"
2s
(7·73)
!3 ber2 x; !4 -bei 2 x
~~ 2x/ber 2 x)"; ~~ -~ (bei2xr

2s
The ker, kei functions of order 2 are related to those of order zero by the
formulae
~ (keix)"-kerx; (ker 2 x)" -(ker x)" -~ ker 2 x

X
X (7·731)
kei 2 x = -~ (kerx)"-keix; (kei 2 x)" = -(keix)"- 2 kei 2 x

X X
Similar formulae exist for the ber2 and bei 2 functions and can be obtained
from Eqn. 7·73 1 by replacing ker, kei with her, bei respectively.
The bending behaviour of a cone under axi-symmetric loading is completely
described by Eqns. 7·47 and 7·25-7·28 with the functions taken from Eqn.
7·73. When the argument of the Kelvin function is large, say x~ 12, the
asymptotic form may be used and the functions from Eqn. 7·37 can be
employed. The argument of these functions is
= ~{3(1-v 2 )} Jtanc/J
--..~,. (Jr 1 -Jr)
tcos 'I'
The criterion that x~ 12 is sufficiently accurate for most calculations, but the
error in the asymptotic expressions is still several per cent. The complete
solution in Eqn. 7·73 should be used if there is a significant amount of further
calculation to be carried out after evaluation of the cone behaviour, unless
x ~ 20. In terms of the cylindrical radius, the first criterion becomes
J .J_!._ sin c/J ~ 6.6

(t) cos cP
(7·74)
Most conical shells used in pressure vessels have proportions which satisfy
this criterion and may therefore be analysed with the asymptotic formulae.
Consider the conical reducer shown in Fig. 7·12 and suppose that the cone
is semi-infinite, and that the criterion in Eqn. 7·74 is satisfied for all points
on the cone: i.e.
(J r_Jr
1
t
2)
t
-Jsin¢ ~ 4.6 ;
cos¢
Jr 2 -Jsin¢
(t) cos¢
~ 6.6
If each cylinder is semi-infinite, the interaction forces at both junctions can

be determined from a consideration of the intersection of two shells. This
is the problem considered in § 4· 3 and takibg the solution from Eqn. 4·1 0
we have
Fm. 7·12 Conical reducer.
where F is the matrix of forces on the upper shell at each junction; A1 , A2

are the flexibility matrices and D!, D~ are the unrestrained displacements.
Considering the lower junction, the flexibility matrices are obtained from
Eqn. 5·28 and Table 7·1:
r1 D
2f3f ]
/3 1 D~sin¢
In these matrices /3 1 is the cylindrical flexibilit~ characteristic. The unrestrained
displacements for the cylinder are simply the membrane displacements and
are obtained from Eqn. 5·29. The unrestrained displacements for the cone
are the sum of the membrane displacement$ and those produced by a force
H* = -!Pri cot¢, so
Pri(2-v)l [Pri(2-v)
Di = [ 2Et ; Di = 2Etsincp
3 Pr 1 cotcp
0 2Etsincp
The force and moment whose effect must be added to the unrestrained
solution are therefore
H -p 2- v
Pr; [ 2-v-----=---A,.+2fJ I.
1 cotcpysmcp
J 1 . -~..
1 + y 1Sill
J
4 1 Sill 'I' 'I'
_ Pri )sin cp cp [ 1 3
M - 4fJ 1 1+-Jsincp cot 2Pisincp
These forces and moments may be compared with those given in§ 6·3·3 for a
case of a part-spherical head on a cylindrical shell. It can be seen that the
difference between the two sets of formulae is due to the difference between
the membrane expansions of the cone and sphere. The stress distribution is
similar to the one shown in Fig. 6·6. This result could have been anticipated,
because it was realized in § 7·3·2 that use of the asymptotic formulae for a
semi-infinite shell is equivalent to replacing the shell with a tangent sphere.
The bending effects at the upper intersection can be calculated in the same
way. If the cone is short, both intersections must be considered simultaneously
and the forces obtained by solving the four simultaneous equations from
Eqn. 4·25.
A particular solution for a general loading system can be found by using
the functions from Eqn. 7·73 or 7·37 in Eqn. 7·48 and integrating analytically,
if this is possible, or numerically if it is not.
If the temperature distribution is such that N', M' are constant, it can be
seen that the exact solution of Eqn. 7·45 is
H -scotcpM'
N'(1-v)
x. = -scotcp--- Et
Hence the particular solution for the temperature distribution for which
N a 0 +a 1 s; M = b0 +b 1 s
is
(7·75)
These relationships are analogous to the similar solution for a spherical

shell given in Eqn. 6·53 and can be used in the same way to find an unre-
strained solution. The stresses due to an arbitrary temperature distribution
can be found by combining several sub-cones each with a linear variation of
N and M. If the temperature is constant throughout the thickness and the
rate of change of temperature is moderate, Eqn. 7·75 gives zero stresses and
FIG. 7·13 Cone of variable thickness.
(> = ra.T
-ra. dT
Xs
sin <P ds
d(Jv
ds
. -~..
-a. T sm 'I' + r a. cot 'I' a;
-~.. dT
7.5.1 Conical Shells with Variable Thickness

In this section we will examine the behaviour of conical shells with a wall
thickness proportional to the distance from the apex:
t = es
The main purpose of this analysis is to derive a solution which can be used
to calculate the stresses in the type of shell, shown in Fig. 7 ·13, often used
at changes in vessel thickness and in taper hub flanges. To complete the
structure in these cases, it is sometimes necessary to introduce a small
ring at each end of the variable thickness component. If the taper is
gradual, these rings will have very little effect and may be omitted,
whilst for a very steep taper, the component will be short and the whole
shell may be treated as a ring. From Eqns. 7·18 and 7·44 the stress resultants
and deflections are
1
N •• - [ H + (V2 +) tan ¢]
s
Nee H' +r(pzsin ¢+ p.cos ¢)
1
Nsz - [ H tan¢- (vi+ )]
s
M •• D1 s 3[, J v -M
x.+~x. (7·77)
Dt s 3[ ,+ J
v Xs 1 Xs - M
~
cos¢ [ vH . tan¢
- - H' - - + s cos¢ (Pz sm ¢ + p.cos ¢ )- v (V2 +)--+
E1 s s
+N(l-v)J
dt5v sin ¢ [H ,
--vH +
(V2 +) tan 4>
vscos¢(pzsin¢+p.cos¢)+
J-
ds E1 s s s
+ N ( 1- v) Xs cos¢
s
 = Jscos¢(Pz cos¢- p.sincf>)ds
S2
In these equations
The governing variables are H and x. and the equations which they must
satisfy are still obtained from the last equilibrium condition in Eqn. 7·12
and the expressions for the rotation from Eqn. 7·14. Using the stress resultants
and deflections from Eqn. 7·77 and working in terms of the variables s 2 x••
H it is found that
(7·78)
H " ---2-H
(1-v) , E 1 tancf>( 2 )
+ 2 s X.
s s
where
(1-v)tancf> . .
L1 = 2 (V2 +ClJ)-scos cf>(p~sm cf>+ p~cos cf>)- p,.smcf> cos cf>
s
-p.(cos 2 cf>+v)-E1 s [N( 1 -v)]'
E1 s
Equation 7·78 is similar in form to Eqn. 7·20 and can be operated on in the
same way. When terms of order ejtan cf> are ignored in comparison with
unity, it is found that
H Ctf1 +Cd2+C3/3+C4j4
2p2
X. = ~ [Ctf2-Cd1-C3/4+C4j3]
E1 s
where / 1 + i/2 , / 3 - i/4 are the two independent solutions of the equation
! " - 2ip~ tan cf> f -_
s2
2. (M's
-+ClJ)
L1+ zpl2 - -V2 2- s
(7·79)
JED
and
p ~ = ! 1 = .J{3(1-v2 )}
1 s
Considering first the homogeneous solution associated with radial edge loads
and edge bending moments, the complete system of stress resultants is given
by the equation
/1 !2 /3 /4 c1
N •• s s s s
!1 !~ /3 !4. c2
Nee
/ 1 tancf> / 2 tancf> / 3 tancf> / 4 tancf> c3 (7·80)
Nsz =
s s s s
s g2 -sg1 -sg4 s g3 c4
M ••
2p~ 2p~ 2p~ 2pi
sG2 -sG 1 -sG4 sG 3
Me
2p~ 2p~ 2p~ 2p~
In this equation
, (1-2v)
G.J = vf·+
J s f.J
The radial deflection and tangent rotation are given by
[()] [rh2pifz
1
= __!_ C2 (7·81)
Xs Et - -
s
The constants of integration can be found in the usual way from the boundary
conditions, and because 2pifs is equal to the quantity denoted by 2p 2 in
§ 7·3·2, the form ofEqns. 7·80 and 7·81 is the same as that ofEqns. 7·25 and
7·26. Hence the formula in Eqn. 7·27 may be used provided the values of 2p 2
multiplying M 1 and M 2 are taken to be 2pi/s1 and 2pi/s2 respectively. The
elements bii• cii can be calculated in exactly the same manner as before once
the form of the functions jj has been determined. The flexibility matrix is
the matrix of coefficients in the equation
s: r1 b 2pi b r1 b
u1 - 11 - 12 13
tl • tlsl . t1 .
2p2 4pt b 2pfb 4pt b
Xt _1b -t--2 2,4 M1
1 ttst z,t rtttsi z, z t1sl 2,3 2r2s1
-- (7·82)
E
rz b 2pirz b b 2pib
()2 tz 3, 1 - - 3 2 rz
tz 3, 3 -t- 3,4 Hz
t1s2r1 . zSz
Xz
l2pl b
tzSz 4, 1
4pt b 2pib
r1ttsi 4, z tzSz 4, 3
4pt b
t--2 4,4
zrzSz
Mz
Consider the homogeneous form of Eqn. 7·79, namely
!"- 2ipftancf> f = 0
sz
This is a standard equation whose solution is Asm, where A is a constant of

integration and
i.e.
m = t±!y'(8ipftancf>+1)~ ±p 1(1+i)y'tancf>
To keep the dimensions of the constants simple, we will take A = Bs2m so

that the solution to the equation is B(sfs2)m. Hence the four governing func-
Y' ~tan~
tions are
!1
( S
-
)Pl ~tan~ COS1J; !2
( S
-
•
Sin7J
s2 s2
!3
( S
-
rP1 ~tan~ COS1J; !4
( s)-p,~tan~ .
- Slll7J
s2 s2
f{ p1.Jtan ¢ (f1_ ! 2); P1 Jtan ¢ (f1+ ! 2) (7·83)

~~
s s
-p 1 .Jtan¢ (f3 -f4 )

= - p .Jtan ¢ (f3 + ! 4 );
1
~~ !4
s s
where 11 = p 1 Jtan ¢ log. (sjs 2).
When the surface loads and temperature gradients are zero, a particular
solution of Eqn. 7·79 is
f = H + i~~f Xs =
2
V2 [cot¢+ i~;iv)J
The complete system of stress resultants and the radial deflections associated
with this particular integral is
1
N ••
rsin¢
NBB 0
Nsz 0
-D 1 (1-v)(2-v)
Mss V2 (7·84)
El
D1 (1-v)(l-2v)
MBB
E1
-v
(J
Etsin¢
1-v
Xs Ets
The factor DdE1 is of order s 2 , so this solution is almost a membrane solu-
tion and for shallow tapers the moments may be ignored. To obtain an unre-
strained solution it is necessary to add the effects of Ht = - H! = - V2 cot ¢
to the values given in Eqn. 7·84. If the moments are significant, the appro-
priate values of Mf and M~ must be applied when calculating the unrestrained
displacements and stresses.
The edge forces and moments are illustrated in Fig. 7·14 which also shows
a pressure acting along the normal to the inside surface of the shell. Resolving
this constant pressure in directions normal and parallel to the mid-surface
gives the loads
Pz Pcose/2; Ps = Psine/2
From Eqn. 7·77
where
FIG. 7·14 Forces acting on cone of variable thickness.
The solution for the v; part of <P can be found from Eqn. 7·84. For the
remainder
- 12+v Psm . e+ cos¢cos e]

. ¢ [ (l+cos 2 ¢)sm
2 2
-ipiPcos(¢+i)cos¢ = 2(A 1 +iA 2 )

Hence a particular solution of Eqn. 7·79 is

2
f = [A 1 -p 21 tancpA 2 +z• { A2 +p 21 tanc/JA 1 }] s cp
p 1 tan 2
4
The complete system of stress resultants and the radial deflection associated
with this particular integral is
N.. {B 1 +!Psincpcos (cp+~)} s+ rs~:*cp

N 66 { B1 +-!- P cos cp sin ( cp + ~)} 2 s
{B 1 tanc/J-!Pcoscpcos (c/J+i)} s
(7·85)
M ••
x.
The unrestrained solution for this surface load can be obtained by adding to
the solution in Eqn. 7·85 the effects of Hf, Mf, Hi and Mi chosen so that
they cancel the edge forces and moments associated with the particular
solution.
7·6 ELLIPSOIDAL SHELLS
The most convenient co-ordinate for locating a point on the meridian of

an ellipsoidal shell is the angle 17 between the axis and the radius to the
director circle. If the semi-axes are a and b, the co-ordinates of the point P
are r =a sin 17, Z = b cos 11 as shown in Fig. 7·15.
The derivative of Z with respect to r is

dZ dZ dYf b
dr = dYf d r = - ~ tan Yf
Hence the co-latitude and radii of curvature which are obtained from
Eqn. 7·1 are
b
tan l/J - tanYf
a
a2
Rl - (1- e2 sin2 t7)3f2 (7·86)
b
a2
R2 - (1- e2 sin2 Y/)1/2
b
FIG. 7·15 Co-ordinate system for ellipsoid.
In these equations e is the eccentricity of the ellipse and is given in terms of

the semi-axes by e2 = (a 2-b 2)ja2.
The examination of the stresses in ellipsoidal shells will start with the
membrane solution of§ 7·3·1. The axial displacement is rarely required and
will not be calculated. If it is needed, it can be calculated from the equations
of§ 7·3·1, but numerical integrations will usually be necessary.
From Eqns. 7·13 and 7·15 the membrane stresses and deflections due to
an axial force V2 applied in a membrane manner are
[1- e2 sin 217]t

Nq,q, = b . 2
sm '1 v2
[1- e2 sin 2 'lrt
bsin 2 1J v2
-a v2 __;.__ [(1-e2 sin 21J)-t+v(1-e2 sin2 '7)!] (7 "87)
Et b Sln'7
x.~- = aV2 e4 sin1Jcos1J[1-e2 sin 21Jr 312

"" Etb 2
From the formulae in Eqns. 7·12 and 7·13 and the above expression for Xq,
it can be seen that the value of rNq,z implied by this rotation is of order
De4
Etb2 V2f('1) =
(t)b 2
e4
12(1-v2) V2f('1)
wheref('l) is a function of sin '1 and cos 1J, for whichfand dffd'l are bounded
for all values of '1· From an inspection of the first two rows of Eqn. 7 ·12 and
the form of Nq,q,, N 00 in Eqn. 7·87, this implied shear force is negligible in
comparison with the direct stress resultants, and the assumptions of the
membrane solution are valid. Hence Eqn. 7·87 may be used for all values of '1
provided that the forces are applied at the edges of the shell in a membrane
manner.
From Eqn. 7·16, the membrane stresses and deflections due to a constant
pressure inflation are
Pa 2
= - [1-e2sin2'7]1/2
2b
() =
2Pa 3
Xq, = Et b 2 e2sin1JCOs1J[1-!e2 sin 21J][1-e2 sin2 17r 3' 2
t2 Pa 3
The value of rNq,z implied by this rotation is of order - e2 -b f('l) where
3ab 2
f is another function of sin '1 and cos 17, for which f and dffd'l remain
bounded for all values of '1· Now the order of magnitude of the terms con-
taining the direct stress resultants in the second row of Eqn. 7·12 is
(Pa 3 j2b) sin '1· Hence the shear force term is negligible in comparison with
the direct stress resultant term when sin '1~e 2 tf3a. For smaller angles than
this limiting value, the membrane solution is not valid and some bending
occurs. The angle is usually very small, e.g. for the thick 2 : I ellipse with
tfa = 1b- it is approximately 1·5 degrees, and the distance over which bending
can develop is so short that the bending stresses do not reach significant
levels. This criterion is only approximate, but it is sufficiently accurate to
conclude that the membrane solution in Eqn. 7·88 can be used in all practical
cases, provided that the edge is supported by membrane forces.
Membrane solutions for other forms of surface loading can be calculated
by evaluating the function cl>, and the approximate range of applicability
can be established by the method used in the two preceding cases.
The bending behaviour of ellipsoidal shells under edge loading, is governed
by the radial shear force and tangent rotation, as described in§ 7·3·2. The
analysis in that section can be directly employed once the variables introduced
there are known in terms of the geometry of the ellipse. From Eqns. 7·32
and 7·35
,
1/J = ~ [1-e 2 sin 2 11r 1 14 J[1-e sin 17]11
2 2 4 a11
J7 J~
0
p t'{3(1-v 2 )} J~ 2 = t'{3(1-v 2)} [1-e 2 sin 2 '7Jl' 4 (7·89)

X = PI/I .j2
For small values of 1], R 2 = a 2 jb, 1/J = b17/a and s = a17. Hence when sis
small IX is constant and equal to unity. Furthermore, cot <P = afb'l for small
angles, so 31/1 2 cotl <P = 3. Hence the order of the Kelvin functions appro-
priate to an ellipsoidal shell is found from Eqn. 7·33 to be r = I. As the term
G in Eqn. 7·34 is constant for small values of 11 the solution in terms of
Kelvin functions has a good order of accuracy. The Kelvin functions of order
unity are also the governing functions for the bending behaviour of spherical
shells, and are related to the functions of order zero by the formulae
ker 1 x __!:___
..)2 dx
[!£ ker x- .!!_ kei x]
dx (7·90)
kei 1 x = _!_ [ ~ ker x + !£ kei x]

..)2 dx dx
The corresponding equations for the ber, bei functions are identical in form
to Eqn. 7·90. It is more convenient to work in terms of the functions of
order zero and as ker 1 x, kei 1 x are linear combinations of the derivatives
of ker x, kei x we may take the governing functions to be
ft = Jsm_t/1 x kerx; fz = Jt/1

cjJ : dk.
sm dx eiX ~
/3 J~ t/1 d
sm dx berx; /4 =
-Jsincp
_1_ !:_ beix
dx
f{ _P./2 [ J-f- kei x+ 2+(l+Jl)t/Jcotcp / 1]

R 2 smcjJ 4 x (7·91)
!2 P./2
R2
[J_t_
sincjJ
kerx- 2+(l+Jl)t/JcotcjJ /
4 x
2]
!~
_P./2
R2
[J-f-
smcjJ
beix+ 2+(l+Jl)ificotc/J f
4 x
3]
!4. = _P./2
R2
[ J-$-
smcjJ
berx+ 2+(l+Jl)t/fcotcp / 4]
4 x
The similarity between these equations and Eqn. 6·38 is very pronounced
and the two sets are in fact identical when e = 0.
t/1
The value of cjJ can be easily calculated from Eqn. 7·86, but the radii of
curvature are slightly more complicated and the arc length s and the angle
must be obtained by numerical integration. Table 7·4 contains the values
for a 2 : 1 ellipse. The flexibility characteristic Pa is the value of {3 at rJ = tn.
TABLE 7·4
ELLIPSOIDAL SHELL PARAMETERS
1f t/1 PIP. R1/a R2/a sfa

0 "'
0·0000 0·0000 1·4142 2·0000 2·0000 0·0000
1 0·0087 0·0087 1·4141 1·9993 1·9998 0·0175
2 0·0175 0·0175 1·4139 1·9973 1·9991 0·0349
3 0·0262 0·0262 1·4135 1·9938 1·9979 0·0523
4 0·0349 0·0349 1·4129 1·9891 1·9963 0·0698
5 0·0437 0·0437 1·4122 1·9829 1·9943 0·0872
6 0·0525 0·0524 1-4113 1·9755 1·9918 0·1046

7 0·0613 0·0612 1·4103 1·9667 1·9888 0·1219
8 0·0702 0·0700 1·4090 1·9566 1·9854 0·1393
9 0·0790 0·0788 1·4077 1·9452 1·9816 0·1566
10 0·0879 0·0876 1·4061 1·9325 1·9773 0·1739
TABLE 7·4 contd.
'I tP rfr PIP. Rtfa Rzfa sfa
11 0·0969 0·0964 1·4045 1·9186 1·9725 0·1911

12 0·1059 0·1053 1·4026 1·9035 1·9673 0·2083
13 0·1149 0·1142 1·4006 1·8872 1·9617 0·2254
14 0·1240 0·1231 1·3984 1·8698 1·9556 0·2425
15 0·1332 0·1320 1·3961 1·8512 1·9491 0·2596
16 0·1424 0·1410 1-3936 1·8315 1·9422 0·2765
17 0·1517 0·1500 1·3910 1·8108 1·9348 0·2935
18 0·1611 0·1590 1·3882 1·7890 1·9271 0·3103
19 0·1705 0·1681 1-3852 1·7663 1·9189 0·3271
20 0·1800 0·1772 1·3821 1·7427 1·9103 0·3438
21 0·1896 0·1864 1·3789 1·7181 1·9012 0·3604
22 0·1993 0·1956 1·3754 1-6927 1·8918 0·3770
23 0·2091 0·2048 1·3719 1·6665 1·8820 0·3935
24 0·2190 0·2141 1·3681 1·6396 1·8718 0·4098
25 0·2291 0·2235 1·3643 1·6119 1·8612 0·4261
26 0·2392 0·2329 1·3602 1·5836 1·8503 0·4423
27 0·2495 0·2423 1·3561 1·5547 1·8389 0-4584
28 0·2598 0·2519 1·3518 1·5252 1·8272 0·4744
29 0·2704 0·2614 1·3473 1·4952 1·8152 0-4903
30 0·2810 0·2711 1·3427 1·4648 1·8028 0·5061
31 0·2919 0·2808 1·3379 1·4339 1·7900 0·5218
32 0·3028 0·2905 1·3330 1·4027 1·7770 0·5373
33 0·3140 0·3004 1·3280 1·3712 1·7635 0·5528
34 0·3253 0·3103 1·3228 1-3395 1·7498 0·5681
35 0·3368 0·3203 1·3175 1-3075 1·7358 0·5833
36 0·3484 0·3304 1·3121 1·2754 1·7215 0·5984

37 0·3603 0·3405 1·3065 1·2432 1·7069 0·6134
38 0·3724 0·3508 1·3008 1·2110 1·6920 0·6282
39 0·3847 0·3611 1·2949 1·1788 1·6769 0·6429
40 0·3972 0·3715 1·2890 1·1466 1·6615 0·6575
41 0·4100 0·3820 1·2829 1·1145 1·6458 0·6719
42 0·4230 0·3926 1·2767 1·0826 1·6300 0·6862
43 0·4363 0·4033 1·2704 1·0509 1-6139 0·7003
44 0·4498 0·4141 1·2640 1-0194 1·5976 0·7144
45 0·4636 0·4250 1·2574 0·9882 1·5811 0·7282
46 0·4778 0·4360 1·2508 0·9573 1·5645 0·7419

47 0·4922 0·4471 1·2441 0·9268 1·5477 0·7555
48 0·5069 0·4584 1·2372 0·8967 1·5308 0·7690
49 0·5220 0·4697 1·2303 0·8671 1·5137 0·7822
50 0·5374 0·4811 1·2233 0·8379 1·4965 0·7954
51 0·5532 0·4927 1·2162 0·8092 1·4792 0·8084

52 0·5693 0·5043 1·2091 0·7811 1·4619 0·8212
53 0·5858 0·5161 1·2019 0·7535 1·4445 0·8339
54 0·6028 0·5280 1·1946 0·7265 1·4271 0·8464
55 0·6201 0·5400 1·1873 0·7002 1·4096 0·8588
TABLE 7·4 contd.

11 t/J 1/f PIP. Rtfa R2/a sfa
56 0·6379 0·5522 1·1799 0·6745 1-3922 0·8710

57 0·6561 0·5644 1·1725 0·6495 1·3747 0·8831
58 0·6748 0·5768 1·1651 0·6252 1·3574 0·8950
59 0·6940 0·5892 1·1576 0·6016 1·3401 0·9068
60 0·7137 0·6018 1·1502 0·5788 1-3229 0·9184
61 0·7339 0·6145 1·1427 0·5566 1·3058 0·9299
62 0·7547 0·6273 1·1353 0·5353 1·2889 0·9412
63 0·7760 0·6401 1·1279 0·5147 1·2721 0·9524
64 0·7978 0·6531 1·1205 0·4949 1·2556 0·9634
65 0·8203 0·6661 1-1132 0·4758 1·2393 0·9743
66 0·8433 0·6792 1-1060 0·4576 1·2232 0·9850
67 0·8669 0·6924 1·0989 0·4401 1·2075 0·9956
68 0·8912 0·7056 1-0918 0·4235 1·1921 1·0061
69 0·9160 0·7189 1·0849 0·4076 1·1770 1-0164
70 0·9416 0·7322 1·0781 0·3925 1-1623 1·0266
71 0·9677 0·7454 1·0715 0·3783 1·1480 1·0367
72 0·9945 0·7587 1·0650 0·3648 1·1342 1·0467
73 1·0220 0·7720 1·0587 0·3521 1-1209 1·0565
74 1·0501 0·7852 1·0527 0·3402 1·1081 1·0662
75 1·0788 0·7983 1·0468 0·3290 1·0959 1·0759
76 1·1082 0·8113 1·0413 0·3187 1·0842 1·0854
77 1·1382 0·8242 1·0360 0·3090 1·0732 1·0948
78 1·1688 0·8370 1·0310 0·3002 1·0629 1·1041
79 1·2000 0·8495 1·0263 0·2921 1·0532 1·1133
80 1·2318 0·8619 1·0219 0·2847 1·0443 1·1225
81 1·2640 0·8741 1·0179 0·2780 1·0361 1·1316
82 1·2968 0·8860 1-0142 0·2721 1·0286 1·1406
83 1·3300 0·8976 1·0110 0·2669 1·0220 1·1495
84 1·3636 0·9088 1·0081 0·2624 1-0163 1·1584
85 1·3976 0·9198 1·0056 0·2586 1·0113 1·1673
86 1-4318 0·9304 1·0036 0·2555 1·0073 1·1761
87 1·4664 0·9406 1·0020 0·2531 1·0041 1·1848
88 1·5011 0·9504 1·0009 0·2514 1·0018 1-1936
89 1·5359 0·9598 1·0002 0·2503 1·0005 1·2023
90 1·5708 0·9687 1·0000 0·2500 1·0000 1·2111
As an example of the application of these results consider the vessel shown

in Fig. 7·16, which has a head of the same thickness as the barrel and is
subjected to a constant pressure inflation. Using the influence coefficients
from Table 7·1, Eqn. 5·28 and the unrestrained displacements from Eqns.
7·88 and 5·29 in a compatibility calculation of the type described in § 4·3
leads to the following value for the radial force on the head:
Pa 2 a2
H1 = - X- b2
8P
The moment is zero at the intersection of the head and barrel.
This value for the force may be compared with the one acting on a hemi-
spherical head, given in § 6·3·3 or obtained from the above formula with
a = b. The force is much larger for an ellipsoidal head because of the low
tensile or compressive value of the membrane hoop stress in the head
near the junction. For a 2 : 1 ellipse the force is four times as large as the
C=-
Pa
t
Meridional stress
a
'X Hoop stress
a
--
X -
T I
surface
----
~nside
~::- __.. J·o
'\\!f
.......... r-.S_utsidc surface f----! ~
/ ' 1 ~- .........
o·s
~ ' v
'~ ~ /
,~
0
"-... .,. "" ....... -
'r-' ~-
,', / ""
-o·s \ ' ~...--...-
...........
K
--'
\
Inside surface
' f.-outside surface
... --
o-s o·4 o·3 o·2 o·J o o·J o·2 o·3 o·4 o·s 1'2/l
fa
X J'ja
F'Io. 7·16 Stress distribution in cylinder with 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head.
value for a hemispherical head. The stress distribution due to the force can be
calculated from Eqn. 7·25, using the functions given in Eqn. 7·37 with the con-
stants obtained from Eqn. 7·38, namely
C1 = C2 = C4 = 0; C3 = a 1 ' 4 H 1
Hence
(7·92)
The stresses in the cylinder can be found from Eqn. 5·27. The value of the
meridional direct stress in the head due to bending effects is small in com-
parison with the membrane stress, but the hoop stress is significant and so are
the meridional bending stresses. The values of the stresses are plotted in
Fig. 7·16 and may be compared with those of a hemispherical head in
Fig. 6·6.
7·7 TOROIDAL SHELLS
A complete cross-section of a toroidal shell is shown in Fig. 7·17. The co-

ordinate <P does not define a unique point on the shell because a normal
intersects the cross-section in two positions. It is therefore necessary to let <P
assume negative values so that the points P, P* are displaced respectively by
± ¢. As <P increases from 0 to n, the point P traverses the outer half of the
b a
FIG. 7·17 Complete toroidal shell.
toroid whilst P* passes through all points on the inner half. Hence every
point on the shell has a unique co-ordinate if -n<</J~n.
The radii of curvature and the cylindrical radius at a general point are
given by
a+bsin <P .
R 1 = b; R 2 = . <P ; r = a+bsm<jJ (7·93)
Sin
When <P is negative R 2 is also negative, so the product 1/R 1 R 2 (which is
called the Gaussian curvature) is positive and negative with ¢.
As in the case of ellipsoidal shells, we shall first study the membrane solu-
tions of§ 7·3·1 and will not calculate the axial displacement because it is
rarely required. From Eqns. 7·13 and 7·15 the membrane stresses and deflec-
tions due to an axial load V2 applied in a membrane manner are
v2
Nq,q,
r sin cjJ
v2
Noo
b sin 2 cjJ
(7·94)
b
Et
b ~2 2 cp
Slll
[a+(l+v)bsincp]
a . coscp
--p. -r
v2
Xq, = [2r+bsmcp] ~
Et sm
The meridional stress resultant is negative when cjJ is negative and the loading
system is the one shown in Fig. 7·18(a). However, the stresses and deflections
become infinite at cjJ = 0, so this solution is not valid at this point and the
v2
sin ¢ 2
(a) (b) (c)

Flo. 7·18 Axial load per radian applied as a membrane force.
formulae in Eqn. 7·94 may only be used if the shell is a part toroid as shown
in Fig. 7·18(b). The part toroid can have either positive or negative curvature
and Eqn. 7·94 may be applied in both cases provided the appropriate sign is
taken for cp. Because the rotation is large for small values of IcjJ I and n- I cp I,
the membrane solution is not very accurate in these regions. From Eqn. 7·13
and the moment equilibrium condition in Eqn. 7·12, the order of magnitude
of the shear force implied by the rotation is
10
3a b 2
(a t) 2 cos 3 cjJ
. 6 ..f. V2.
sm 'I'
Hence the orders of magnitude of the terms associated with the implied shear
force and the direct stress resultants in the second row of Eqn. 7·12 are
respectively
20 (a t)z cot4 ¢ V . ~
b2 sin 3 ¢ 2 ' sin¢
The membrane assumption is valid if the first of these is negligible in com-
parison with the second, which is the case when
. 20a 2 t
sm 2 '1'
A. tan 4 A.>.:--
'I' """ b3
This criterion is satisfied for the following pairs of values:
I¢ I 60° 55° 50° 45°
b3 fazt 3 7 17 40
The membrane solution for constant internal pressure given in Eqn. 7·16
produces stresses which are infinite at cp = 0, n, but if this solution is added
to Eqn. 7·94, the meridional stress resultant becomes
If V2 is chosen to be -Pa2 /2 the value of Nq,q, remains finite at cp = 0, and

the complete system of stress resultants and deflections is
Pb [2a+bsincp]
2r
Pb
2
(7·95)
Pb .
<5 = 2Et [a(1-2v)+bsm¢(1-v)]
Pabcotcp
Xq, =
2Etr
Application of the procedure used for the axial load solution leads to the
following orders of magnitude for the implied shear force and direct stress
resultant terms in the second row of Eqn. 7·12:
Pa (t)
! b
2 cot2 cp
sinz cp ; Pa
Hence the membrane solution in Eqn. 7·95 is valid if sin 2 ¢ tan 2 ¢ ~ t/4b.
This criterion is satisfied for the following pairs of values:
1¢1 20° 15° 100
bft 16 52 270
The general formulae in § 7·3·1 may be used to calculate the membrane

solution for other forms of applied loading, and the range of applicability
of the solution can be established by applying the order of magnitude
comparison.
The stresses in the regions where the membrane solution is invalid must
be calculated from a solution of the equations in §§ 7·3·2 and 7·3·3.
We now turn our attention to the solution of the homogeneous bending
equations given in § 7·3·2. From Eqns. 7·32 and 7·35 the parameters which
appear in the solution are given in terms of the geometry of the toroid by
~a . J( sin¢
1+~sin¢
) f.PJ (l+~sin¢
sin¢ ) d¢
fJ
If ¢ ~ 0 the application of these variables is straightforward, but if ¢ < 0,

sin ¢ is negative for part of the range and fJ becomes complex. The angle 1/1
was defined from a knowledge of its derivative, so the choice of the lower
limit of integration is arbitrary. For convenience, we write, for ¢ ~ 0,
fJ PI/I ~2
L
and for cp < 0,
rJ(~~~ns:n·~·) d~·
-1/1*; cp = -¢*; x = -ix*
~· ~ ! J(~~~,::~.)
(7·96)
J(~~::n.~')
0
P' ~ P.
x* P* 1/J* .J2
When cp is small, sin c/J=c/J and the value of a defined in Eqn. 7·96 is
a =
1 1
s R2 -;fr = b cp acp 2b3acp2 =
3
2
where s has also been measured from cp = 0. The same value is obtained for
a2 if the calculations are carried out for negative cp; furthermore, 1/1 2 coe cp
has the same value for both positive and negative ¢. Consequently the value
of the function G, defined in Eqn. 7·33, is the same for positive and negative cp
and is given by
Hence the values of -r and G- G0 are

1 b2cp2
't = 3; G-Go 3a2
and the solution of Eqn. 7·34 in terms of Bessel functions is justified because
G- G0 is small in comparison with the other coefficients in the equation.
The solution of Eqn. 7·34 in terms of K.(x.ji) is not very convenient for
this application because it becomes infinite at x = 0, which has been chosen
to be a point within the shell instead of a point at the edge. Because -r is non-
integral, it is possible to take I_.(x.ji) as a second independent solution (4)
so the two independent solutions are
1± 113 (x.Ji) = (i)'F 113 [ber± 113 x+i bei± 113 x] (7·97)
In the region of negative ¢, x = - ix*, so the two independent solutions
for this part of the shell are I± 113( - ix* .ji). Expressing .ji and - i.ji as
complex numbers without square roots
.Ji = (1+i)f.J2; -i.Ji = (1-i)f.J2
Hence the two independent solutions when ~ is negative are the conjugate
functions of those when ~ is positive and are given by
I ±113 ( -lx v'
'*'') = ( -1')+1/3[ber± 113 x * _,'b'
e1± 113 x *] (7·971)
There are no simple relationships between the Kelvin functions of order
one-third and those of order zero, so the series solution must be used (Ref. 4).
When x tends to zero, the values of the four functions and their derivatives
tend to
her 113 x } (x/2) 113 . her _ 113 x } (x/2) - 113
bei 113 x -+ .J2r(4/3)'-beL1/3 x -+ .J2r(2/3) (7.98)
d { ber 113 x} (x/2)- 213 . d { ber_ 113 x} -(x/2)- 413
dx bei1 13 x -+ 6.J2r(4/3)' dx -beL 11 3 x -+ 6.J2r(2/3)
If the solutions in Eqn. 7·97 are taken as they stand, the functions fj and
their derivatives are not continuous at ~ = 0, but they can be made so if
linear combinations of the solutions are chosen.
To this end, we multiply Eqn. 7·97 by (1-i) i± 1/3 and obtain for the
governing functions when ~ ~ 0
!1 = J . ~.
_l/1 [ber113 x+bei113 x];
sm '+'
!2 = -J ·"' . ~.
sm '+'
[ber113 x-bei113 x]
j3 = J _l/1 . ~. [ber_ 113 x+beL 113 x];

sm '+'
!4 = J _l/1..!.. [ber_ 113 x-beL 113 x]
sm '+'
f{ P.J2
- -
R2
[J l/1 -d {her 113 x+bei 113 x}+ F:~]
-.-
sm~ dx
!~ -P.J2 [J
~ sin~
dl/1
dx {ber1/3 x- bei 113
x}- }!2] (7·99)
!~
P.J2
- -
R2
[J -.-, d {her _ 113 x +beL
l/1 -d
Sllll{J X
Fj3]
. 113 x} + -
X
!~ = R'; [J
P.J2 l/1
sin~ dx
d {ber_ 113 x-beL Fj4]
. 113 x}+~
where
F = - b . ) 1/J cot~
1 - a- ( 1+2-sm~ -.-
2 4b a sm ~
F * = -1 - -a ( 1 - -2b sm
. ) cot~*
~* 1/J* - -
2 4b a sin~*
From the relationships in Eqn. 7·98 the values of these functions when 4> = 0
are
!2 =!3 =fd = O; f{ = 3ar(4/3)

2 (6Ta p2)1/6 (7·100)
r(2/3) = 1·354; r (4/3) = 0·8930
We now require a linear combination of the solutions in Eqn. 7·97 1 which

results in the same values of jj, fj when ¢* = 0. The solution is obtained by
multiplying Eqn. 7·97 1 by - (1 +i)(- i)± 113 • Hence the values of jj, fj can be
obtained from Eqn. 7·99 for all values of 4> if the modulus of each variable
is used (e.g. 4> is replaced by 4>* when 4> ~ 0) and provided that when 4> is
negative, the expressions for /1 ,/3 ,/f.,f~ are multiplied by -1. When 4> is
negative it is also necessary to change the sign of the terms Fftfx and Ff3 Jx
in the expressions for f{, f?,.
The values of the functions for 4> = 0 are given in Eqn. 7·100, and for all
other values of 4> the functions may be evaluated by employing the series
co (-1t(x/2)4n
bei± 113 x+ber± 113 x = ,J2(x/2) 2 ± 113 Io (2n+1) !r(2n+2±1/3)
(7·101)
r(m+1±1/3) = (m±1/3)(m-1±1/3) ... (1±1/3)r(1±1/3)
In these expressions, the alternative signs must be taken either from the top
or the bottom row but not mixed. Series for the derivatives required in
Eqn. 7·99 can be obtained by differentiating the expression in Eqn. 7·101
term by term.
When x is large, x ~ 2 may be used in place of these Kelvin functions.
Hence the asymptotic solution is of little help if the toroid is complete, but
it may be used for some toroidal heads and transition pieces.
Once the functions jj have been calculated, a particular integral for the
distributed pressures and axial load can be calculated by using the formulae
in §§ 7·3·2 and 7·3·3. The influence coefficients are given in Eqn. 7·28, and
can be used in conjunction with the unrestrained displacements calculated
from the particular integral in the type of analysis described in Chapter 4.
TABLE 7·5
PARAMETERS FOR TOROIDAL SHELLS OF POSITIVE GAUSSIAN CURVATURE
For 0.,; 1,6.,;90° use table directly.

For 90°< 1,6< 180° Take, x(t,6) =2x(90°)-x(180°- 1,6)
x(t,6) o
1/f(t,b) = x(I 80o- (,6) l/f(180 - (,6)
afb = 2 afb = 3 afb = 4 alb= 5

1/f x/Pa 1/f xfPa 1/f xfPa 1/f x/Pa
0 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000
1 0·000 0·001 0·000 0·001 0·000 0·001 0·000 0·000
2 0·000 0·003 0·000 0·002 0·000 0·002 0·000 0·001
3 0·001 0·006 0·001 0·004 0·000 0·003 0·000 0·002
4 0·002 0·009 0·001 0·006 0·001 0·004 0·001 0·003
5 0·002 0·012 0·002 0·008 0·001 0·006 0·001 0·005
6 0·003 0·016 0·002 0·011 0·002 0·008 0·001 0·006
7 0·005 0·020 0·003 0·013 0·002 0·010 0·002 0·008
8 0·006 0·024 0·004 0·016 0·003 0·012 0·003 0·010
9 0·008 0·029 0·005 0·019 0·004 0·014 0·003 0·012
10 0·009 0·033 0·006 0·022 0·005 0·017 0·004 0·014
11 0·011 0·038 0·008 0·026 0·006 0·020 0·005 0·016
12 0·013 0·044 0·009 0·029 0·007 0·022 0·006 0·018
13 0·016 0·049 0·011 0·033 0·008 0·025 0·007 0·020
14 0·018 0·055 0·012 0·037 0·009 0·028 0·008 0·022
15 0·021 0·061 0·014 0·041 0·011 0·031 0·009 0·025
16 0·023 0·067 0·016 0·045 0·012 0·034 0·010 0·027
17 0·026 0·073 0·018 0·049 0·014 0·037 0·011 0·030
18 0·029 0·079 0·020 0·053 0·015 0·040 0·012 0·032
19 0·032 0·086 0·022 0·058 0·017 0·044 0·014 0·035
20 0·035 0·092 0·024 0·062 0·019 0·047 0·015 0·038
21 0·039 0·099 0·027 0·067 0·021 0·051 0·017 0·041
22 0·042 0·106 0·029 0·072 0·022 0·054 0·018 0·044
23 0·046 0·113 0·032 0·077 0·024 0·058 0·020 0·047
24 0·049 0·120 0·034 0·081 0·026 0·062 0·022 0·050
25 0·053 0·127 0·037 0·086 0·029 0·065 0·023 0·053
26 0·057 0·134 0·040 0·091 0·031 0·069 0·025 0·056
27 0·061 0·142 0·043 0·097 0·033 0·073 0·027 0·059
28 0·065 0·149 0·046 0·102 0·035 0·077 0·029 0·062
29 0·069 0·157 0·049 0·107 0·038 0·081 0·031 0·065
30 0·074 0·165 0·052 0·112 0·040 0·085 0·033 0·069
31 0·078 0·173 0·055 0·118 0·043 0·089 0·035 0·072
32 0·083 0·181 0·058 0·123 0·045 0·094 0·037 0·075
33 0·087 0·189 0·062 0·129 0·048 0·098 0·039 0·079
34 0·092 0·197 0·065 0·134 0·051 0·102 0·041 0·082
35 0·097 0·205 0·069 0·140 0·053 0·106 0·044 0·086
36 0·102 0·213 0·072 0·146 0·056 0·111 0·046 0·089
37 0·107 0·222 0·076 0·152 0·059 0·115 0·048 0·093
38 0·112 0·230 0·080 0·158 0·062 0·120 0·051 0·097
39 0·117 0·239 0·083 0·163 0·065 0·124 0·053 0·100
TABLE 7·5 contd.
afb = 2 afb = 3 afb = 4 afb = 5
t/J 1/1 xfPa 1/1 x/Pa 1/1 x/Pa 1/1 x/Pa
40 0·122 0·247 0·087 0·169 0·068 0·129 0·056 0·104
41 0·127 0·256 0·091 0·175 0·071 0·133 0·058 0·108
42 0·132 0·265 0·095 0·181 0·074 0·138 0·061 0·112
43 0·138 0·273 0·099 0·188 0·077 0·143 0·063 0·115
44 0·143 0·282 0·103 0·194 0·080 0·148 0·066 0·119
45 0·149 0·291 0·107 0·200 0·084 0·152 0·068 0·123
46 0·154 0·300 0·111 0·206 0·087 0·157 0·071 0·127
47 0·160 0·309 0·115 0·212 0·090 0·162 0·074 0·131
48 0·166 0·318 0·119 0·219 0·093 0·167 0·077 0·135
49 0·171 0·327 0·124 0·225 0·097 0·172 0·080 0·139
50 0·177 0·336 0·128 0·232 0·100 0·177 0·082 0·143
51 0·183 0·345 0·132 0·238 0·104 0·182 0·085 0·147
52 0·189 0·355 0·137 0·244 0·107 0·187 0·088 0·151
53 0·194 0·364 0·141 0·251 0·111 0·192 0·091 0·155
54 0·200 0·373 0·145 0·258 0·114 0·197 0·094 0·159
55 0·206 0·383 0·150 0·264 0·118 0·202 0·097 0·163
56 0·212 0·392 0·154 0·271 0·121 0·207 0·100 0·167
57 0·218 0-402 0·159 0·277 0·125 0·212 0·103 0·172
58 0·224 0·411 0·163 0·284 0·128 0·217 0·106 0·176
59 0·230 0·421 0·168 0·291 0·132 0·222 0·109 0·180
60 0·237 0·430 0·172 0·298 0·136 0·228 0·112 0·184
61 0·243 0·440 0·177 0·304 0·139 0·233 0·115 0·188
62 0·249 0·450 0·182 0·311 0·143 0·238 0·118 0·193
63 0·255 0·459 0·186 0·318 0·147 0·243 0·121 0·197
64 0·261 0·469 0·191 0·325 0·151 0·249 0·124 0·201
65 0·267 0·479 0·196 0·332 0·154 0·254 0·127 0·206
66 0·274 0·488 0·200 0·338 0·158 0·259 0·131 0·210
67 0·280 0·498 0·205 0·345 0·162 0·264 0·134 0·214
68 0·286 0·508 0·210 0·352 0·166 0·270 0·137 0·219
69 0·292 0·518 0·214 0·359 0·169 0·275 0·140 0·223
70 0·298 0·528 0·219 0·366 0·173 0·281 0·143 0·227
71 0·305 0·538 0·224 0·373 0·177 0·286 0·146 0·232
72 0·311 0·547 0·228 0·380 0·181 0·291 0·149 0·236
73 0·317 0·557 0·233 0·387 0·184 0·297 0·152 0·241
74 0·323 0·567 0·238 0·394 0·188 0·302 0·156 0·245
75 0·329 0·577 0·242 0·401 0·192 0·308 0·159 0·250
76 0·336 0·587 0·247 0·408 0·196 0·313 0·162 0·254
77 0·342 0·597 0·252 0·415 0·199 0·319 0·165 0·258
78 0·348 0·607 0·256 0·422 0·203 0·324 0·168 0·263
79 0·354 0·617 0·261 0·429 0·207 0·329 0·171 0·267
80 0·360 0·627 0·266 0·436 0·211 0·335 0·174 0·272
81 0·366 0·637 0·270 0·443 0·214 0·340 0·177 0·276
82 0·373 0·647 0·275 0·451 0·218 0·346 0·181 0·281
83 0·379 0·657 0·279 0-458 0·222 0·351 0·184 0·285
84 0·385 0·667 0·284 0·465 0·225 0·357 0·187 0·290
85 0·391 0·678 0·289 0·472 0·229 0·362 0·190 0·294
86 0·397 0·688 0·293 0·479 0·232 0·368 0·193 0·299
87 0·403 0·698 0·298 0·486 0·236 0·373 0·196 0·303
88 0·409 0·708 0·302 0·493 0·240 0·379 0·199 0·308
89 0·414 0·718 0·306 0·500 0·243 0·384 0.202 0·312
90 0·420 0·728 0·311 0·508 0·247 0·390 0·205 0·317
TABLE 7·6
PARAMETERS FOR TOROIDAL SHELLS OF NEGATIVE GAUSSIAN CURVATURE
For 0~ ql*~90° use table directly.
For 90° < ql* < 180° Take x*(ql*) = 2x*(90°)-x*(180°- ql*)
1/J*(ql*) = x*(ql*) 1/1*(180°- ql*)
x*(180°- ql*)
afb = 2 afb = 3 alb= 4 afb = 5

ql*
1/1* x*/Pa 1/1* x*/Pa 1/1* x*/Pa 1/1* x*/Pa
0 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000 0·000
1 0·000 0·001 0·000 0·001 0·000 0·001 0·000 0·000
2 0·000 0·003 0·000 0·002 0·000 0·002 0·000 0·001
3 0·001 0·006 0·001 0·004 0·000 0·003 0·000 0·002
4 0·002 0·009 0·001 0·006 0·001 0·004 0·001 0·003
5 0·003 0·012 0·002 0·008 0·001 0·006 0·001 0·005
6 0·004 0·016 0·002 0·011 0·002 0·008 0·001 0·006
7 0·005 0·020 0·003 0·014 0·003 0·010 0·002 0·008
8 0·007 0·025 0·004 0·017 0·003 0·012 0·003 0·010
9 0·009 0·030 0·006 0·020 0·004 0·015 0·003 0·012
10 0·011 0·035 0·007 0·023 0·005 0·017 0·004 0·014
11 0·013 0·041 0·009 0·027 0·006 0·020 0·005 0·016
12 0·016 0·047 0·010 0·031 0·008 0·023 0·006 0·018
13 0·019 0·053 0·012 0·035 0·009 0·026 0·007 0·021
14 0·022 0·059 0·014 0·039 0·010 0·029 0·008 0·023
15 0·025 0·066 0·016 0·043 0·012 0·032 0·009 0·026
16 0·029 0·072 0·019 0·048 0·014 0·035 0·011 0·028
17 0·033 0·080 0·021 0·052 0·015 0·039 0·012 0·031
18 0·037 0·087 0·024 0·057 0·017 0·042 0·014 0·034
19 0·042 0·094 0·026 0·062 0·019 0·046 0·015 0·037
20 0·046 0·102 0·029 0·067 0·021 0·050 0·017 0·040
21 0·052 0·110 0·033 0·072 0·024 0·054 0·019 0·043
22 0·057 0·119 0·036 0·077 0·026 0·057 0·021 0·046
23 0·063 0·127 0·039 0·083 0·029 0·061 0·022 0·049
24 0·069 0·136 0·043 0·088 0·031 0·066 0·025 0·052
25 0·075 0·145 0·047 0·094 0·034 0·070 0·027 0·055
26 0·082 0·154 0·051 0·100 0·037 0·074 0·029 0·059
27 0·088 0·163 0·055 0·106 0·040 0·078 0·031 0·062
28 0·096 0·173 0·059 0·112 0·043 0·083 0·033 0·066
29 0·103 0·183 0·064 0·118 0·046 0·087 0·036 0·069
30 0·111 0·193 0·068 0·124 0·049 0·092 0·038 0·073
31 0·119 0·203 0·073 0·131 0·053 0·097 0·041 0·077
32 0·128 0·213 0·078 0·137 0·056 0·102 0·044 0·080
33 0·137 0·224 0·083 0·144 0·060 0·106 0·047 0·084
34 0·146 0·234 0·088 0·151 0·063 0·111 0·049 0·088
35 0·156 0·245 0·094 0·158 0·067 0·116 0·052 0·092
36 0·166 0·257 0·100 0·165 0·071 0·121 0·055 0·096
37 0·176 0·268 0·105 0·172 0·075 0·127 0·059 0·100
38 0·186 0·279 0·111 0·179 0·080 0·132 0·062 0·104
39 0·197 0·291 0·118 0·186 0·084 0·137 0·065 0·108
40 0·209 0·303 0·124 0·194 0·088 0·142 0·068 0·113
TABLE 7·6 contd.

afb- 2 afb- 3 afb- 4 afb- 5
t/J* !fr* x*ffJa !fr* x*J/la !fr* x*/fJa !fr* x*/fJa
41 0·220 0·315 0·130 0·201 0·093 0·148 0·072 0·117
42 0·232 0·327 0·137 0·209 0·097 0·153 0·075 0·121
43 0·245 0·340 0·144 0·216 0·102 0·159 0·079 0·126
44 0·257 0·353 0·151 0·224 0·107 0·165 0·083 0·130
45 0·270 0·365 0·158 0·232 0·112 0·170 0·086 0·135
46 0·284 0·378 0·165 0·240 0·117 0·176 0·090 0·139
47 0·297 0·392 0·173 0·248 0·122 0·182 0·094 0·144
48 0·311 0·405 0·180 0·256 0·127 0·188 0·098 0·148
49 0·326 0·418 0·188 0·264 0·132 0·194 0·102 0·153
50 0·340 0·432 0·196 0·273 0·137 0·200 0·106 0·157
51 0·355 0·446 0·204 0·281 0·143 0·206 0·110 0·162
52 0·371 0-460 0·212 0·290 0·148 0·212 0·114 0·167
53 0·387 0·474 0·220 0·298 0·154 0·218 0·118 0·172
54 0·403 0·488 0·228 0·307 0·160 0·224 0·123 0·177
55 0·419 0·503 0·237 0·315 0·165 0·230 0·127 0·181
56 0·435 0·517 0·245 0·324 0·171 0·237 0·131 0·186
57 0·452 0·532 0·254 0·333 0·177 0·243 0·136 0·191
58 0·469 0·547 0·263 0·342 0·183 0·249 0·140 0·196
59 0·487 0·562 0·272 0·351 0·189 0·256 0·145 0·201
60 0·505 0·577 0·281 0·360 0·195 0·262 0·149 0·206
61 0·522 0·593 0·290 0·369. 0·201 0·269 0·154 0·211
62 0·541 0·608 0·299 0·378 0·207 0·275 0·158 0·216
63 0·559 0·624 0·309 0·388 0·213 0·282 0·163 0·222
64 0·578 0·639 0·318 0·397 0·220 0·288 0·168 0·227
65 0·596 0·655 0·327 0-406 0·226 0·295 0·173 0·232
66 0·615 0·671 0·337 0·416 0·232 0·302 0·177 0·237
67 0·635 0·687 0·346 0·425 0·239 0·309 0·182 0·242
68 0·654 0·703 0·356 0·435 0·245 0·315 0·187 0·248
69 0·673 0·720 0·366 0·444 0·251 0·322 0·192 0·253
70 0·693 0·736 0·375 0·454 0·258 0·329 0·196 0·258
71 0·713 0·753 0·385 0·463 0·264 0·336 0·201 0·263
72 0·732 0·769 0·395 0·473 0·271 0·343 0·206 0·269
73 0·752 0·786 0·404 0·483 0·277 0·350 0·211 0·274
74 0·772 0·803 0-414 0·493 0·284 0·356 0·216 0·280
75 0·792 0·819 0·424 0·502 0·290 0·363 0·220 0·285
76 0·812 0·836 0·434 0·512 0·296 0·370 0·225 0·290
77 0·832 0·853 0·443 0·522 0·303 0·377 0·230 0·296
78 0·851 0·870 0·453 0·532 0·309 0·384 0·235 0·301
79 0·871 0·887 0·463 0·542 0·316 0·391 0·240 0·307
80 0·891 0·905 0-472 0·552 0·322 0·398 0·244 0·312
81 0·910 0·922 0·482 0·562 0·328 0·406 0·249 0·318
82 0·930 0·939 0-492 0·572 0·335 0-413 0·254 0·323
83 0·949 0·956 0·501 0·582 0·341 0·420 0·259 0·329
84 0·968 0·974 0·510 0·592 0·347 0-427 0·263 0·334
85 0·987 0·991 0·520 0·602 0·353 0·434 0·268 0·340
86 1·006 1·008 0·529 0·612 0·360 0-441 0·272 0·345
87 1·024 1·026 0·538 0·622 0·366 0·448 0·277 0·351
88 1·043 1·043 0·547 0·632 0·372 0·455 0·281 0·356
89 1·061 1·061 0·556 0·642 0·377 0·462 0·286 0·362
90 1·078 1·078 0·565 0·652 0·383 0·470 0·290 0·367
REFERENCES

3. LovE A. E. The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (Oxford Univ. Press,
1952).
4. McLACHLAN N. W. Vessel Functions for Engineers (Oxford Univ. Press,
1955).
5. GALLETLY G. D. J. Eng. for Industry 82 (1960) 259.
8. SEPETOSKI W. K., PEARSON C. E., DINGWELL I. W. & ADKIN A. W. 'A
Digital Computer Programme for the General Axi-symmetric Thin Shell
Problem', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 62-WA-31.
9. PENNY R. K. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 3 (1961) 369.
8 Application of the General Analysis to
the More Usual Vessel Components
8·0 INTRODUCTION
I willthisbe chapter,
N the methods of analysis discussed in Chapter 4 et seq.
applied to some of the vessel components most commonly in use.
Diagrams showing the maximum stresses under internal pressure will be
presented and, whenever possible, the predicted theoretical results will be
compared with experimental data.
In addition to the methods of design based on an elastic analysis, other
criteria-fatigue or bursting strength-are sometimes used. A short descrip-
tion of such methods has been included.
8·1 FLAT CLOSURE PLATES
Flat closure plates are often used as manhole covers in low-pressure vessels
and small bore openings. Their use is generally limited to light duty service
since they are uneconomical for other applications. Some typical designs were
illustrated in Fig. 3·13. A bolted fiat closure plate with a full face gasket is
shown in Fig. 8·l(a) and a similar type, with a ring gasket in Fig. 8·l(b).
J~
For the usual applications, the design may follow one of the national Codes.
The thickness of the fiat plate is then obtained from Eqn. 3·1(t = D x C)
where C = 0·434 for clamped plates; = 0·556 for plates free to rotate at the
edges. These values of the constant C, derived from considerations based on
thin plate theory (Ref. 1), are often modified by the design Code, to take into
account the flexibility of the support at the edges of the plate. Thus, the
A.S.M.E. (Section VIII) Code specifies,
C = 0·403 for plates with full width gaskets (Fig. 8·l(a))
= 0·5 for plates welded to the vessel as shown in Fig. 3·13
318
APPLICAT ION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONE NTS 319
,. D .,
(a) (b)
FIG. 8·1 Typical bolted flat closure plate.
e
0"1> <:1z> 0"3
200
0"1
lit-., 0"1- 0"3
S.C.F. = PD/2T
150
t.;
0
t-i
100
100 200 300 400
~
FIG. 8·2 Stress concentration factor in welded, flat closure plates.
= .J(O·30 + 1·4 Wh9 fH v) for bolted closure plates as shown in Fig.

8·1(b). In this equation Wis the bolt load and Hv the hydrostatic load on the
plate (Ref. 2). In Germany (Ref. 3) the practice is to take
C = 0·45-0·35 for welded or clamped plates.
= 0·53-0·70 for bolted plates, the lower value corresponding to ha =
0·05 D, the higher to ha = 0·25 D.
The detailed stress analysis follows the general lines described in Chapter 4
(see also § 7·4). Besides the obvious limitation of the analysis to thin plates,
a further difficulty lies in the evaluation of the edge influence coefficients, i.e.
(a) (b)
FIG. 8·3 Typical application of conical shells as reducers.
in the assessment of the rigidity of the support. This is quite simple in the
case of plain cylinders welded to fiat plates; it becomes more complex in
bolted plates due to the possibility of slip between the plate and the flanges
(see for instance Refs. 4, 5). The analysis can be simplified following the
method described in Chapter 7, valid for thin plates, under any known
condition of restraint at the edges and with or without a circular opening
in the centre. Ref. 6 may also be consulted. For plates welded to cylindrical
vessels under internal pressure, the maximum stress may be obtained from
Fig. 8·2 (Ref. 7). It must be noted that the stress concentration caused by
the sharp re-entrant corner at the junction is not taken into consideration.
In practice, this corner is smoothed by means of a transition radius, as
shown in Fig. 3·13.
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 321
~
Cl.- 15° I
,.-
3·5
v- ~
I
..... ~
}'0
~...--
2•5 _..,.....
f..--
~
/
1"5 ........
~
--
0"5
~v
a = 30' ~
-
---
7
k::::::" ~
6
l.--" IJ.J--!--"
5 ~ 1-
~ l..--:'"'" ~
4
v ~
__. ~
~
/ v----
3
·-
R'
2
1
r..; 0
0
~
V:i 13
Cl. ~ 45°
-
~
12
~lb?'l ""3
11
10 r - - -1-
. J;J~
9
~
--
8
..4 ~ --
V?
~ -- ]_=----
/
7 f------
----o-81\ z/"/ v PDC

6 0'~>0'"2>0"3
cr cr,- crJ -
pI~T
5
1'2-..., ~J S.C. F. ~
4
3 cr,
2
/r =J·o
' 1 I
I - --· --
,- -
50 100 150 200 250 300 J:>O 400 4:>0 )00
.f)_
T
FIG. 8·4 Stress concentration factors in cylinder-cone junctions.

8·2 CONICAL HEADS AND REDUCERS
Conical shells are sometimes used in tanks and silos as roofs or floors. They
find their main application as reducers, providing a smooth transition be-
tween two parts of different diameter in cylindrical pressure vessels or pipe-
lines. Some typical designs are shown in Fig. 8·3. Ofthose illustrated type (a),
incorporating a sharp cylinder-cone junction, is the easiest to manufacture
since it only involves the rolling of a plate between parallel rollers followed
by welding in the hoop and longitudinal directions. This simplicity in the
manufacture is partly lost when a knuckle radius is specified, to reduce the
stress concentration at the junction of the cylindrical and conical shells
(types (b) and (c)). In practice, the sharp junction is only acceptable if the
angle a is less than 30°. For larger values of this angle, or when fatigue
becomes a possible cause of failure, it is necessary to provide a transition
knuckle radius.
The results of a stress analysis, following the method of§ 7·4 for the sharp
junction problem, are summarized in Fig. 8·4. It is assumed that the cylindrical
shell is semi-infinite and that it is joined to a complete conical shell. The
validity of the analysis is therefore strictly restricted to long thin cylinders
joined to conical heads or long conical reducers, under internal pressure.
Furthermore the stress concentration effect of the sharp re-entrant corner
at the junction is not taken into account. Details of this analysis may be
seen in Ref. 8. A comparison of the predicted stress distribution with experi-
mental results (Ref. 9) shows that there is good correlation only in the region
away from the junction. In the vicinity of the junction, the predicted stresses
are always higher than their corresponding experimental values. This is
especially pronounced in the case of relatively thick vessels, with D/T of
the order of 25, where the experimental stress concentration factor may be
less than one-half of the theoretical value. Better agreement is obtained in
thinner vessels. For example, when D/T = 79, T/t = 1 and a = 30° the
predicted value of the stress concentration factor is about 2·5, while the
experimental value is 2·0. It is expected that even better agreement exists for
D/T> 100. The discrepancy between theory and experiments in the immediate
neighbourhood of the junction may be due to two causes: first to the obvious
limitation of the theory in assuming that the shells are infinitely thin; second,
to the impossibility of measuring point stresses in an experiment. However,
even in relatively thick vessels, the agreement between theory and experi-
ment is excellent, at a distance equal to or greater than one or two thicknesses
away from the intersection of the mid-surfaces of the conical and cylindrical
shells. Figure 8·4 can then be used to provide a substantially safe basis for
design.
When the pressure vessel is subjected to cyclic loading it becomes necessary
to avoid the sharp corner which exists on the inner surface of the intersection.
This is achieved by providing a radiused transition knuckle, as illustrated in
Fig. 8·3(b) and (c). The knuckle radius is usually taken as r = 0·06 D or 3 T
whichever is the largest. Provided that the knuckle radius does not exceed
this value, the analysis based on a sharp junction gives conservative results.
This may no longer be the case if too large a knuckle radius is selected, since
then the problem is no longer the junction of a conical and a cylindrical
shell but that of a conical to toroidal shell, which is then joined to a cylinder
(see Fig. 8·5). The method of analysis is then as described in Chapter 4 using
the influence coefficients for cylindrical, toroidal and conical shells. Since
the analysis has to be undertaken for each particular case, it is advisable to
have rules that will give some rough guidance as to the dimensioning of the
design. One such rule, based on Ref. 9 and in good agreement with German
~~/
(a) {b) ~
FIG. 8·5 Junction loads in true cylinder-cone junction and in toriconical
junction.
practice, is to take the thickness of the conical shell equal to the largest of:
-T- 3+
8cosoc
~ J( 1+--~,- 1 ))
5osoc
or -T-
cosoc
with the notation of Fig. 8·3(c). Tis the minimum required thickness of the
plain, cylindrical shell under internal pressure.
When the conical shell is used as a reducer, it must be noted that the
critical junction may be that of the conical shell with the cylinder of smallest
diameter. In general, this is only the case when the largest diameter junction
is radiused while the smallest diameter one is sharp. It is therefore good prac-
tice to provide both junctions with approximately the same knuckle radius.
8·3 HEMISPHERICAL HEADS
Large hemispherical heads are fabricated by welding pressed plate sections

in the shape of a crown and petals, or by forging. The first method is used in
the case of small diameter, thick heads. This type of head is perhaps the
most expensive but it is still widely used in heavy duty, high-pressure vessels
due to the fact that the most efficient use of the material is achieved.
All design Codes neglect the possible interaction between the cylindrical
and hemispherical shells and treat both as independent. This approach is
justified in the case of relatively thin vessels under internal pressure. In that
case, it has been shown in Chapter 6, Fig. 6·6, that the maximum stress in a
vessel with equal barrel and head thicknesses is only 3% higher than the
membrane hoop stress in the barrel. Watts and Lang (10) have shown that
the discontinuity stresses do not exceed the maximum membrane stress by
more than 4%, provided that the hemispherical shell thickness to cylindrical
shell thickness ratio is in the range 0·8-2·0. The same conclusion holds for
the usual case in which the head thickness is one-half of the cylindrical shell
thickness.
The general stress analysis has been discussed in Chapter 4, while the
influence coefficients for cylinders and spheres are given in Chapters 5 and 6.
This analysis is only applicable to thin shells. A similar treatment for thick
vessels, with a wall thickness to diameter ratio higher than -:fo, has not yet
been fully developed (see also § 6·1). There is, however, a large amount of
experimental information (see for instance Refs. 11, 12 and 13), from which
it appears that the maximum stresses due to internal pressure are not much
in excess of the maximum stress in the plain spherical or cylindrical sections
of the vessel. For the calculation of these stresses, the Lame equations
(Eqns. 5·5, 6·5) should be used.
8·4 TORISPHERICAL AND ELLIPSOIDAL HEADS (DISHED

OR DOMED ENDS)
Torispherical and ellipsoidal heads, sometimes known as dished or domed

ends, are those most commonly used in pressure vessels. The early design
incorporated a crown radius equal to the vessel diameter and a knuckle
radius equal to 6% of the vessel diameter. The occurrence of yielding at the
knuckle and the failure of some of these torispherical heads, led designers to
abandon this shape in favour of torispherical heads with larger knuckle
radius or, in some critical applications, true ellipsoidal heads. As illustrated
in Fig. 8·6, these heads are also used as reducers.
Torispherical heads with small knuckle radius are manufactured either by
pressing the plate with one set of dies of the appropriate shape, or by pressing
it first to the crown radius and finishing it by pressing again or spinning.
Depending on the head thickness, ellipsoidal and torispherical heads with
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
N::::~=2==t'
\
(g)
(f)
(h)
FIG. 8·6 Typical formed heads and transitions.
t/r o·Jo
0'75 to 2·00
j
m-2 t/T o·m
3
\_/
2•5
o·7'
2
1•5
c:;
- J-00
· ,, / ·nn
~ /•50
1
-
6
m=2·5 tfr o·Jn
--
~~ 5
~
b"-1
6-~ 4 v 0•75
II
>..; 3
-=----
1·nr
0 ~ 2•00
1•7'i
-
"2
2 ·'i(]
-
1
9 m= J2_
2b
8
~
7
m=3
,.,.... ~
6
/
5 /
/ ~
0·75
4 ~
/---
1~
~
1•2'i
3
...,...--
~
= J· 'in
?·OO
2 ~-
1
0 100 2()() 300
D
T
FIG. 8·7 Stress concentration factors in ellipsoidal heads.
large knuckle radius are manufactured by pressing, spinning, forging or

drawing a circular plate through a die. A wide range of ellipsoidal or almost
ellipsoidal heads, in which the major axis equals twice the minor axis (2 to 1
ellipsoidal head) is usually stocked by most manufacturers. This type of head
is to be used in preference to the torispherical head in which the knuckle
radius is only 6% of the vessel diameter. Several design Codes recognize the
unreliability of such heads by specifying a minimum knuckle radius of 10%
of the vessel diameter. Besides this limitation, the German Code (14) specifies
a maximum crown radius equal to the vessel diameter.
Ellipsoidal heads under internal pressure studied in § 7·6 have been
analysed and the stress distribution in a 2 to 1 ellipsoidal head has been
illustrated in Fig. 7·16. Kraus et a!. (15) have calculated the stresses in a
a number of heads and a summary of the published results is shown in
Fig. 8·7. These results are in good agreement with experimental data (Refs.
9, 12, 16). Figure 8·7 can also be applied to torispherical heads whose shape
is a good approximation to the true ellipsoidal shell.
8·5 TAPERED TRANSITION JOINTS
In the manufacture of pressure vessels, all joints between shell plates of

different thickness are tapered as shown in Fig. 8·8. For the stress analysis
!5° to 30°
~/&////~
FIG. 8·8 Tapered transition junction and approximate models for its analysis.
of such joints, it may sometimes be sufficient to assume that the two sections
of different thickness are joined without any taper. In this way, the structural
discontinuity stresses are obviously exaggerated. The transition section will
not only reduce the stress raising effect that would exist in the sharp step
between the two main sections, but will also reduce the structural discon-
tinuities. When the taper is symmetrical, the theory of shells of non-uniform
thickness may be applied. This, however, is seldom the case and it then
becomes advantageous to split the transition section into any number of unit
shells of uniform thickness, matching the edge displacements and rotations
(see Chapters 5 and 7).
It is seldom necessary to assess the discontinuity stresses in 1 to 4 tapered
transitions, and such stresses are implicitly neglected in most Codes. This has
been justified experimentally for circumferential joints in cylindrical shells
(Ref. 17). In these joints, the maximum longitudinal stress was always found
FIG. 8·9 Boiler drum with thickened-up region.
to be lower than the maximum nominal hoop stress in the thinnest section,
while the hoop stresses never exceeded that value.
Tapered longitudinal joints in boiler drums are often used, especially
when there are a large number of tubes on one side of the drum (Fig. 8·9).
High localized stresses may then occur, largely due to possible misalignments
(Ref. 18). A further problem in this case is the evaluation of the effect of the
perforations on the flexibility of the shell. This problem has not yet been
solved and is probably best approached empirically for each particular case
(Ref. 19).
8·6 REINFORCEMENT OF OPENINGS
One of the most important problems in pressure vessel design is that of the
adequate reinforcement of openings. A brief description of the methods
specified by several Codes was given in Chapter 3. In the following paragraphs

some additional experimental information and design curves will be presented.
8·6·1 Single Radial Nozzles: Internal Pressure

The elastic stress analysis of single radial openings reinforced by means of
nozzles-flush or protruding branches as shown in Fig. 8·10-subjected to
internal pressure, presents no difficulties in the case of spherical vessels. The
method is described in § 6·3·3. The only problem consists in establishing the
stress distribution in the immediate vicinity of the junction. This can be
(a)
(c) R (d)
(D/2)
FIG. 8·10 Typical nozzle reinforcements.
undertaken assuming either that the shells can be replaced by their mid-
surface, or that there exists a given distribution of forces and moments across
the shell thickness at the junction.
Experimental information on the stress distribution in reinforced radial
openings in spherical vessels may be found in Refs. 20, 21 and 22, amongst
many other publications. It is found that there is good agreement between
experimental results and simplified theoretical analysis, such as the one
published by Rose and Thompson (23) and based on the work of Eslinger. In
this analysis, the shells are replaced by their mid-surfaces. Better agreement
is achieved using Langer's asymptotic solutions. The agreement between
theory and experiments is excellent away from the junction, both in the actual
vessel shell and in the reinforcing branch. Near the junction, the theory
predicts high bending stresses in the branch that are not, in fact, found in
practice. This shortcoming of the theory is due to the replacement of the
shells by their mid-surfaces at the junction.
In addition to the structural distribution of forces and moments at the
junction, another source of divergence between theory and experiment is the
stress-raising effect of sharp corners. (Some stress concentration factors are
given in Chapter 12, and reference is made to the results published by Peter-
son). A method of applying these results to shells is suggested in § 6·4·3.
From photoelastic models, it appears that the order of magnitude of this
effect can be assessed by the expression
True s.c.F.~Theoretical S.C.F. X (rofn-O·l
where S.C.F. = stress concentration factor or ratio between the maximum
stress and the nominal hoop stress in the unpierced shell, and r 0 and Tare as
defined in Fig. 8·10(d). Peak stresses, usually highly localized around the
stress raiser, may have some bearing on the pressure vessel performance
when this is subjected to cyclic loading. It is, however, questionable that they
alone will ever be sufficient to cause a failure and there is a general tendency
to neglect them. Smooth transitions, with radius equal to about one-third of
the shell thickness, are often provided. It must be pointed out that a larger
radius causes an increase in the effective diameter of the opening, increasing
the structural discontinuity stresses even while decreasing those due to the
corner. In such a nozzle, fatigue damage would be minimized but the margin
of safety against failure due to bursting during the first pressurization would
be reduced.
Figures 8·11 and 8·12 {after Ref. 24) show design curves for radial nozzles
in spherical vessels. In these diagrams, the stress concentration factors have
been calculated in terms of the maximum stress in the sphere, neglecting the
high bending stresses predicted by the theory for the branch. Only the struc-
tural discontinuity has been taken into account. In addition to the limitation
of the maximum S.C.F. to 2-3, the designer must bear in mind the following:
(a) It is advisable to use 'balanced' reinforcement, on the inside and out-
side of the vessel shell.
(b) The reinforcement should be concentrated in the neighbourhood of the
opening.
(c) The provision of large transition radii, to avoid the stress-raising effect
of sharp corners, is not essential and may prove a dangerous practice if too
large a radius is selected.
o·oJ o·oJ o·o5 o·o1 o· 1 1·0 10
P=t~
FIG. 8·11 Stress concentration factor in flush nozzle reinforced openings in
spherical shells (Ref. 24).
I/;
10
J~k Iv
~ 11 ~
8
~12~
b
6
vv ~/v
II
tt:
0 \;)
c-5 4
v
2
O:OI
- =----
_-----::::t:::::v v ~
o·oJ o·o5 o·o1 o·J
r:- -
,......,.
1--
10
P= t}!i
FIG. 8·12 Stress concentration factor in protruding nozzle reinforced
openings in spherical shells (Ref. 24).
(d) Pads, welded to the vessel shell and to the branch, are often used as
being a cheap method of providing a reinforcement. The minimum diameter
of the pad is usually 11--2 times the diameter of the opening. High thermal
stresses are often induced due to the poor heat transmission coefficient
between shell plate and pad. In addition, the stress-raising effect of the weld
fillets may initiate cracking under cyclic loading.
I
~~~ I v/_
v
10
//
8
r~·
!!~
11..._
D
v
b~
..;
6
y
G
t-:i ~ v
v
/
--
4
t /T=" 0 ~ ~
v ~
2
0
o·o1 o·oJ o·o5 o·o7 o·1 10
P=d/JE
D~ll
FIG. 8·13 Approximate stress concentration factors in flush nozzle reinforced
openings in cylindrical shells.
(e) The minimum height of local thickening in nozzles of the type shown
in Fig. 8·10(d) should be
and for the effective height of reinforcement,
(f) Rim reinforcements, of the type shown in Fig. 3·6, are likely to be the
most efficient. Their analysis can be undertaken following the general methods
of Chapters 4 et seq., dividing the rim into any number of elementary cylinders.
If the nozzle is attached to the vessel by part penetration welds, the welds
must be dimensioned to carry the loads shown in Fig. 6·9. See also Chapter 3
for the limits of reinforcement.
At present the theoretical stress analysis of reinforced radial openings in

cylindrical vessels is not practicable. Approximate methods of analysis
assuming that the cylindrical shell in the neighbourhood of the hole can be
approximated by a flat plate, have been proposed by several authors (Ref. 25).
Other methods are semi-empirical (Ref. 26) and a large number of experi-
mental results has also been published (for example, Refs. 18, 20, 26-30).
These results are in poor agreement with the theoretical predictions. In some
cases large variations in the measured stress distribution have been recorded
for nominally identical nozzles. Similar variations have also been observed
between photoelastic and 'hard' models. The general trend of the experi-
mental results is given in Fig. 8·13. It must be emphasized that this diagram
only reflects a trend, and large variations in the S.C.F. of about ±20% may
be expected. The similarity between Figs. 8·11, 8·12 and 8·13 partly justifies
the method of design proposed by the B. W.R.A. In this method, it is assumed
that the stress concentration factor is a function of djt, D/T and dj D and is
the same for both cylindrical and spherical shells.
Contoured openings, of the type shown in Fig. 8·10(c), present some un-
explained variations in the stress distribution. In general, the stress concen-
tration factor increases the further the reinforcement is from the junction.
In addition, it is essential in these openings to avoid the possibility of reduc-
ing the thickness during the hot-forming operation.
Finally, compact rim reinforcements, approximately symmetrical with
respect to the mid-surface of the shell and of cross-sectional area A, may be
taken to be roughly equivalent to flush-nozzle reinforcements of thickness:
A2)t/3
t = 0·9 ( - (8·1)
r
where r is the mean radius of the equivalent nozzle reinforcement. This rule
provides a means for the dimensioning of a preliminary design. Assuming
that the required S.C.F. is 2·5 and that p = 1·0, from Fig. 8·11, t/T = 1·0.
If the shell thickness is 1 in and the bore of the opening is 9 in, 2r = 10 in,
t = 1 in. The area of an equivalent rim reinforcement would then be, from
Eqn. 8·1,
A rim reinforcement of a given contour and this cross-sectional area should

then be selected and analysed as described under (f) above.
8·6·2 Single Oblique Nozzles: Internal Pressure

Oblique nozzles in spherical and cylindrical vessels are usually approximated
for their stress analysis to rim reinforced elliptical openings in flat plates under
plane stress. It is clear that the first limitation of this analysis is that the
curvature of the shell must be small with respect to the bore of the opening.
A second limitation of the model is that only the direct stresses can be
estimated (Ref. 31). A design method, based on this approximate analysis,
has been proposed by Hicks (Ref. 32) and by Rose et a/. (Ref. 33). For the
application of these approximate methods, the effect of hydrostatic thrust in
the nozzle must be considered.
The inherent limitations of such approximate analysis are apparent in the
case of unreinforced openings. It is known that the maximum stress in a
flat plate with an elliptical hole of semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b,
under the plane stress system a 1 , a 2 is O'max = a 1 (1+2a/b)-a 2 •
When 0'1 = 0'2 = O'nominal
a
O'max = O'nomimal X 2b (8·2)
When
(8·3)
Equation 8·2 could be used to predict the maximum stress in a spherical shell.
We see that for radial openings (a = b) the stress concentration factor thus
obtained is 2·0. Similarly, Eqn. 8·3 could be applied to cylindrical shells, for
which the stress concentration factor would be 2·5. Comparing these values
with the curves of Figs. 8·11 and 8·13, we see that the approximation of the
shell to a flat plate is acceptable only when pis less than, say, 0·2. For rela-
tively thin vessels, with D/T = 200, this corresponds to a hole of bore not
larger than four times the shell thickness. For a thick vessel, D/T = 20, and
the maximum bore would be about 1·2 times the shell thickness. For larger
openings or, in general, higher values of the parameter p, the flat plate
approximation can no longer be used. Although this conclusion is based on
radial openings, it can obviously be extended to elliptical openings.
From the limited available information (Refs. 20, 33, 34) it appears that
Eqns. 8·2 and 8·3 can be used to assess the magnitude of the direct stresses
in oblique reinforced openings of relatively small bore. Naturally, they do
not provide any information as to the amount of reinforcement that is
required to bring the maximum stress down to a specified level. They also
fail to give an assessment of the bending stresses at the junction of shell
and reinforcement.
If ex is the angle between the centre line of the opening penetration (flush
or protruding nozzle, rim, etc.) and the radius,

a 1
b COSIX
the stress concentration factor in an opening of obliquity oc may be taken to be

1
(S.C.F.) = (S.C.F.)radial X- (8.4)
COS IX
This approximate empirical rule is justified when the obliquity does not
exceed 45°. In this equation the radial stress concentration factor may be
estimated from Figs. 8·11-8·13. In general, it is found that the meridional
stresses increase more quickly than hoop stresses when the obliquity increases.
At 45°, the meridional and hoop stresses are approximately equal. For more
oblique nozzles, the meridional bending stresses, specially in the acute section,
exceed the values predicted from Eqn. 8·4.
8·6·3 Multiple Openings

It is often found in pressure vessels that several openings are grouped together
over a comparatively small region. The problem then arises of determining
the effect of the interaction between openings on the stress distribution.
This interaction will obviously depend on the distance between the centre
lines of each pair of openings, or pitch. It will be negligible when the pitch
becomes sufficiently large, in which case each opening can be treated as
isolated.
When only two openings are present, the results of§ 6·3·2 show that there
will be negligible interaction between the openings if P¢y'2;::::: 4, where P is
the flexibility characteristic of the vessel and ¢ the angle between the edges
of the opening. The criterion can be expressed in the form,
f-d;::::3·ly'(shell thickness x shell diameter) (8·5)
where f = pitch and d = average diameter of the openings.

This criterion is used by the German Code (35), in which the factor 3·1 is
replaced by 3. Mershon (20) suggests that the interaction between two open-
ings is virtually negligible when
f-d;::::0·86y'(shell thickness x shell diameter)
A common design criterion is to accept that interaction is negligible when

f;:=::2·5d
The latter two criteria, in the case examined by Mershon, gave roughly the
same result. By comparison with Eqn. 8·5, the last criterion is acceptable if
d;::,2J(shell thickness x shell diameter)
It has been shown (36) that the stress distribution in perforated shells
with multiple unreinforced openings arranged in a regular pattern may be
predicted from flat-plate results. A comprehensive chart has been prepared
by Coults and Snell (36), giving the maximum stress concentration factors
for a large number of configurations. This information, unfortunately, is not
applicable to the conventional pressure vessels, where the openings are
reinforced by means of a nozzle, a rim or a pad. The effect of the reinforce-
ment is obviously to reduce the stress concentration factor, increasing at the
same time the rigidity of the perforated shell. As a result, the edge loads set
up by discontinuity effects are increased. Although experimental data on the
flexibility and maximum stresses in such shells has been published (see for
example Refs. 37, 38, 39), it is not possible at present to establish any general
design rules, which remain based on past practice.
d
~I:_ I Nozzle.
I
I
i ar~a
1\ i
I ~Shell~ !
~ i area I ~T
~ I
I
i ~
Ii I
~.
i
!
f
L f .. I
Effective area = Shell area + f Nozzle area

FIG. 8·14 Compensation of multiple openings.
At present, the design of pressure vessels with multiple openings is based

on the area replacement method (see § 3·4·2). The resulting design rule may
be expressed as follows:
. 3fPD
Effective area ~ 4Y y (8·6)
In this expression, P = internal pressure, D = mean shell diameter, Y = yield

point andy is defined in § 3·4·2.
It is recommended to take the effective area as defined in Fig. 8·14. This
assumes that the reinforcement provided by the nozzle is not as efficient as
the one provided by a uniform shell thickening.
8·6·4 Flued Openings and Flared Nozzles

Flued openings are traditionally used for elliptical manholes in boiler drums
and other vessels. They are also used in circular manholes. Flared nozzles
are frequently used when radiographic inspection of the weld is specified.
The general method of fabrication involves the trepanning of the opening
followed by forging to the required shape. The fabrication process is relatively
simple and inexpensive, but it is not possible to reproduce the required shape
with the accuracy required for heavy duty vessels. As a result, a stress
analysis, possible for the circular openings in spherical shells, only gives an
approximate indication of the maximum stress concentration factor (see for
instance Refs. 16, 20, 40). Furthermore, the standardization of the large
number of experimental results and the parametric classification of tests are
not possible due to the large number of variables involved. As a result, the
design of these openings can only be based on past practice, as represented by
the various design Codes.
8·7 SPECIAL METHODS FOR THE DESIGN OF

REINFORCED OPENINGS
The B.W.R.A. in Britain and Soete eta/. in Belgium have suggested that the
design may be based on fatigue data, obtained from cyclic pressure tests.
In Soete's experiments, the aim is to obtain the nominal design stress required
to produce failure after 100,000 cycles. This stress, defined as the membrane
stress in the pressurized, unpierced shell, is a function of the configuration
of the opening, its relative size, etc. Based on experimental results, it may be
possible to prepare design curves for the determination of the design stress
for each type of opening. It appears that pad reinforcements cause a reduc-
tion in life of 30%, with respect to the fatigue life of the unpierced vessel;
flush nozzles only cause a reduction of 15% and protruding nozzles about
10%.
The limit analysis methods, discussed in Chapter 11, have recently been
applied to the study of radial nozzles in spheres (Refs. 41, 42) and in cylinders
(Ref. 43). As pointed out in Chapter 10, limit analysis constitutes the only
rational basis for the design of vessels subjected to static loading. It may also
be relevant to the prevention of incremental collapse. As a result, it is apparent
that the extension oflimit analysis to reinforced openings is a most promising
development. At present, there is some published experimental confirmation
of the results published by Lind and Gill for spherical vessels (Refs. 44, 45)
and by Hodge for cylinders. Gill's results may be presented in the same
form as Fig. 8·11 et seq. in Fig. 8·15. In this diagram,
p* = p ultimate
pyielding
is defined as the ratio between the pressure causing plastic collapse (hinge
circles in nozzle, shell and junction) and the pressure causing yielding in the
thin, unpierced shell
4TY
p)'ielding
D
I I I
-
J!}
1"0 I"=-
~
0'9
"~ ~
o·s '\
~ ['._ 1/r =1'0
\ l\'\ ""'<.'
0"7
*1:1.. o·6
o·s ~
o1 f'\\ ~ !'...
~""'\_o·s
"
0•4
o·J o./i\. '\.
'\' l\
0"2
o·J
0
o·oJ o·oJ o·os o·o1 o·Jo 10
p=tffr
FIG. 8·15 Plastic collapse of radial nozzles in spherical vessels.
REFERENCES

2. A.S.M.E. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Unfired
Pressure Vessels, (1959).
3. A.D.-MERKBLATTER B5, Ebene Boden und Platten nebst Verankerungen
(1954).
4. KENNY B., MooRE G. G. & DuNCAN J.P. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 5 (1963) 1.
5. DUNCAN J. P. & TAYLOR J. E. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 4 (1962) 143.
6. ZAID M. & FoRRAY M. 'Deformation and Moments in Elastically
Restrained Circular Plates under Arbitrary Load or Linear Thermal
Gradient', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 59-A-39.
7. WATTS G. W. & LANG H. A. 'The Stresses in a Pressure Vessel with a
Flat Head Closure', Pressure Vessel and Piping Design: Collected Papers
(A.S.M.E., 1960).
8. WATTS G. W. & LANG H. A. 'Stresses in a Pressure Vessel with a
Conical Head', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
9. 'Report on the Design of Pressure Vessel Heads', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
10. WATTS G. W. & LANG H. A. 'The Stresses in a Pressure Vessel with a
Hemispherical Head', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
11. FESSLER H. & LAKSHMINARAYA 'Stresses in Hemispherical Drum Heads',
Symposium on Pressure Vessel Research Towards Better Design (I.Mech.E.,
1962).
12. FESSLER H. & RosER. T. Proc. I. Mech. E. 171 (1957) 633.
13. DALLY J. W. & SCHNEIDER G. T. Welding J. (Res. Supp.), 43 (1964) 461s.
14. A.D.-MERKBLATTER B3, Wanddicke gewolbter Boden (1952).
15. KRAUS H., BILODEAU G. G. & LANGER B. F. 'Stresses in Thin-Walled
Pressure Vessels with Ellipsoidal Heads', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 60-SA-12.
16. SCHOESSOW G. J. & BROOKS E. A. 'Analysis of Experimental Data
Regarding Certain Design Features of Pressure Vessels', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
17. RODABAUGH E. C. & ATTERBURY T. J. 'Stresses in Tapered Transition
Joints in Pipelines and Pressure Vessels', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 61-WA-
117.
18. BERMAN J. & PAID. H. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 41 (1962) 307s.
19. DALLY J. W. & DURELLI A. J. Proc. S.E.S.A., 117 (1962) 71.
20. MERSHON J. L. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 77, 1962.
21. TAYLOR C. E., LIND N.C. & SCHWEIKER J. W. Welding Research Council
Bulletin No. 51, 1959.
22. BABCOCK & WILCOX Co. LTD., Reports 1/61/24 (146/1620) Hinkley Point
Reactor Vessel-Pressure Test.
23. RosE R. T. & THOMPSON J. M. 'Calculated Stress Concentration for
Nozzles in Spherical Pressure Vessels', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
24. LECKIE F. A. & PENNY R. K. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 90,
1963.
25. WATERS E. 0. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 51, 1959.
26. WELLS, A. A., LANE P. H. R. & RosER. T. 'Stress Analysis of Nozzles
in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
27. SoETE W., HEBRANT F., DECHAENE R. & HEIRMAN J. 'Pressure Vessel
Research in Belgium', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
28. HANDENBERGH D. E., ZAMRICK S. Y. & EDMONSON A. J. Welding Re-

search Council Bulletin No. 89, 1963.
29. BERT C. W. & ATTERBURY T. J. Welding J. (Res. Supp.), 41 (1962) 265s.
30. WINN L. Konstruktion 12 (1960) 368.
31. INGLIS C. E. Trans. I. Nav. Arch. 55 (1913) 219.
32. HICKS R. Brit. Welding J. 5 (1958) 130.
33. RosE R. T. et a!., 'Stresses at Oblique Nozzles in Spherical Pressure
Vessels', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
34. FLORIN B. 'Maximum Stresses with Skew Tube Entries into Spherical
Vessels for Nuclear Reactors', C.E.G.B. translation, Central Information
Service.
35. A.D.-MERKBLATTER B9, Ausschnitte in Zylindern, Kegeln und Hugeln
unter Innendruck.
36. CouLTS J. A. & SNELL C. 'Photoelastic Determination of the Stress
Distribution in Boiler-Drum Tube Plates', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
37. HARDENBERGH D. E. Exp. Mech. 1 (1961) 152.
38. CHIPMAN R. D. & MAHLMEISTER J. E. Proc. S.E.S.A. 19 (1961) 257.
39. TOWNLEY C. H. A., PROCTOR E. & GADD B. W. 'Tests Beyond Yield on
a Spherical Pressure Vessel Containing a Series of Oblique Nozzles',
App. Mech. Conv. (I.Mech.E., 1964).
40. CARLSON W. B. & McKEAN J. D. Proc. l. Mech. E. 169 (1955) 269.
51. GILLS. S. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 6 (1964) 105.
42. LIND N. C. 'Plastic Analysis of Radial Outlets from Spherical Pressure
Vessels', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 63-Pet-2.
43. HoDGE P. G. 'Full Strength Reinforcement in a Cylindrical Shell',
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 64-APM-41.
44. DINNO K. S. & GILLS. S. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 7 (1965) 817.
45. CLOUD R. L. Nuclear Structural Engineering 1 (1965) 403.
9 Stress Analysis of Piping Systems
9·0 INTRODUCTION
I equipment,
N most industrial plants there are a number of pressure vessels, or other
connected by a piping system used to convey fluids from one stage
of the process to the next. For example the turbine in a power station is
connected to the steam circuit from the boiler and to the feedwater, to the
condenser and to the cooling tower system. The previous chapters have
described methods of analysis for the types of shells used in pressure vessels
and the current chapter covers similar ground for the piping system.
The loads to which the pipe is subjected are the same as those applied to
the pressure vessels, namely pressure, weight, temperature variations, wind
etc. However, there is a major difference between the effects of a temperature
rise in vessels and piping. This comes about because vessel supports and
attachments are usually designed in such a way that relatively little restriction
is placed upon the expansion of the vessel. Under these circumstances thermal
stresses arise as a result of variations about the new temperature level and are
not directly dependent upon the magnitude of the overall temperature rise.
In contrast to this the piping is normally attached to several items of plant
which are not free to move relative to one another, and consequently the
free expansion of the pipe is restricted. Since this expansion is primarily
dependent upon the temperature level, the thermal stresses are directly
dependent upon the temperature rise that has taken place. These stresses are
caused by the action of the forces required to restrain the free expansion, so
one of the main objectives in piping design is to reduce the magnitude of these
forces. This is usually achieved by introducing additional runs of pipe, or
'expansion joints', which increase the flexibility of the system.
The pipe usually consists of seamless or welded tube of circular cylindrical
form, but a typical run contains bends and other local components as well
as straight lengths of constant cross-section. The bends can be of several
different types, the most common being smooth bends, lobster back bends
and mitred corners. The main factors governing the choice of bends are
availability, cost, flexibility requirements, space available and the permissible
pressure drop in the system. Generally the same considerations apply to all
M 341
the bends in the system, but occasionally bends of different types are used
in the same run. Other local components frequently required are conical
reducers which act as transition pieces between pipes with different diameters,
and T and Y junctions which are used where the pipe branches. In addition
to the above components there are three items of equipment used in piping
systems which are of major importance; these are pumps, valves and expan-
sion joints referred to above. The design of these specialized items is not
considered here since it is outside the scope of this book. They are mentioned
because one of the most important conditions of loading to which they are
subjected is the action of the forces in the pipe due to the restrained expansion.
Considerable attention has been paid to calculating the stresses in piping
systems and there are several approaches, graphical and analytical, and all
approximate to a greater or lesser degree. Probably the most well known
and comprehensive treatment is that contained in Ref. 1, which covers most
aspects of piping design in great detail and also includes an extensive biblio-
graphy of the subject. Matrix notation is not used in Ref. I and as a result
it is somewhat difficult to obtain an overall picture of the problem.
The pipe stressing problem is particularly suited to computer solution
because of the repetitive nature of the calculations, and several computer
manufacturers have written programmes which perform most of the calcu-
lations described in this chapter.
All methods of analysis in common use are based on the assumption that
plane cross-sections of a straight pipe remain plane after bending and make
no reference to the results described in the previous chapters. However, it
has been recognized for a long time that deformation of the cross-section
occurs in bends and much of the work on piping systems has been devoted
to obtaining the effect of end loads on these components. This chapter is not
concerned with this work which is described in Chapter 16.
The inaccuracy of the beam bending assumption for the straight pipe
depends upon the ratios of thickness and length to pipe radius and is at
present ignored. Clearly, further work is required in this area. It is strongly
recommended that the methods of the previous chapters be used to calculate
the stresses in the pipe when local bending is expected-e.g. at the intersection
of pipe and vessel-once the restraining forces have been found using the
methods described in the remaining sections of this chapter.
The general pipe run follows a complex three-dimensional path, has many
branches and terminal points, and is analysed in the following pages. As an
introduction to the general case consider the two-dimensional single run
shown in Fig. 9·1. P 1 and P 2 are the points where the pipe joins the pressure
vessels, or other terminal structures, and the pipe consists of straight lengths
and bends which lie wholly in the plane OXY. If the temperature of the pipe
is increased and the pipe is disconnected from the anchor at P2 , the move-
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 343
ment at P2 relative to P 1 is 15 X parallel to 0 X and 15 Y parallel to 0 Y. The

movements of point P 1 on anchor 1 are !5X1 , 15 Y1 due to the temperature
rise within the anchor, and the movements of anchor 2 at P 2 are similarly !5X2 ,
Fy2
y
"""'----k Fx2
p 5Y + 5Jii
P.'2
Original P.-f-........
2 _ _ _ __.
---f
position SX + 5X1
Original position
0~---------------------------------------x
FIG. 9·1 Two-dimensional single run.
() Y2 • Thus if the pipe is attached to anchor 1 at P 1 and free at P 2 , the total

movements at P 2 relative to anchor 2 are ()X +DX1 -c5X2 , c5 Y +c5 Y1 -c5 Y 2 •
Since the pipe is in fact attached to anchor 2 at P 2 , these relative expansions
are prevented by the restraining forces Fx 2 , Fy 2 , M 2 and the balancing
forces at P 1 • These end loads produce forces Fx, Fy, Mat the general point
of the pipe and the total stress in the pipe is due to the combined action of
these forces, pressure, weight, etc. Normally the thickness of the pipe is
decided from a consideration of the pressure stress alone, and if the other
effects produce unacceptable stresses the pipe layout is modified until
acceptable stress levels are obtained.
The bending moment at the general point of the pipe is given by the
expression
M = (Y- Y 2 )Fx 2 -(X-X2 )Fyz+M2
so the moment is zero along the line
Y = (Y2 Fx 2 -X2 Fy 2 -M2 )/Fxz +XFy 2 /Fx 2
and this is known as the thrust line for the system under the loads producing
these end reactions. This terminology is used because the end reactions are
statically equivalent to a force of magnitude .J(F} 2 +Ff2 ) acting along the
thrust line. The bending moment can now be expressed as
M = .J(Fi:2 +F~ 2 ) xp
where p is the perpendicular distance from the thrust line to the point on the
pipe. It is clear from this expression that the points of maximum bending
moment will be those whose distance from the thrust line is greatest. If it is
necessary to modify the layout to reduce the restraining forces, the most
effective way of achieving this is to introduce expansion joints or additional
runs of pipe perpendicular to the thrust line for the unacceptable system.
9·1 SINGLE RUN OF PIPE
A single run of pipe is a series of straight lengths and bends connecting two
anchors without branching en route. The anchors are the pressure vessels or
structures which terminate the pipe and may be flexible or rigid in compari-
son with the pipe; more often the latter, hence the terminology.
As a result of the beam bending assumption we may regard the pipe as a
curve, such as that shown in Fig. 9·2 with terminal points P 1 and P2 • 0 is the
origin of any convenient co-ordinate system XYZ. The forces and deflections
at the general point P of the pipe, can be written in vector form as F and D,
where
F' = [F xFyFzMxMyMz]; D' = [bxbybzXxXYXz]
and Dis the deflection of P relative to P 1 • The total deflection at P relative to
P 1 is the sum of the deflection due to the action of the restraining forces
at P 2 and the deflection brought about by the loading on the pipe when P 2
is unrestrained, say D 1 •
When the only loading on the pipe is the restraining force F 2 , the deflec-
tions at P will depend solely on the corresponding value of F and the pro-
perties of the pipe between P 1 and P. Since we are assuming the deflections
to be small this dependence is linear and we may write
(9·1)
and in particular
(9·2)
where A and A2 are flexibility matrices whose elements are as yet undefined.
The absolute deflections of the anchors may similarly be written
Di = A~F2 +Di 1 ; Di = AiF2 +Di 1
The absolute movement of P 2 is D 2 plus the effects at P 2 of the anchor

movement D!. The displacement at P 2 due to D~ is a combination of a
movement of translation and a movement due to the bodily rotation of the
pipe and may be expressed as U' 12 D~, where U' 12 will be defined later.
Hence, the absolute movement of P 2 is D 2 + U' 12 D! and this must be equal
to D~.
[A 2 -(Ai- U~ 2 Ai)] F2 = D~\- U~ 2 Di 1 -D 21 (9·3)
is a set of six simultaneous equations for the restraining forces in terms of the
properties of the pipe and the unrestrained deflections. When the anchors
y
Pz=Q,.
FIG. 9·2 General single run.
are rigid in comparison with the pipe, A! and A! are put equal to zero.
Sometimes the pipe is guided through a partial restraint at an anchor, e.g.
there is no restraint parallel to one of the axes. In these circumstances the
relevant forces are known to be zero and the appropriate equations contained
in 9· 3 are deleted.
In the following sections the values of the coefficients in the flexibility
matrix are determined by evaluating the strain energy of the pipe.
Consider a section of pipe between points P; and Pi (Fig. 9·2) which has
acting upon it at Pi forces Fi and at P; equilibrating forces - F;. It can be
easily verified that
F Xi F Xi; Fy; = FYi; Fz; = Fzi
Mx; = (Z;-Zi)Fyi-(Yi- Y)Fzi+Mxi
My; -(Z;-Z)F xj+(X;-X)Fzi+MYi
Mz; (Yi- Yj)F Xi-(X;-Xj)FYi+Mzi
These equations may be written in matrix form as

F; = UiiFi (9·4)
fi]
where
Z; -
0 X;
-X; 0
Here I and 0 are respectively the 3 x 3 identity and null matrices. Note
that Vii is a transformation matrix for which ViiVik = V;k and that
V;iVii = U;; = I (6 x 6 identity matrix).
Suppose now that there are no forces acting on the pipe, but that P; is
moved through D;; it can be seen that for small deflections the movements
at Pi are given by
(9·5)
Reverting now to the pipe run P 1P 2 and applying the above formulae, the
force at the general point of the pipe is
(9·6)
Now let Ptnb be a right-handed system of axes, with t tangent to the pipe in
the direction P 1P and n normal to the curve and passing through the centre
of curvature of the pipe at P. The directions of these axes are related to those
of the reference system OXYZ by the scheme of direction cosines:
t n b
X ll lz 13
y ml mz m3
z nl nz n3
In this scheme /1 is the cosine of the angle between Pt and 0 X, etc. Writing
L
11
[ m1
lz
m2
l3l
m3
nl nz n3
and resolving the forces F into the forces N, where
N' = [F1FnFbMtMnMb]
we obtain
N = [:' :,] F; F = [: :] N (9·7)
We shall now evaluate the strain energy of the pipe and use Castigliano's
theorem to obtain the deflections at P2 relative to P 1 • It is customary to
ignore the energies of extension and shear in comparison with those of
bending and twisting and this approximation is made here; there is no diffi-
culty in principle and the approximation is made to shorten the time required
for calculation. It is important to note the limitations imposed by this
approximation, namely that the results are valid only if the principal cause
of flexibility is the length of pipe subjected to bending or torsion. Thus the
results are inapplicable to a straight length restrained against movement in
the direction of the pipe. With this approximation the strain energy of the
pipe is given by
where I is the second moment of area of the pipe cross-section about a

diameter parallel to Pb; and k 1 , k 2 , k 3 are flexibility factors which allow for
the effects of cross-section distortion in bends and for the different energies
of bending and twisting, and also for cross-sectional shape if it is not circular.
A discussion of the derivation and values of these factors is included in
Chapter 16; see also §§ 9·2·2 and 9·2·3.
Writing
:J
0
and using Eqns. 9·6 and 9·7,

K
[~' kz
0
k 1 M'f+k 2 M:+k 3 M; =
[: :] N
F 2, U'02 [T'LKL'T
LKL'T
The displacements of P 2 relative to P 1 due to the forces F 2 are given by
oWfoFx2 , •• •, oWfoMx2 , •• •, etc., so carrying out the differentiations and
then integrating we obtain for the flexibility matrix
(9·8)
where
T'LKL'T T'LKL']
Ao = [a;J = [
LKL'T LKL'
Thus the total deflection of P 2 relative to P 1 is given by
D2 = U~2AoUo2F2+D21
The form of this equation has led to the concept of forces and deflections at
the origin end of a rigid link joining 0 and P 2 • Supposing such a link to exist
and the deflection and force at 0 to be D 0 and F 0 , we have from Eqns.
9·4 and 9·5 D 0 = U~ 0 D 2 and F 0 = U 02 F 2, so
D 0 = A 0 F 0 +U~oD21
Ifthe anchors are rigid Eqn. 9·3 becomes
AoFo
and Eqn. 9·6 gives
F = Up 0 F 0
The coefficients of A2 involve two 6 x 6; 6 x 6 multiplications after the co-
efficients of A0 have been calculated, whereas the equations for F 0 in the
case where the anchors are rigid can be set up with only one 6 x 6; 6 x 1
multiplication. Thus when the anchors are rigid the time required for cal-
culation can be shortened by using the rigid link concept.
The elements of the flexibility matrix are therefore determined by Eqn. 9·8
in terms of the geometry of the pipeline referred to the axes 0 XYZ. The
expressions for the elements aii are obtained by expanding LKL', etc., and
are given in § 9·2. In most practical cases, the pipe run is built up from com-
ponents such as straight lengths and bends and it is convenient to carry out
the integration from P 1 to P 2 by separately evaluating the integrals over the
lengths of the various components and summing the results.
Suppose that Q, r = 1, ... , n are points along the pipe which terminate
these components, then Q1 and Qn are the same points as P 1 and P 2 ; for
example Q1 Q2 might be a straight length parallel to OX, Q2 Q3 a circular
bend in the XYplane, Q3 Q4 a straight length parallel to 0 Y, etc. Choose local
axes Q,xyz lying along tnb at Q, and let the value of L at Q, be L,. Then the
value of L at a general point between Q, and Q,+ 1 may be written
L = L,L
where L is the matrix of direction cosines relating tnb at the general point
to xyz. Now
and it can be shown that

T = T,+L,TL;
where T has the same form as T but contains xyz in place of XYZ. Substitut-
ing these values for T and L into the expression for [au]
[au]= w;[bii]W,
where [b;j] has the same form as [au] but contains T and Lin place ofT and
Land
Since [b;j] has the same form as [aii] the values of the elements bu can be
obtained from those given for aii in § 9·2, by substituting local geometric
Qr+l
parameters in place of the general ones. Writing f [EI

hu] ds [ Bii]. the
Q,
value of the flexibility matrix is given by
n-1
Az = u~2 ( L1 w;[B;j]. W,) Uo2 (9·9)
Note that this can be rewritten as
A2 = L
n-1
U(r+1)2
[L' (9·10)
1 0
In this equation [ CiiJr = u; (r + 1) [ Bii]. U, (r + 1) is the local flexibility matrix

of the component giving the displacements and rotations of Q,+ 1 relative to
Q, in the directions xyz, in terms of unit forces and moments acting parallel
to xyz at Q, + 1 • The diagonal matrices involving L, and L; resolve these
deflections and forces parallel to 0 XYZ, pre-multiplication by U(,+ 1>2
modifies the deflections to include the rigid body movement of the pipe
M*
between Q,+ 1 and p2 and post-multiplication by u(r+ 1)2 modifies the forces
to allow for the fact that the loads are applied at P 2 •
The coefficients of A2 can be calculated using any of Eqns. 9·8, 9·9 or
9·10; 9·9 requires fewer operations than either of the others but 9·10 has the
advantage than it is easier to visualize the meaning of the elements, whilst
9·8 requires only one co-ordinate system.
Finally it is useful to observe how to calculate the new flexibility matrix
if a length of pipe is added to a run for which the flexibilities are already
known. If A3 is the matrix for P 1P 3 , and this run is extended by a length
P3 P2 , the value of the force acting at P 3 when F 2 is applied at P2 is U 32F 2
and this produces a deflection at P 2 of amount u; 2 A3 U 32 F 2 due to flexing
of the length P 1P 3 • To this must be added the deflection of the length P 3 P 2 ,
so A2 = U; 2 A3 U 32 +A 23 where A23 is the flexibility of the run P 3 P2 calcu-
lated on the basis that P 3 is the start of the run.
9·2 ELEMENTS OF THE FLEXIBILITY MATRIX
It was shown in the previous section that the elements of the flexibility
matrix for a single run can be calculated when the values of the quantities
aii or bii are known; and that
[au] = [T'LKL'T T'LKL'] (9·11)

LKL'T LKL'
The form of the expressions for [b;i] is exactly the same but involves local
co-ordinates in place of the general ones. Therefore, the following formulae
yield the values of bii if xyz are substituted for XYZ and local direction
cosines are used in place of /1 , etc.
Note that K' = K and therefore that aii = au· Using the definitions of
T, L and K and expanding the right-hand side of Eqn. 9·11
a 11 =L 33 Y 2 -2L23 YZ+L 22 Z 2
a 12 = Y(L 13 Z-L 33 X)-Z(L 12 Z-L23 X)
a 13 = Y(L 23 X -L 13 Y)-Z(L 22 X -L 12 Y)
a 14 =L 13 Y-L 12 Z; a 15 =L23 Y-L 22 Z; a 16 =L 33 Y-L 23 Z
a 22 = L 11 Z 2 -2L 13 ZX +L 33 X 2
a 23 = Z(L 12 X -L 11 Y)-X(L 23 X -L 13 Y)
a 24 = L 11 Z-L 13 X; a25 = L 12 Z-L 23 X; a26 = L 13 Z-L 33 X
(9·12)
a 34 =L 12 X-L 11 Y; a 3s=L 22 X-L 12 Y; a 36 =L23 X-L 13 Y
a44 = L 11 = k 1 lf+k 2 l~+k 3 1~; a4s = L 12 = k 111m 1 +k 212m 2+k 313m 3
a46 = £13 = kl n111 + k2n212 + k3n313
ass= L 22 =k 1 mf+k 2 mi+k 3 m~ as 6 = L 23 = k 1m 1n 1 +k2m 2n2+k 3m 3n3
a6 6 = £33 = k 1 nf+k 2 n~+k 3 n~
The direction cosines are functions of the co-ordinates of the general
point, i.e. of XYZ or xyz, and it is usually much easier to formulate the
functions in terms of the local co-ordinate system; the same remark applies
to the increment of length ds. It is therefore easier to calculate the elements
of the flexibility matrix using Eqn. 9·9 or 9·10 than by using 9·8. The follow-
ing sections contain details of the calculation for the shapes in common use.
Q.
FIG. 9·3 General plane curve.
9·2·1 General Plane Curve

Suppose the path of the pipe between Q, and Q,+ 1 can be expressed by the
equation y = f(x) and that the angle that the tangent at P makes with the
x-axis is if!, as shown in Fig. 9·3. Then the increment of length is ds = pdljl,
d 2 yjdx 2
where 1/p = (l +(dyfdx) 2) 312 is the curvature at P, and
L = lcos if! - sin if!

sin if! cos if!
0 0
Applying Eqn. 9·12 with these local co-ordinates

b 11 = k 3 y 2; b12 = -k 3xy; b13 = b14 = b1s = 0; b16 = k3y
bzz = k3x2; b23 = bz4 = bzs = 0; b26 = -k3x
b 33 = (k 1 cos 2 t/J+k2 sin 2 t/J)y 2-2(k 1-k2) sin t/1 cos t/1 xy
+(k 1sin 2 t/1 + k 2 cos 2 tjl) x 2
b 34 = - (k 1cos 2 t/1 + k 2 sin 2 t/1) y +(k 1 - k 2) sin t/1 cos tjlx
(9.13)
b 35 = - (k 1 - k 2) sin t/1 cos t/1 y + (k 1sin 2 t/1 + k 2 cos 2 t/1) x
b36 = 0
b 44 = k 1 cos 2 t/1 + k 2 sin 2 t/1; b4 5 = (k 1 - k2 ) sin t/1 cos t/1; b46 =0
b 55 = k 1 sin 2 t/l+k 2 cos 2 tjl; b56 = 0
b66 =k3
When the form of the function f(x) is known the values of tjJ and ds will
also be known in terms of x, and these expressions may be integrated to give
the values of Bii. The elements of U(r+ l)r contain one, zero, or the local
co-ordinates of Qr+l• so the elements of U(r+t)r[Bii].U(r+l)r can also be
calculated whenf(x) is known. In the following sections these elements are
denoted by cij•
9·2·2 Straight Length of Pipe of Constant Circular Cross-Section

For such a component of length /, y = tjJ = 0 and ds = dx. The known
bending behaviour of the pipe gives k 1 = I +v, k 2 = k 3 = 1. Substituting
these values in formulae 9·13 and integrating from Q, to Qr+l• i.e. from
x = 0 to x = I the values of the Bii are
B 11 = B 12 = B 13 = B 14 = B 15 = B 16 = 0
B 22 = l 3/3EI; B 23 = B 24 = B 25 = 0; B 26 = -l 2/2EI;
B 33 = l 3/3EI; B 34 = B 36 = 0; B 35 = l 2/2EI; (9·14)
B44 = (1 +v) l/EI; B45 = B46 = 0
B 55 = l/EI B 56 = 0;
B 66 = l/EI
With the following exceptions all Cii = Bii:
C26 = -Bz6 = l2/2EI; C3s = -B3s = -l 2 /2EI
The values of the elements of L, are not completely determined by a

knowledge of the end co-ordinates of the straight length because this com-
ponent has no unique centre of curvature. However the values of the first
column are determined and are given by
l - X,+1 -X,. Y,.+ 1- Y,.

1r- l ' mlr = l ;
and the length is known to be related to the co-ordinates by
12 = (X,+t-X,) 2 +(Y,.+1- Y,.) 2 +(Z,+1-Z,) 2

The values of /2 ., m 2 ., n 2 , can be arbitrarily assigned subject to the conditions
that they are the direction cosines of a line perpendicular to Q, Q, + 1 • One
such set of values is
l2r = 0; m2r = nt,/(1-lf,)t; n2r = -m1,/(1-li,)t
When the values of these direction cosines have been fixed the third set are
determined by the condition that they refer to a line mutually perpendicular
to the other two and are given by
9·2·3 Bend with Constant Circular Cross-Section Following a Circular Arc

Suppose this component to have the centre of curvature at C, with radius R
and subtending an angle ¢ at C. Then x = R sin t/t, y = R(l- cos t/t),
ds = Rdt/t. The value of k 1 is the same as for a straight length, i.e. 1 +v,
and from Chapter 16, k 2 = k 3 = KF.
Substituting the values of x and y in Eqn. 9·13 and integrating from Q, to
Q,+ 1> i.e. from t/t = 0 to t/t = ¢
B 11 = l-R 3 k 3 (6¢-8sin¢+sin2¢); B 12 = -!-R 3 k 3 (3-4cos¢+cos2¢)
B1 6 = R 2 k 3 (¢-sin¢)
B 22 = !-R3 k3 (2¢-sin2¢); B23 = B 24 = B2 5 = 0
B 26 = -R2 k 3 (1-cos¢)
B 33 = !-R3 [k 1 (6¢-8sin ¢+sin2¢)+k2 (2¢-sin2¢)]
B34 = -;\-R2 [k 1 (2¢-4sin¢+sin2¢)+k2 (2¢-sin2¢)] (9·15)
B44 = tR[k 1 (2<f>+sin2</>)+k 2 (2<{>-sin2<{>)]
B45 = !R(k 1 -k2 )(1-cos2<{>)
B 55 = !R[k 1 (2<{>-sin2</>)+k 2 (2</>+sin2</>)]; B 56 =0

B 66 = Rk3 </>
With the following exceptions all Cii = B;i:
C 11 = ! R 3 k 3 (4 </> +2 </>cos 2 </> -3 sin 2 ql)
C 12 = -!R 3 k 3 ( -1+4cos<{>-2<{>sin2<{>-3cos2<{>)
C 16 = -R 2 k 3 (sin<f>-<f>cos<{>)
C 22 = ! R 3 k 3 ( 4 </>- 2 </> cos 2 </> + 3 sin2 </>- 8 sin </>)

C 26 = -R 2 k 3 (1-cos<{>-<{>sin<{>)
C 34 = !R 2 (k 1 +k 2 )(sin¢-¢cos¢)
C 35 = -!R 2 [k 1 (2-2cos¢-¢sin¢)-k 2 </>sin</>]

The factor 1/EI has been omitted from all of the above expressions for
Bii and C;i·
For this component the values of the elements of L, are known in terms
of the geometry of the bend, the co-ordinates of the two end points and the
centre of curvature C.
From simple geometry
X,+ 1 -X,cos¢-Xc(1-cos<f>).
l1r = l2r
R sin</>
Y,+ 1 - Y, cos<{>- Yc (1-cos¢). Yc -Y,

mlr = R sin<{>
m2r = R
Z,+ 1 -Z, cos<f>-Zc (1-cos¢) Zc-Z,

nlr
R sin<{>
n2r = R
The values of the third set of cosines are given by the formulae quoted in the
previous section.
9·3 UNRESTRAINED DISPLACEMENTS-THERMAL LOADS
As was explained in the introduction, the loading systems on pipes include

thermal effects as well as mechanical loads such as pressure, wind, weight,
etc. The pipe is usually at an elevated temperature because of heat transmis-
sion from the contained fluid, and the metal temperature will in general vary
through the wall thickness, around the circumference and along the length
of the pipe. These variations will cause stresses even in the unrestrained
state, and the unrestrained deflections of the pipe will depend upon the
magnitude of these stresses. However, the stresses are caused by deviations
about the average increase in temperature, and the stress-induced deflections
will not significantly affect the values of the unrestrained displacements if
the temperature deviations in the pipe are not large in comparison with the
average rise. In these circumstances the unrestrained stresses can be separately
evaluated and added to those caused by the end restraints.
Writing D<r+ 1 >1 as the unrestrained displacement of Q,+ 1 relative to Q,
it is evident that the unrestrained displacement of P 2 relative to P 1 is
n-1
D21 = L
1
U{r+ 1) 2 D(r+ 1) 1 (9·16)
Now with the assumption that variations about the average temperature at
any cross-section may be ignored the unrestrained deflections are given by
L, r+ 1
D(r+1) 1 = [ O IXTdx J
r+ 1
J IX T dy
r+ 1 (9·17)
J rxTdx
0
0
0
or D2 1 = [f oc TdX, J IX J
TdY, oc TdZ, 0, 0, OJ
CaFe must be taken when assessing the importance of circumferential
variations since these cause the centre line of the pipe to bow. The relative
movement of the ends brought about by the bowing may not be significant,
but the relative rotations can cause large deflections at the far end of an
attached length of pipe. Circumferential variations in bends can usually be
ignored since only relatively short lengths are involved, so we will consider
the effect only on straight lengths of circular cross-section.
A straight length l with radius a and thickness t is shown in Fig. 9·4 with
the local axes xyz. The temperature is assumed constant through the wall
thickness, but varies with both x and 0. A rigorous analysis of the stresses
and deflections is complicated and in view of the relative importance of the
effect under consideration it is not required for our present purpose ; see,
however, Chapter 5.
y
::
FIG. 9·4 Straight length thermal loads
Consider the length of wall PP' of width adO and thickness t as a separate
I
strip, then the expansion of this strip is I aT dx. This expansion can be
0
completely prevented if a load
- Et~d() f
0
l
cx Tdx
is applied at each end of the strip.

Therefore the expansion of the pipe can be prevented by restraining the
expansion of each strip. The total forces that must be applied to produce
complete restraint are obtained by carrying out the appropriate integrations

around the circumference of the pipe. To obtain the stresses and deflection
in the pipe with the ends unrestrained, we must add the effect of forces
of opposite sign to those required to produce complete restraint. The forces
to be applied to give unrestrained ends are
II
l 21t
F = E;a
X a Td8dx
0 0
II
l 21t
2
My E;a a Tsin8d8dx (9·18)
0 0
Ett I I
l 21t
Mx = - 2
a Tcos8d8dx
0 0
I
The stress in the unrestrained state is given by
l
Fx Mysin8 Mzcos8 E d
u = --+ - na 2 t --l aT x (9·19)
x 2nat na 2 t
0
and the unrestrained deflections are those due to Fx, My, Mz. Therefore,
when there are straight lengths with circumferential variation of temperature,
the value ofD<r+l)l to be used in 9·16 is given by
, [ lFx
D<r+t> 1 = -nat
2
12 Mz -l 2 My lMy lMz J [L;0 L'0J (9·20)
E' 2~E' na t O, na
na t 2-y---E' ---y-E'
t na-y-E
t ,
Circumferential variations are most likely to arise in horizontal legs of the
system and to be approximately linear with distance from the centre line of
the pipe. If this is the case, and there is no axial variation, T = T0 +!T1 sin (J
and T0 , T1 are constants. Substitution of this value for T in the preceding
formulae gives
D(r+ 1) 1
-1 2 a T1
[ alT0 , 0, 4 a , 0, ~·
l a T1
0 [ L; 0
J J
0 L;
0.
9·4 UNRESTRAINED DISPLACEMENTS-MECHANICAL

LOADS
If the loads acting on the pipe in the unrestrained state are mechanical, there
will be forces acting in the pipe, even though there are no loads applied at
P 2 • Let the value of the force at P be F 1 when P 2 is unrestrained. In order to

obtain the deflections atP2 produced by these forces we shall use Castigliano's
theorem again, and shall evaluate the strain energy when both F 1 and F 2
are acting on the pipe, differentiate with respect to F 2 and then put F 2 equal
to zero. We find
F; U~ 2 [a;i] U02 F2 +2F; U~ 2 [0 T'LKL'] F1 +

0 LKL'
+F~[O 0 ]F1
0 LKL'
Carrying out the operations described above,
(9·21)
Note that the first three columns in the matrix multiplying F 1 are zero since
only bending strain energy is included. Observe also that if point loads W 3
are applied at P 3 , F 1 = Up 3 W 3 between P 1 and P 3 and F 1 = 0 between
P 3 and P 2 • Thus
where A3 is the flexibility matrix of P 1P 3 • This result was also obtained in a

slightly different way at the end of § 9·1.
If the unrestrained loads are distributed along the length of the pipe and
have intensities w' = [ WxWyWzmxmym7 ] per unit length, the unrestrained
force at P must hold the length PP2 in equilibrium. Therefore F 1 is given by
(9·22)
where Q is general point between P and P2 • Writing UPQ = Up0 U 0 Q and

substituting this value ofF 1 in Eqn. 9·21
U~ 2 f [au] { f VoQ w ds} ds

p2 p2
D21 = (9·23)
p, p
Again it is simpler to express this quantity in terms of the local co-ordinate

system. Using the known relationships between transfer matrices, and between
general and local co-ordinate systems, it can be shown that
D21 = ntt U(,+t>2[~' ~J{[Cii],N<r+t>t+[dii]} (9·24)
In this formula
and
N<r+t> 1 =[L; O]F<r+t> 1; ro=[L; O]w
OL; OL;
are loads referred to the local axes. It can be seen from the form of Eqn. 9·24
that each pair of terms in the series represents the deflection at P 2 due to
bending of the component Q,Qr+l· The first term is the deflection due to the
action of the loads on the pipe between Q, + 1 and P 2 and the second term is
the deflection due to the distributed loads acting upon Q,Q,+l. Ifthe loads
are distributed uniformly on a straight length
[dij] [ eii] ro and
en l4/8EI, e26 l 3 f3EI
e33 = l4f8EI, e 35 -l 3 /3EI
e44 (l+v)l 2 f2EI (9·25)
es3 -l 3 /6EI, e55 = l 2 f2EI
e62 l 3 /6EI, e66 = l 2/2EI

all other eii 0
It is possible to calculate the corresponding expressions for a circular arc

but the algebra is laborious and the values cumbersome. Furthermore, the
values of k 1 k 2 k 3 at present known for circular arcs have been found for the
case of externally applied loads and are not strictly applicable to the dis-
tributed load case. Fortunately this is not serious, since the deflection of a
short component such as a circular arc under loads distributed along it will
be small in comparison with its deflection under the action of the loads on
the remainder of the pipe. If there is any doubt about the validity of ignoring
this term, an approximate value obtained by using the available values of
k 1 k 2 and k 3 in the general expression for [dii] can be calculated.
9·5 MULTI-ANCHOR RUNS OF PIPE
A multi-anchor pipe run consists of a series of straight lengths and bends

which branch, and branch from the branches, and therefore have more than
two anchors. Figure 9·5 shows a system with seven anchors. Let the anchors
be called P;, i = 1, ... , Nand let P 1 be the reference anchor so that the
unrestrained deflection of the pipe at P; relative to P 1 is Dil. Let the un-
restrained movements of the anchor at P; be D;"1 and let the forces acting on
the pipe at P; be F;, then the total deflection at the anchors is given by
A =PH p2 5 p26 p2 7
PH PJS lj6 p31
P,
z
FIG. 9·5 A seven anchor run.
Ai L
N
D*1 U1iFi+D!1
2
Dj A;"F;+D;"1 (i = 2, ... , N)
Now the force at Pi produces a deflection at P; which may be written as
AiiFi if Aii is suitably defined. Adding the deflection produced by all the
forces to the unrestrained deflection, the deflection of P; relative to P 1 is
N
D; = L2 AiiFi+Dn (i = 2, ... , N)
Equating D; and Df - U~; D! for each anchor we obtain 6(N -1) equations
for the 6(N -1) unknown forces:
i-1
L2 (Aij+ u~iAi U1)Fj+(Aii-At + UJ.iAi uli)F;
N (9·26)
+ L (Au+U~;AiUi)Fi
i+1
= Di1-UJ.;Di 1-Dn (i 2, ... , N)
Again, if there are partial restraints at any of the anchors the relevant forces
are zero and the corresponding equations are deleted from the set 9·26.
As in the case of the single run the anchors are often rigid in comparison with
the pipe and then 9·26 reduces to
N
L2 AijFj = Dit-UJ.iDit-Dil (i = 2, ... , N) (9·27)
In order to determine the form of A;i, consider the pipe under the action
of Fi and its reaction at P 1 • Suppose the single runs P 1P; and P 1Pi intersect
at Pii' then the force acting on the pipe at P;i is U(iiliFi and the deflection at
P;i is A(ij)U(iniFi where A(in is the flexibility matrix of the single run P 1Pii.
Now the pipe between P;i and Pi is unloaded and moves as a rigid body, thus
the deflection at P; is U(iiliA(inUoniFi. Hence
(9·28)
Note that Ai; = A;i and that the matrix of coefficients in Eqns. 9·27 is
symmetrical. There are t,N(N- 1) different 6 x 6 matrices required to set up
the left-hand side of the set 9·27 but the number of distinct flexibility matrices
is fewer than this. Thus for the system shown in Fig. 9·5 the total number
required is -!-7 x 6 = 21, but because P 24 = P 25 , etc., only eleven flexibility
matrices are required. In general the number required is N- 1 plus the number
of different branch points. Further, the flexibility matrices can be built up
progressively by using the result derived at the end of§ 9·1. Thus for example
AB = u~BAA uAB+ABA· Ac = U~cAA UAc+AcA
A22 = U~2AB UB2+A2B etc.

A23 = u~2AB uB3
A33 = u~3AB uB3+A3B
The thermal unrestrained deflections are calculated by treating the lengths

P 1P; as single runs and applying the formulae in§ 9·3. If there are mechanical
loads present the effect of the loads from the lengths which branch from
P 1P; must be included in the unrestrained deflections. Therefore, if the branch
I
points along P 1P; are ij, ... , ik, ... , il the expression I U(ik) i A(ik) F<l> 1 must
k=j
be added to the unrestrained deflections due to the other discrete and dis-
tributed loads on P 1Pi. In this expression F~k)l is the load imposed upop
P 1Pi by the branch to Pk>
To evaluate the force at a general point P, suppose that P is on a section
of pipe which branches downstream (from P 1) of P to anchors P., ... , P.,
... , Pt. From equilibrium considerations
(9·29)
s=r
The deflection at P due to the restraining forces is

n =A (F-F 1) +I v;pj)pA(pj) v<Pi>i Fj
where A is the flexibility matrix of P 1P and the summation extends over all
anchors upstream of P.
REFERENCE
1. M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY, Design of Piping Systems (J. Wiley, 1956).
10 Adequacy of the Design:
General Considerations
10·0 INTRODUCTION
Tconstruction,
reliable operation of a vessel depends on the material used for its
HE
the stress-strain distribution under the relevant loading
conditions, the temperature to which the material is subjected, the type of
environment and the time interval since the vessel was commissioned. Given
all the possible combinations of these factors, the designer has to satisfy
himself that failure will not, in fact, occur.
For a given material, at a fixed temperature, a simple form of purely stress-
strain dependent failure is the plastic instability treated in Chapter 11. In a
similar way, elastic instability is possible in vessels subjected to external
loading. This subject will be treated in Chapter 15. Failure to meet the speci-
fied design requirements may also occur due to excessive stresses or strains,
without affecting the structural integrity of the vessel. A well known example
is the leakage of mechanical joints, such as bolted-flanged connections and
expanded joints between tube and tube plates. In either case, leakage occurs
when the stresses set up during service are such as to counterbalance the
residual stresses obtained in the fabrication process. The provision of in-
sufficient clearance to allow for the differential expansion of the various
vessel components and of the vessel itself is often a cause of failure. Elongated
bolt holes, keyways or hangers must always be fitted for the support of the
vessel and a similar arrangement must be adopted whenever differential
expansion occurs between two connected parts. Similarly, mutual inter-
ference between the plant structure and the pressure equipment, especially
in the case of piping systems, is a common cause of failure.
No general rule can be given for the prevention of this type of failure due
to excessive stable deformations. In each particular case, it is the designer's
responsibility to ensure that sufficient clearances exist and that leakage will
not occur. It is always wise to specify generous clearances in order to allow
for uncertainties in the form of loading, inaccuracies of the analysis, etc.
The manufacturing tolerances must also be considered (refer to Chapter 3).
363
Cyclic variations of the load bring about the phenomenon of fatigue. In

this case, time-or service life-has to be introduced as a further variable.
Low cycle, high strain fatigue is almost the only case of interest in the pressure
vessel field since most vessels are usually subjected to not more than a few
thousand cycles. Chapter 12 will deal with this subject. The phenomenon of
creep, caused by the combined effect of maintained loading and of high
temperatures, will be treated in Chapter 14.
The simplest form of failure caused by the effects of environment and time
is that of corrosion or erosion wastage. The selection of a suitable material,
or the reduction of the specified service life, are sufficient to prevent this type
of occurrence. A more complex situation, discussed very briefly in this
chapter, arises due to the additional effect of the stress distribution and of its
cyclic variation during service. Temperature may also affect the behaviour of
the material in this case. In fact, it is seldom possible to say that a material
has failed due to only one cause, or that the failure of a vessel has been one
of the typical cases that we have mentioned. The complexity of the problem
is apparent in the case of brittle fracture (see Chapter 13). In this case a
crack incorporated during fabrication or initiated due to fatigue, to stress
corrosion or to any other cause, propagates in a fast unstable way provided
that certain conditions of stress distribution and temperature exist. At the
same time, ageing or cold working of the material helps the fracture. It is
obvious that all five factors, i.e. material, stress, time, temperature and
environment are involved. This also provides a good example of the fact
that, very often, the apparent type of failure has been initiated as a completely
different one; a fatigue crack in a material subjected to cold work due to large
deformations during service propagates as a brittle fracture. This inter-
dependence between the various types of failure is such that in the majority
of cases the vessel does not fail in any recognizable way.
Apart from those cases where failure is only due to excessive deformations
or buckling, vessels become unfit for service due to the development of
cracks. These may be small, causing leakage, or large, leading to complete
rupture. The phenomenon of crack development, in general terms, will be
treated in the following section.
10·1 DEVELOPMENT OF CRACKS: FRACTURE
In this section, an attempt will be made to give the basic information required
by the designer. Detailed information concerning the fundamental mechanics
of fracture may be found in Ref. 1.
The fracture of a material may be described by the appearance of the frac-
ADEQUACY OF THE DESIGN: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 365
tured surface, the strain or energy required, or by the behaviour of the crystals
forming the material. Thus it is said that a fracture of fibrous appearance,
preceded by large strains and produced with the absorption of high energy,
is ductile. When the appearance is granular or crystalline and the strain and
energy are low, it is brittle. In ductile fractures, the crystals break along the
octahedral planes-shear-while in brittle fractures they are split along the
cubic planes-cleavage.
For the materials in general use in the pressure vessel industry the two
types of fracture usually co-exist. A clear example of this is the classical
cup-and-cone fracture of cylindrical specimens of mild steel tested under
uniaxial tension. The fracture surface in the centre of the specimen has a
crystalline appearance and can therefore be considered as brittle. A close
examination will show that some crystals have failed in shear and others in
cleavage (Ref. 2). The outer part of the fracture, inclined at 45° with the
direction of tension, is due to shear. It is generally agreed that the fracture
starts in the form of a cleavage crack, in the centre of the specimen, pro-
pagating in jerks, alternating shear and cleavage and forming the centre part
of the cup, while the outer material stretches plastically to form the 45° lips.
Boyd (3) has shown that a very similar situation occurs during the develop-
ment of cracks in a plate under uniaxial tension. In this case, illustrated in
Fig. 10·1, a crack, initiated next to the notch A where a stress peak exists,
propagates in a direction perpendicular to that of the applied tension and
stops at B. Sectioning the plate along the crack, as in Fig. lO·l(b), one sees
that there is a reduction in the plate thickness in the vicinity of the crack and
that there are two clearly defined zones, a central one corresponding to brittle
fracture and an outer one to shear. A closer examination will again show in
the central zone groups of crystals broken in shear and other groups in
cleavage. Ahead of the main crack propagating front an internal cleavage
crack appears, and it would seem that the wall between this crack and the
main front fractures by shear. Again the propagation is in jerks, alternating
shear and cleavage. Figure lO·l(c) shows several sections along the plate.
Each is strikingly similar to a section through a conventional tensile specimen
at some stage of fracture. In the section at the left-hand side there is complete
separation, with the 45° lips and the serrated centre portion, while in the one
at the right-hand side an internal cleavage crack is initiated. A characteristic
feature is the appearance of the chevrons, pointing towards the origin of
fracture and perpendicular to the main propagating front.
For those materials with little ductility, fracture occurs with negligible
plastic stretching. In such cases, the plate does not show any contraction
local to the crack and the flat, central portion extends over the whole thick-
ness. It is also frequently observed that the zone near the origin of the fracture
is smooth and crystalline while the roughness increases away from this
region. The coarse appearance would be a result of the fact that at the internal
cleavage cracks plastic deformation and tearing takes place. Obviously, one
would expect very brittle materials to break along smooth, even, crystalline
surfaces. In that case, the chevrons would disappear. This is not entirely
(a) A~------------B
(b)
(c)
(i) (ii) (iii) (iJ·)

FIG. 10·1 Propagation of cracks in plates.
backed by experience. The well-known rib marks and hackle marks shown in
the fractured surfaces of glass specimens (Ref. 4) correspond, in fact, to the
traces of the main crack propagating front and to the chevrons that appear
in metals. The cause of these marks can be explained as follows.
It is assumed that the energy required to extend the propagating front-

toughness of the material-comes from the energy released by the formation
of the internal circular crack that precedes the fracture. For a constant crack
velocity V and a plate thickness T one can write,
dW dW
dA VTdO
where 0 represents the variable time and dW is the energy required to extend
the crack by dA and is therefore a measure of the material toughness. This is
assumed to be constant for a given material and crack velocity. For the
circular crack
y
FIG. 10·2 Generation of chevrons.
dW dW
dA 2nRdR dO
dO
where R(O) is the crack radius. Comparing these equations
. dR . VT
vT = 2 n R d O' 1.e. R
2
---:;;: 0 + C
The main propagating front may be considered as the envelope of the circular
cracks. From Fig. 10·2
or
(10·1)
Differentiating this equation with respect to () with x, y taken to be constant
1C
i.e.
T
ve = -+x
2n
Substitution into Eqn. 10·1 gives the equation of the family of envelopes as
y2 = !.n (x+.!...)+c
4n
yz
or, taking C in the form C = -(a-1)
4n
y2 = !_(x+
n
aT)
4n
(10·2)
To obtain the orthogonal curves, we differentiate this equation with respect

to x
2 yy , = T-
1C
and changing y' into -ljy' the differential equation is obtained:

2y T
- - =-
y' 1C
The orthogonal curves are then represented by
y
-2n
= ±C 1 exp { T(x+C }
2)
with C 1 = -!T we obtain, as a possible solution
y = ±"2T exp T {-2n(x+T a4~nz)}

(10·3)
where a is the same parameter as in Eqn. 10·2.

Experimental observation of the fracture in mild steel strip plates by Boyd (3)
shows that Eqns. 10·2 and 10·3 predict accurately the shape of the main
propagating front and of the chevrons. It is interesting to note that the only
variable appearing in these equations is the thickness of the plate. The similar
geometrical appearance between the fracture of different materials is there-
fore explained (see Ref. 4).
A ductile material may well fail in service due to plastic flow in a highly
stressed region of a comparatively large size, for instance in the neighbour-
hood of a structural discontinuity such as a bracket attachment or the
connection between two different shells of revolution. This plastic flow is
accompanied by an internal crack, as has been discussed. Since there usually
is a stress system inhibiting plastic deformation in the vicinity of most stress
raisers, fracture starts with little evidence of necking or reduction of plate
thickness local to the starting point of the fracture. Once the fracture has
started, it spreads in a stable or an unstable way, depending on the toughness
of the material and on the elastic strain energy stored in the structure.
Toughness is a most elusive parameter which, in each individual material,
depends on the straining rate, the stress distribution, the temperature, whether
the material has been cold worked or not, etc. It is therefore not surprising
that little quantitative information concerning the conditions required for
the development of one or the other types of crack propagation exists. Both
stable and unstable propagations do, in fact, render the vessel unfit for service,
the first because it produces leakage, the second because it impairs the
structural integrity of the vessel. However, unstable-brittle-propagation
has naturally received more attention than the stable propagation, since it
results in a catastrophic failure.
It is clear that the most direct way to prevent the initiation of cracks in
ductile materials, barring the effects of fatigue, creep and corrosion, is to
maintain the stress below that value causing plastic flow. Peaks of very high
stresses, concentrated in a small region, are relatively unimportant and so are
some of the stresses developed by the constraint of the structure, such as
those due to thermal effects. Local yielding or small deformations will relieve
these stresses, and failure will not occur provided that the material remains
sufficiently ductile to accommodate those deformations without rupture. It is
therefore of the utmost importance to ensure that the ductility of the original
material is not lost due to the fabrication process or during service. This
exhaustion of ductility is one of the main causes for the brittle failure of
steel structures. In brittle materials, of course, the maximum value of the
stress, no matter how localized that is, must be kept below the rupture stress.
Stress corrosion, causing intercrystalline cracks, is an important source of
crack initiation and will be treated in the next section.
10·2 CORROSION
The simplest form of failure caused primarily by the effect of the environment
is the removal of successive layers of material by corrosion or erosion,
leading finally to leakage or bursting. This type offailure is of some importance

in tube joints and in other connections, and can only be prevented by select-
ing the correct material. Cavitation effects, the existence of air pockets in
water circuits, excessive turbulence due to misalignment of pump impellers,
etc., increase the rate of erosion of the material and may have a similar effect
as a chemical attack by the environment. In general, pitting is a more common
occurrence than the removal of uniform layers of material, especially when
corrosion and erosion act together. Besides the correct material it is important
that all surfaces should be clean and smooth, without crevices, re-entrant
corners, etc. The resistance to corrosion of the most widely used materials
is briefly discussed in Chapter 2.
In general, this type of corrosion or erosion wastage is not one of the
most important causes of failure. Far more important is the problem arising
when the surface of the material subjected to the corrosive action of the
environment is under tensile stresses, due to the development of sharp
intercrystalline cracks. It is known that cold worked materials, plastically
deformed during fabrication, are especially susceptible to this phenomenon.
Residual stresses induced during welding have a similar effect. An annealing
or stress relieving heat treatment will usually restore to the material its
original resistance.
Typical examples of stress corrosion cracking are the caustic embrittlement
of mild steel in riveted steam boilers, where high tensile stresses along the
rows of rivets are usually present. A similar situation arises in non-stress
relieved welded vessels. In general, boiler quality, aluminium killed steel is
not very susceptible, but even in this case, it is recommended to stress relieve
the vessel and to maintain the concentration of sodium hydroxide in the water
as low as possible. The intercrystalline corrosion of stainless steel, especially
if it is used at high temperatures or if it is fabricated by welding, is an extremely
serious problem. Titanium or niobium are usually introduced to overcome
this tendency in the so-called stabilized stainless steels.
The designer must remember that the use of dissimilar materials immersed
in the same fluid may cause galvanic corrosion. For this, as for all other
problems connected with the corrosion of metals, the reader is referred to the
complete and authoritative book by U. R. Evans (5).
Very few metals are, in fact, completely immune to stress corrosion. A
susceptibility to corrosion along more-or-less continuous paths is usually
present. When a tensile stress acts on the surface it tends to open up these
paths, facilitating the penetration of the corrosive fluid. The crack then pro-
gresses, accompanied by increasingly high localized stresses.
The fatigue life of a material is considerably reduced when it is subjected
to the attack of a corrosive fluid. In this case, the pits that would be produced
by straightforward corrosion are transformed into transcrystalline cracks,
identical to the ordinary fatigue cracks. The only: apparent difference between
a fatigue failure and a corrosion-fatigue failure is that in the latter the
cracks are initiated after some pitting takes place. All materials are subjected
to corrosion-fatigue, and it is a general rule that their resistance to this type
of failure depends principally on their resistance to corrosion. It is currently
accepted that in most cases no fatigue limit can be given when corrosion is
present.
The procedure for the prevention of corrosion-fatigue is, first of all, to
choose a material resistant to ordinary corrosion. The second is to minimize
the notch-type stress raisers, as is usually done when the design will be sub-
jected to cyclic loading in service. Shot-peening, introducing compressive
stresses on the surface, the use of protective coatings and the treatment of the
contained fluid are also current practice.
The materials used for the construction of nuclear reactor vessels or other
components subjected to neutron irradiation may undergo important changes
in their mechanical properties. These changes depend on several factors, the
most important being:
(a) Chemical composition and metallurgical structure of the material.
(b) Temperature during irradiation.
(c) Neutron flux and neutron energy spectrum.
(d) Stress and environment.
The principal effect of neutron irradiation is the embrittlement of metals.
General information on this subject may be found in Refs. 6 and 7. Some
data on the behaviour of specific materials is contained in Ref. 8.
10·3 WORKING STRESSES
The corrosion induced fracture previously described is caused primarily by

the effect of the environment on the material and, to a much lesser extent,
by the stress distribution within the structure. The adequacy of the design,
in this case, is then ensured by the correct selection of material. In most other
cases, the traditional way of ensuring the adequacy of the design is by a
stress analysis and by the establishment of maximum allowable working
stresses.
The method of analysis generally used for the establishment of the states
of stress and strain is the one detailed in the previous chapters. Before pro-
ceeding to discuss the establishment of working stresses it is advisable
to examine under what conditions the assumption of elastic analysis is
valid.
10·3·1 Field of Application of the Elastic Method of Stress Analysis

The method of analysis described in the previous chapters has been developed
on the assumption that the material is isotropic and homogeneous, and that
it is loaded in the elastic range. The validity of the method, however, is not
limited to such ideal conditions. The behaviour of most of the ductile
materials used in the pressure vessel industry is adequately described by their
bulk properties, so that they can be treated as homogeneous and, furthermore,
anisotropy is seldom sufficiently severe to invalidate the conventional method
of analysis for isotropic materials. The assumption of elastic behaviour of
the material is then the most serious limitation. It is apparent that under the
conditions of plastic instability studied in Chapter 11, when plastic flow of
the material has spread over a large area of the vessel, an elastic stress
analysis method ceases to be applicable. The elastic method, however, can
still be used when plastic flow is limited to small regions in the neighbourhood
of structural discontinuities or other stress raisers, since the deformation of
such regions is forced by that of the adjoining elastic material. In that case,
the strain distribution can still be assessed under the assumption of the
existence of a linear stress-strain relationship. However, the method fails to
assess the stress distribution in the plastic region.
Elastic stress analysis finds application in the design of pressure vessels
subjected to cyclic variations of the load. Suppose that a ductile, non-work
hardening material is subjected to cyclic plastic straining between e = 0
and e = emax (Fig. 10·3(a)). Under these conditions, after the first cycle
0-ABCD, cycling will occur following the loop DEBC. If the material work-
hardens (Fig. 3(b)) after the first cycle, the loop becomes DEFGH-not
closed-the next loop is HIJ, ... , etc. If hardening continues indefinitely,
the loops would narrow continually until the behaviour becomes purely
elastic. This is the phenomenon of shakedown or cessation of plastic deforma-
tion under cyclic loading. Provided that failure has not occurred due to plastic
instability in the first few cycles, an elastic analysis will be entirely justified.
The work hardening effect may be diminished by the softening that occurs
during unloading (Bauschinger effect). This is shown in Fig. 10·3(b), where
the yield point in compression has been assumed to be smaller than the
corresponding value in tension.
Non-work hardening materials subjected to cyclic plastic straining are
still amenable to elastic analysis, provided that the strain range in this case
does not exceed twice the yield strain. This is shown in Fig. 10·3(c). After
the first cycle, OABC, the loop is reduced to the straight line BC. Due to the
Bauschinger effect, and to a possible stress relaxation under load (Fig. 10·3(d)),
the stress range corresponding to the maximum strain range for elastic
behaviour may be reduced. This reduction is never taken into account, since
it is counter-balanced by the work hardening effect, and consequent shake-

down. Another effect that may be considered is the variation of temperature
during a load cycle. In most cases, at full load the plant temperature is
(a) Non-work hardening

material
(b) Work hardening material
.B
Stress relaxation
y
Y'<Y
(c) Non-work hardening material. (d) Non-work hardening material.

Stress range 2Y Stress range <2Y
FIG. 10·3 Plastic cyclic straining of ductile materials.
higher than at zero load, thus reducing the yield stress Y with respect to Y'.
Entirely brittle materials are seldom, if ever, used for the construction of
pressure vessels; but it is possible for ductile materials to become brittle, for
N
instance, by work hardening. If this is the case, the material is likely to show
a marked anisotropy, thus reducing the accuracy of the conventional stress
analysis. On the other hand, the behaviour will be elastic up to fracture. It is
important to note that brittle fracture is then associated with the existence
of flaws or other defects and their distribution, and becomes highly unpre-
dictable. For this reason only it is essential to maintain the maximum stress
in the structure well within the elastic region.
Elastic stress analysis is therefore a powerful tool that finds very wide
application. The most important limitations to its use can be listed as follows:
(a) It fails to provide a solution to the problem of the determination of
the load required to produce the plastic collapse of a vessel.
(b) It cannot be used to describe the time-dependent deformation of
materials at high temperatures (creep).
(c) Some of the accuracy is lost when the material is anisotropic. Although
this is seldom the case, work-hardened materials, especially non-ferrous
alloys such as zircaloy, magnox, etc., may show this effect.
(d) The stress-strain redistribution that takes place before the eventual
elastic shakedown cannot be assessed accurately.
10·3·2 Experimental Stress Analysis

Experimental stress analysis is often used in those cases where the elastic
theory fails to provide an accurate model, and in the investigation of complex
shapes that do not lend themselves to mathematical treatment. Resistance
strain gauges, brittle lacquer techniques, mechanical extensometers and
photoelastic models have all been used. A discussion of the problems in-
volved is outside the scope of this book; the reader should consult Refs. 4
and 9 for general information on the subject. Lawton (10), Berman and Pai
(11) and many other authors have published reports on the use of resistance
strain gauges in pressure vessel analysis. Large strains in drumheads have
been studied by Fessler and Foreman (12) using silicone rubber models.
The development of high deformation strain gauges, and of strain gauges
and bonding methods suitable for use at high temperature, has extended the
field of application of experimental stress analysis.
10·3·3 Selection of Working Stresses for Ductile Materials

Consider a beam of rectangular cross-section, made of a ductile, non-work
hardening material whose stress-strain diagram is of the type shown in
Fig. 10·3(a). If the beam is under tension, failure will occur when the uniformly
distributed or direct stress equals Y. The working stress will then be defined as
y
S.F.
where S.F. is a safety factor. Usually S.F. = 1·5.
A similar situation arises in an elementary thin shell of revolution-e.g.
a sphere or a cylinder-loaded under internal pressure. The only difference
is that now the state of stress is no longer uni-axial and it becomes necessary
to obtain first the equivalent uni-axial stress. This is done following Tresca's
criterion, which states that if u 1 > u 2 > u 3 are the principal stresses the
equivalent stress is
I I
ii =maximum of u1-u21• u1-u31• u2-u31 I
In the thin cylinder or sphere u 1 = u 8 , u 2 = fu 8 or u 8 , u 3 = 0 therefore
ij = O'o·
When the beam is under a bending moment, the condition for the initiation
of yielding is for the bending stress to be equal to Y. Increasing the bending
moment by 50% over the value required to initiate yielding results in the
failure of the beam due to the development of a plastic hinge. The working
stress can then be defined as
O'b = y
introducing, implicitly, a safety factor of 1·5 on failure.

The case of a flat, circular plate simply supported at its boundary and under
uniformly distributed load can be compared to the previous example. Here
again ub has the meaning of equivalent bending stress, following Tresca's
criterion.
If the beam is subjected to both bending and tension, the working stresses
may be selected from a relation such as
(10·4)
where the safety factor is 1·5 when ub = 0, 1 when ud = 0 and may be

I (I
assumed to vary linearly with ubI/ ubI + ud I I),
as in Fig. 10·4.
The same criterion for the establishment of working stresses can be used in,
for example, a plate under uniformly distributed pressure and radial load,
uniformly distributed along the edge and acting on the plane of the plate.
In the cylindrical shell shown in Fig. 10·5(a), subjected to internal pressure,
the complete shell yields uniformly when the pressure is increased to its
critical level. When the load is concentrated in the form shown in Fig.
10·5(b), yield is no longer general but remains confined, first to a narrow band
around the concentrated load, constituting a hinge joint in the vicinity of
which most of the deformation takes place. In the hinge joint, relative rota-
tion between the two parts of the cylindrical vessel is possible, as it is in the
plastic hinge formed in a beam. Failure, however, does not take place until
the plastic region spreads at either side of the first hinge joint and two more
such joints are formed, as shown in Fig. 10·5(b). The behaviour ofthe cylindri-
cal shell can therefore be compared to that of a beam, with built-in ends and
1
Jab J+ Jaa J
FIG. 10·4 Determination of safety factor.
(a) Uniform pressure (b) Ring load
I
I
I I I
--t----1
I 1
_J- ---1 -
I
~
I I
~\
I
.I ,
i.
FIG.
~
10·5 Plastic collapse of cylindrical vessel.
a central load (Fig. 10·5(c)). In both cases, due to the presence of the supports
or the adjacent elastic zones, the load carrying capacity of the structure is
increased over that calculated by a formula such as Eqn. 10·4. Clearly this
criterion, based on the prevention of the formation of the first hinge joint,
is safe; but its application may well be unduly restrictive. The rational
approach would be to maintain the load during operation below the critical
or collapse load. However, as will be seen in Chapter II, it is seldom possible
to calculate the collapse load and it then becomes necessary to assign a more-
or-less arbitrary value for the working stress, calculated on the assumption
of elastic behaviour. It would appear that this fictitious stress may be allowed
to be as high as twice the yield stress in the majority of cases, without
jeopardizing the safety of the vessel.
Consider now a rigid frame welded to the ends of the beam and assume that
the beam temperature is held constant while that of the rigid frame varies as
shown in Fig. 10·6. If rx is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the beam,
/12 .,...
~
)1-
E'
~
~
0 Time
FIG. 10·6 Thermal cycling of a beam welded to a rigid frame.
when the temperature of the frame is raised to T 2 for the first time, the strain
in the beam becomes
Bmax = rxfl.T
If
y
Bmax > yield strain
E
the beam yields, but failure does not occur until the uniformly distributed
strain becomes of the order of 100 times the yield strain. Therefore the onset
of yielding no longer corresponds to the incipience of failure. During cycling,
the straining of the beam will follow loops of the type shown in Fig. 10·3,
and failure (if it occurs) will be caused by the mechanisms of fatigue or
incremental collapse discussed in Chapter 12, where appropriate design rules
will be given. In principle, it would appear advisable to limit the stress range
to twice the yield stress, in order to enable elastic shakedown and thus prevent
any work hardening or incremental growth of the vessel. This rule, which has
been suggested by Kerkhof (13) among others, may well be too restrictive in
some cases while not allowing for the possibility of fatigue in others.
w
.....:J
00
TABLE 10·1
DETERMINATION OF WORKING STRESSES
Ia! = maximum of Iahoop- a 1onal, Iahoop!, Ia1onal at a given location. The sign of a is that of the principal stress of maximum absolute
value. The radial stress is neglected.
a. = calculated value of a at the outside wall
a1 = calculated value of a at the inside wall
a.+at a.-at .
a4 = - 2- ; ab = - 2- ; a.= maximum of!a.!,lad
Principal Material
Stress Characteristics and Service Conditions Form of F a i l u r e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ductile Brittle
Caused by mechanical load, e.g. pressure, weight or any Plastic y ai~!U.T.S. '"d
other uniformly distributed load whose magnitude is un- Collapse a/~tU.T.S. ~
a/~ S.F. m
affected by the deformation of the shell. Geometrical dis-
continuities not considered. (I) where S.F. is obtained from Fig. 10·4 "'"'c::
~
Caused by concentrated mechanical loading, e.g. weight a.'+a. 11 ~2Y a.'+a.' 1 ~U.T.S. m
acting on a bracket, pressure load on a nozzle, piping re- <
m
action. (II) Rational design based on safety factor applied to collapse
load (Chapter 11) "'"'m
t""
t:l
m
"'....0
z
>
tj
tr1
,0
c:=
>
(')
TABLE 10·1 continued ....::
0
>tj
Principal Material ...;
Stress Characteristics and Service Conditions Form of F a i l u r e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ::c
Ductile Brittle tr1
tj
Caused by self-constraint of structure. Internal, self-equili- Fatigue or u.1 + u.11 + u.111 .;; 2 Y u. 1 + u. 11 + u.111 .;; U.T.S. tr1
brating stress resultants set up by incompatibility of defor- Incremental "'Cl
-
mations and relieved by yielding. Stress causing large Collapse Rational design based on fatigue and incremental collapse z
overall deformations only. (III) (Chapter 12)
Cl
tr1
Peak stresses caused by notch-type stress raisers as well as Fatigue Working stress based on fatigue analysis (Chapter 12) ztr1
thermal stresses not causing large deformations, e.g. dif-
~
ferential expansion in clad plates, temperature gradient
through plates
>
t"'
(')
Operation at sub-zero temperature. Embrittlement of due- Low stress Design rules in Chapter 13 0
tile materials brittle fracture z
"'t j
-
Operation at high temperatures Creep Working stresses and design rules in Chapter 14 tr1
~
External loading Buckling Working stresses and design rules in Chapter 15

>
...;
0
-z
Note. The working stresses are given for ductile materials such as low yield point mild steel. A reduction in the stress is advisable in "'
less ductile materials.
~
-.1
\C)
The essential difference between this example and the previous one is that
no external forces are present and the stresses are only due to self-constraint
of the structure. The internal forces set up by the incompatibility of defor-
mation between the adjacent structural members are relieved by yielding.
If the material remains ductile, failure during the first application of the
loading is only possible after extremely large deformations. Similar charac-
teristics are to be found in the thermal stresses in pressure vessels and the
discontinuity stresses in the vicinity of shell junctions. Such stresses are usually
safe if their calculated value-elastic method-is maintained below twice the
yield stress, unless a large number of cyclic variations of load is anticipated.
The presence of flaws, notches or sharp corners in a structural member
gives rise to high stress peaks, concentrated in the vicinity of the stress
raisers. Such stress peaks only have to be considered when the vessel is
subjected to cyclic loading. The procedure is then as described in Chapter 12.
Ductile materials may lose their ductility under certain conditions and
behave in a brittle way. Design rules to prevent this occurrence are discussed
in Chapter 13. Working stresses and design rules for vessels operating at
elevated temperatures in the creep range of the material, or under external
pressure, are given in the corresponding chapters.
10·3·4 Brittle Materials

Brittle materials are characterized by remaining in the elastic field up to
fracture. The working stresses have therefore to be based on the ultimate
tensile strength (U.T.S.). Furthermore, the phenomenon of fracture has a
statistical nature, depending on the distribution of small defects within the
material, so that the safety factors must be higher than those used for ductile
materials.
For stresses of the first type, due to mechanical loading, it is considered
prudent to take
. U.T.S.
workmg stress = -S--
.F.
where S.F. = 3 for direct stress and 2 for bending stresses.
For stresses of the second type, due to the self constraint of the structure,
it is sufficient not to exceed the U.T.S.
10·3·5 Summary
Table 10·1 summarizes the preceding sections. It must be emphasized that
the use of working stresses involves many simplifying assumptions and
arbitrary decisions. It is therefore not surprising to find that widely different
limits have been suggested by the various Codes and by several authors (see,
for example, Refs. 13, 14 and Chapter 3).
In addition to checking that the stress level is below the working stresses,
the designer must ensure that the design rules contained in the following
chapters are satisfied. This is especially important when the elastic stress
analysis is not entirely adequate and for materials which may exhibit a dual
ductile-brittle behaviour.
Higher working stresses may be used if suitably justified by a detailed
analysis.
REFERENCES
1. McCLINTOCK F. A. & ARGON A. An Introduction to the Mechanical

Behaviour of Materials (Massachusetts Inst. Techn., 1962).
2. TIPPER C. F. Metallurgia 39 (1949) 133.
3. BoYD G. M. Engineering 175 (1953) 65, 100.
4. HETENYI M. Handbook of Experimental Stress Analysis (Wiley, 1960).
5. EVANS U. R. The Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals (Edward Arnold,
1960).
6. BERGGREN R. G. et. a/., Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 87, 1963.
7. HARRIEs D. R. J. Iron St. Inst. 194 (1960) 289.
8. ETHERINGTON H. Nuclear Engineering Handbook (McGraw-Hill, 1958).
9. SIEBEL E. Handbuch der Werkstoffpriifung (Springer, 1955).
10. LAWTON C. W. Proc. S.E.S.A. 17 (1960) 149.
11. BERMAN I. & PAl D. H. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 41 (1962) 307s.
12. FESSLER H. & FOREMAN J. J. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 3 (1961) 42.
13. KERKHOF W. P. 'Design Against Excessive Plastic Deformation', A.S.M.E.
Paper No. 60-Pet-2.
14. A.S.M.E., Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Nuclear Vessels
(1963).
N*
11 Plastic Collapse
11·0 INTRODUCTION
T of revolution,
HEpreceding chapters have dealt with the stress analysis of thin shells
loaded in the elastic range, for which the relationship
between the state of stress and the state of strain is adequately described by
means of the generalized Hooke's law. The states of stress and strain are
then directly related to the actual load and are independent of the loading
history. At increased values of the load, there comes a more or less well
defined point where the elastic conditions outlined cease to be valid over a
certain region of the vessel. If this region were isolated from the rest of the
vessel, it would flow plastically. This is prevented by the remaining elastic
regions. As the load is further increased, the plastic region spreads over the
rest of the vessel until the elastic region either disappears or is insufficient to
prevent the failure of the structure. The value of the load for which this
occurs is called collapse load or bursting pressure and its calculation will be
discussed in the following paragraphs.
At present, the incipience of plastic flow is predicted in accordance with
one of two criteria. The maximum shear criterion, proposed by Tresca, states
that yielding begins when the maximum shearing stress reaches a critical
value. If the state of stress is described by the three principal stresses, q 1 ,
q2, (1 3 , one can write
-rmax = maximum of 1 2
I
1(1 -(1211(1 1 -(1 3 1(12 -(13 I
= critical value •
' 2 ' 2
This critical value is equal to the maximum shearing stress, at yielding, in

the uniaxial tensile test, i.e.
(11·1)
where Y is the yield stress in uniaxial tension. The von Mises criterion states
that yielding begins when
1
.J2 .J {((11- (12) 2+ (ql- (13) 2+ (q2- (13) 2} y (11·2)
382
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 383
Equations 11·1 and 11·2 represent two surfaces, called the yield loci. When
u 3 = 0 (plane stress) these loci become, respectively, a hexagon and an
ellipse (Fig. 11·1). Taking the vectorS of components (u 1 , u 2 , u 3 ) to represent
the state of stress, when S is interior to the yield locus, the material remains
elastic; but when the end point of Sis on the locus, it starts to yield.
When the behaviour of the material under uniaxial tension is described
-Y y
(O.C)
Tresca hexagon
y
Von Mises ellipse
-Y
(0,- C)
FIG. 11·1 Tresca's and von Mises' yield criteria.
by Fig. 11·2(a) (elastic/plastic) or Fig. 11·2(b) (rigid/plastic) S cannot extend

outside the yield locus and plastic flow continues while the end point of S is
on this locus. From the uniaxial stress-strain curves it is apparent that this
condition is not sufficient to determine the strain. An additional condition
that expresses the incompressibility of the material during plastic flow, must
be considered also:
i.e. (11·3)
The components of the strain vector E are then (e 1 , e2 , -e 1 -e2 ), and those
of the strain rate vector E are (8 1 , 82 , -8 1 -8 2 ). At a given scale, E can be
represented with its origin on the end point of S. The flow rule then states
that when the end point of S lies on the yield surface, E is along the outward
normal to this surface. The flow rule associated with Tresca's criterion for
plane stress (Fig. ll·l) is therefore
81 c, 82 0 when 0'1 y
81 0, 82 c "
0'2 y
81 -C, 82 c "
0'1 -0'2 -Y
81 -C, 82 0 0'1 -Y
"
81 0, 82 -C 0'2 -Y
"
Ill c, 82 = -C 0'1 -0'2 y
"
(a) (b)
.:= .:=
<;; <;;
,.£!
~ ~
l:l
~
.,';:s"'
t!:;
Strain Strain
Fxo. 11·2 Uniaxial stress-strain curves under progressive loading: ideal
elastic/plastic and rigid/plastic materials.
where Cis a positive parameter. At the corners of the hexagon, any linear
combination (with positive coefficients) of the adjacent sides is acceptable.
The flow rule associated with von Mises criterion is obtained by noting that
the direction cosines of the normal to the yield surface are proportional to
(2a 1 -a2 - a 3), (2a 2 - a 1 -a3 ), (2a 3 - a 1 -a2 ). The flow rule is then expressed
by the equations
(11·4)
which are the well known St. Venant's equations.

In the case of a strain hardening material (Fig. 11·3) the uniaxial stress-
strain curve may be represented by two expressions, one valid in the elastic
field
(jelastic E Belastic < Y (11·5)
and one valid in the plastic field
uplastic = B ebplastic+ Y
the total strain being
8 = Belastic + Bplastic
When large plastic deformations exist, the elastic strain may be neglected.
In these expressions, u is the true stress, i.e. the ratio of the load to the actual
cross-section, and e is the logarithmic strain, defined as
dl . l (l-1 0 )
de = l' I.e. e = log.~ = log. ----z;-+1
where 1is the actual length of an element of initial length /0 • For small strains
l-1 0
8 ::::::!
lo
It is apparent, from Fig. 11·3, that

plastic flow can only proceed under
increasing values of the stress, i.e.
when S is external to the initial yield
surface defined by Eqns. 11·1 or 11·2.
A simple geometrical interpretation of
this behaviour is to assume that the
yield surface expands, without alter-
ing its shape, when the strain increases.
Equations 11·1 and 11·2 can still
describe the yield criteria, provided
Strain that their second term is taken to be
FIG. 11· 3 Uniaxial stress-strain curves a certain function of the strain:
under progressive loading: strain hardening
material.
maximum of I u 1 - u 2 1 or I u 1 - u 3 1 or I u 2 - u 2 1
according to Tesca's criterion or
1 y /{ (u 1 - u2 ) 2 +(u 1 - u 3) 2 +(u 2 - u 3) 2} =
..) (e 1 , e2 , e3) (11·7)
2 uM
according to von Mises. It is usually assumed that the same functional

relationship that exists between uniaxial stress and strain exists between the
so called significant stress, iiT or iiM and a significant strain, defined as being
equal to the maximum absolute value of e1 , e2 , e3 ,
eT = maximum of Ie1 I or Ie2 1or Ie3 l (11·8)
in line with Tresca, and
(11·9)
in line with von Mises.

Equations 11·5, or Fig. 11·3, valid for uniaxial stress-strain relations will
therefore represent the relationship between the significant stress and strain.
In addition the incompressibility condition and the flow rule condition must
also be satisfied under plastic flow.
The simplest application of the above principles is the calculation of the
bursting pressure for thin cylinders and spheres, treated in the following
section.
11·1 BURSTING PRESSURE OF THIN-WALLED SPHERICAL

AND CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
The plastic instability of thin-walled cylindrical and spherical vessels under

internal pressure has been treated extensively (see, for instance, Refs. 1, 2).
Very briefly, in the case of spherical shells we know from equilibrium con-
siderations, that
Pr
(1 =
2t
where a is the hoop or meridional stress, r is the mean radius (initial value r 0 )
and t is the shell thickness (initial value t0 ).
Also
t .
e, = 1oge -, I.e. t = to e
e
r
to
r .
e9 = 1oge -, I.e. r = r0 ee9
ro
where e, = radial strain and e9 = hoop strain, both logarithmic.

Due to symmetry, the hoop and meridional strains are equal. The incom-
pressibility condition then gives
e, = -2e0
For a strain hardening material, the significant strain is obtained from
Eqns. 11·8 or 11·9
since the hoop, radial and circumferential directions are principal. Expressing
r and t as function of their initial values and e,
C1
FIG. 11·4 Graphical determination of the bursting pressure of thin cylindrical

and spherical vessels.
u- Pro 32/2
= - e
2t0
i.e.
P __ 2to
- e -32/2 u-
ro
if, in this case, is the significant stress.
For instability to occur, increased deformation must be possible without any
increase in load, i.e.
dP
de
i.e.
2 dii
= (j
3 de
The values of if and e corresponding to this condition may be obtained by
means of the graphical method illustrated in Fig. 11·4, once the uniaxial
stress-strain curve is known. In Fig. 11·4, AS is the tangent at the point of
instability and BS is equal to f. Alternatively, Eqns. 11·5 can be used to

determine ii and s, coupled with the instability condition. The bursting
pressure is then
_ 2 fo - -3s/2
p max - - ( (J e )instability
ro
Similar considerations lead to the instability condition for thin cylinders:
_l_ dii -
2 de = a
and
to -u
p max = - ((J e )instability
ro
Typical results are shown in Table 11 ·1. It is apparent that the bursting
pressure cannot be obtained from the U.T.S. of the material.
TABLE 11·1
BURSTING PRESSURE OF THIN SPHERICAL AND
CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
Material U.T.S. Bursting Pressure (lb/in 2 )

(10 3 lb/in 2 ) Spheres Cylinders
Mild steel 75 142,000 t 0 /r 0 66,000 to/r0

Mn-tMo steel 80 146,000 tofro 70,000 t 0 /ro
18Cr-8Ni steel 80 135,000 to/ro 60,000 t 0 /ro
11-2 BURSTING PRESSURE OF THICK-WALLED

SPHERICAL AND CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
In the case of thick vessels, the simplifying assumptions of negligible radial

stress can no longer be made. Solutions for ideally plastic materials are
(Ref. I)
2r0 +t0
= 2 Yog
I - -
e 2ro-to
for a spherical vessel and
- 2 Yl og 2r0 +t0
.j3 e 2ro-to
for a cylindrical vessel: r0 and t0 are the initial values of the mean radius
and the thickness. The case of strain hardening materials will be considered
next.
11·2·1 Spherical Vessels

Considering an undeformed element ABCD of the spherical vessel shown in
Fig. 11·5, after deformation it becomes A' B' C' D' and
C1,p
(a)
C1 + tiCTr
(b)
fle
FIG. 11·5 Stress and strain in thick-walled vessels.
B,
(11-10)
As in the case of thin vessels (§ 11·1)
and the significant stress and strain (Tresca or von Mises) become
e= 1e, 1 = - e, = 2 e6 (11·11)
jj = a9-a, (11·12)
From the preceding equations
du re"8 de6 + (e"8 -1) dr
du (e- 8 -1)dr = !re'12 de+(efl2-1)dr
therefore
de 2dr
e 3</2_1 (11·13)
r
From Fig. ll·S(a), the equilibrium of the volume element A' B'C' D'-
A"B"C" D" gives the condition
~+2 a,-a6 = 0 (11·14)

du+dr u+r
Substituting the value of a,-a6 from Eqn. ll·l2, the values of du and u
from Eqn. 11·10, and the value of drfr from Eqn. 11·13 and expressing the
strains as functions of e (Eqn. 11·11 ),
iid e
d a, = 1 -e 3e/2
Since a, = -P, e when r = ri
a, = 0, r
"
the internal pressure becomes
p (11·15)
From Eqn. 11· 13,
where the integration constant can be expressedl in function of the strain at

the inside wall:
e0 = ~ log. [ 1 +(~J (e 3
""
2
-1) J (11-16)
In Eqn. 11·15, the pressure corresponding to a given strain at the bore can
therefore be obtained by substituting 80 from Eqn. 1H 6, provided that the
significant or uniaxial stress-strain relation is known. The maximum pressure
can then be obtained by taking
which is equivalent to
"I,.,,~ "l,.~x !+(?.)' (e"'"-1)

(11·17)
ei and 80 are obtained from Eqns. 11·16 and 11·17 with the stress-strain
relation
a = F(e)
which may be given by Eqn. 11·5 or in graphical form. Once ei and 80 are
determined, the maximum pressure is obtained by integrating Eqn. 11·15.
When the stress-strain relation is given in graphical form, it is possible
to use the method illustrated in Fig. 11·6. The first step is to draw curves OA
and OB and a straight line at 45° to the axis, OC. Selecting a point M, the
points Nand Pare then obtained. For instability, the segment NP must be
parallel to the strain axis. Mter some trials, the points M, N, P corresponding
to instability are determined. Drawing now the line OD, the maximum
pressure is equal to the area defined by the N and P ordinates.
11·2·2 Cylindrical Vessels

In this case, Eqns. 11·10 remain valid. Under plane strain conditions the
longitudinal strain is zero and
e8 +e, = 0
the significant strain (von Mises) is
2
e= - 68
J3
From the flow rule condition (Eqn. 11·4)
0
=
and the significant stress (von Mises) is

- -.)3
u = 2 (u 6 -u,)
The equilibrium conditions are, from Fig. 11·5(b),

c
Stress- Strain
t t
OM= Ej MN=ai __ =PP'

• =Eo
MM'=e 0 = OP'
FIG. 11·6 Graphical determination of the bursting pressure of thick spherical
vessels.
du, u,-u6 __
0
--+--
du+dr u+r
From these equations, and following the same procedure as for the spherical
vessels, one obtains
p = I iid e
ii
to
e• "' 3 -1
(11-151)
(11-161)
50
~
Eo= J log,[l + Cf;f (e..f3E; -I)] (Eqn. 11.16') o·J
:§.
::!:!
§
::::, JOO
~ 300 A= 5·50 em?

P =A. X (0"05) X ( 100,000) = 27,500 /b in 2
500
700
900
1100
1300~~-------------------------------------------J
FIG. 11·7 Theoretical bursting pressure of Al-2Mg cylindrical vessel
(U.T.S. = 14 ton/in 2).
e'' v'3
iii f = f1
iii i! = i!0
X 1 +(r; 2
;:;,) (e •·v'3
' -1)
(11-17')
equivalent to Eqns. 11·15, 11·16 and I H 7.

The same method that was used for the solution of the problem in the
case of spherical vessels may now be applied to cylindrical vessels. This has
been done, for an aluminium alloy vessel, in Fig. 11·7. The bursting pressure
in this case is 27,500 lb/in 2 , when the outside radius is twice the inside
radius. The experimental value (Ref. 3) was 24,500 lb/in 2 •
11·2·3 Cylindrical Vessels: Anisotropic, Strain Hardening Materials

The preceding analysis has been made under the assumption that the material
is isotropic. In the case of cylindrical pressure vessels, fabricated by forging,
or by welding plates in the longitudinal and hoop directions, the material
may have different directional properties. To take into account this aniso-
tropy we define the parameters
YIJ = ( 2(J )2 ; Yr = (' )2

2(J
Uuo ,Uur
where u" is the true ultimate stress in the longitudinal direction and uu8 , u"'
are the true ultimate stresses in the hoop and in the radial directions, respec-
tively. The flow rule (von Mises) is then
6,
=
YIJ uiJ- (YIJr u,+Yox ux)
with
Yor+Yox Yo
Yox+Yrx 1
Since
The significant stress is (Ref. 4)
jj J {Yor (uiJ- u,) + YIJx (uiJ- ux) + Yrx (u,- Ux)
2 2 2}
(u 8 -u,)JG
where
G = YIJx Yrx + Yor Yrx + YIJx YIJr
and the significant strain
6- 1 '\/'{YIJr(Yrx61J-YIJx6r) 2 +Yrx(Y1Jx6r-YI1r6x) 2 +YIJx(YIJr6x-Yrx61J) 2}

= G
when the incompressibility condition is taken into account, becomes
- = 1-
6
.JG 6
IJ
(11-1611)
These equations are similar to those derived for isotropic materials, with the
exception of the factor 2.jG, instead of .j3. In fact, for an isotropic material
Yo = Yr = 1
Yex = Yer = Yrx = -!
and G = i, 2-JG = -J3
Due to this similarity, the same method of solution is applicable.
11·2·4 Approximate Expressions

The expressions previously obtained involve a substantial amount of com-
putation. They also require a detailed knowledge of the mechanical pro-
perties of the material.
Several approximate formulae have been proposed for the evaluation of the
bursting pressure of cylindrical pressure vessels. A detailed comparative
review of all those formulae currently used has been made by Marin and
Weng (4). A fairly accurate, semi-empirical expression is
2 U.T.S. I ro
p =- - - og.- (11-18)
-J3 1+eu ri
where U.T.S. = nominal ultimate tensile stress, e" = nominal strain at
rupture, r 0 = nominal outside radius and ri = nominal inside radius.
An empirical expression, derived by Faupel and Furbeck, has also been
found to give good results:
p = 2 y(2--y-)
-J 3 U.T.S.
log. ~
ri
(11·19)
using the same notation as for Eqn. 11·18. In addition, Y is taken either
as the yield stress or the 0·2% proof stress.
11·2·5 Compound Cylindrical Vessels

In the synthesis of anhydrous ammonia, and in some other chemical processes
such as coal hydrogenation, it is not uncommon to find operating pressures

as high as 20,000 lb/in 2 • In these cases, the fabrication of simple cylindrical
vessels may well prove to be uneconomical or even outside the scope of
rn-!
r2
r,
ro
i\
/:"--
I.
~
/~ ~
~ ~
/['_
~/
I
['.,
/f'.- ~
v~ I
~/ ~
V'-
/'\,
~~
I
•
'\,/
""
I
~
~/
~ ~ ~
['< I ['\
FIG. 11·8 Compound cylinder.
most manufacturers, due to the large wall thicknesses required. Compound

cylinders, fabricated by shrinking together a series of relatively thin-walled
units or by winding a continuous thin strip round a core or cylinder, reinforced
with bands, may be preferred. This type of construction has also been pro-
posed on several occasions for large vessels, designed to operate at considerably

lower pressures (Ref. 5), but it has never found wide commercial application.
In fact, the general trend is to extend the range of conventional pressure
vessels that can be manufactured economically by improving the materials
and the fabrication and inspection methods. As a result, the use of special
vessels remains restricted to only a few very high pressure applications (see,
for instance, Ref. 6).
Compound cylinders are manufactured by shrinking together several
concentric cylinders. It has been suggested (Ref. 7) that, for the best utiliza-
tion of the material, all the individual simple cylinders should reach the yield
point simultaneously. Let us consider the compound cylinder shown in
Fig. 11·8, subjected to an internal pressure P0 and an external pressure Pn
(usually equal to zero). The hoop and radial stresses in one of the elementary
cylinders, say (i), are given by the Lame equations
Pirf-Pi+1 rf+1+ Pi-Pi+1 rf rf+ 1
rf+1-rf ,.z rf+t -rf (11·20)
Pirf-Pi+1 rf+1 Pi-Pi+1 rf rf+ 1
=
(1 r
rf+1-rf ,.zrf+1-rf
the radial deflection is
r
u = re8 = E(a8 -va,-vax)
(11·21)
If we assume now that the material follows Tresca's yield criterion, incipient
yielding will occur when
From Eqn. 11·20,

(11·22)
By stating that all the simple cylinders are in a condition of incipient yielding
we have
1 -!Y [1-G:YJ
P = P0
(11·23)
~~-~ ~1-!Y[l-G:YJ = Po-!Y[2-G:Y -G:YJ
Pn = Pn_ 1 -!Y[1-(r~~ 1 YJ = P -!Y[n-G:Y -GJ
0
2
- ••• -(,.",.~ 1 YJ
Incipient yielding would then occur for
while for a solid wall cylindrical vessel of equivalent dimensions
using Tresca's criterion. It is apparent that P 0 > P ~-

The interference between the adjacent cylinders (i-1) and (i) is, from Eqns.
11·21 and 11·22,
~i-1,i = U;-1 I r = ,,
I
-U;
r = ,, E
(r;_
r; Y-[ 1- - 1 ) 2]
=-
r; (11·24)
under conditions of plane stress (ux = 0, open ended cylinders) or

generalized plane stress or strain (ux = constant). We can see that the
interference is independent of the internal pressure and is therefore equal to
the actual interference achieved during assembly. From Eqn. 11·24
(11·25)
The design procedure is to select the number of simple cylinders, n, and their
final radii, checking that Eqn. 11·23 is satisfied. The interference between
inside and outside initial radii of each adjoining cylinder is then obtained
from Eqns. 11·25. The process is repeated until satisfactory interferences,
compatible with the available manufacturing methods, are obtained. Al-
though the analysis has been limited to simple cylinders having the same
yield point, different materials may be used. The extension of the analysis
to cover this case is trivial.
The bursting pressure of the compound ideally plastic cylinder may be
obtained in a very simple way. When all the elementary cylinders are fully
plastic, from § 11·2,
or taking
0
2 rn
-Ylog-
.J3 e rn-1
2 rn
-.- Y log.--
..j3 rn-2
2 rn
po = .J3 y log. -;:;;
When all the elementary cylinders are made of the same, ideally plastic
material, there is therefore no apparent difference between the bursting
pressure of the compound vessel and that of a solid wall cylinder of equal
dimension and of the same material. The only advantage lies, then, in that
a higher pressure is required to initiate yielding in the compound cylinder
than in the equivalent solid wall vessel. This conclusion does no longer hold
for strain hardening materials.
The previous equation may be modified to take into account the possi-
bility of using different materials for the elementary cylinders. We would
then have
Po 2 ( Y0 log.-+
= ..,- r2
r 1 Y log.-+···+ rn )
Yn-l log- (11·26)
.J 3
1
ro r1 rn-1
A more detailed analysis of the compound cylinder has been published by

Becker (8).
11·3 TRESCA YIELD CRITERION FOR RIGID/IDEALLY

PLASTIC SHELLS
11·3·1 Exact Condition

For the determination of the load required to produce plastic collapse of a
thin shell of revolution it is usually assumed that the material is rigid/ideally
plastic. In the elastic region, the deformations of the shell are therefore
neglected, although the stress distribution is still obtained from a conven-
tional elastic analysis. The yield surface is expressed in function of the
resultant forces and moments per unit length instead of the stresses u 8, u"'
acting on an element (Fig. 11·9). The equation of the yield surface is then
(11·27)
Inside
,fr•·
face
Outside
Ne face
FIG. 11·9 Resultant forces and moments and stresses.
Outside face
Inside face
(a)
(b)
Fro. 11·10 Strain distribution in shell.

where
Ne. Nq,.
ne = No '
nq, = No '
No = Yt
Me Mq,. Yt 2
me = -·
Mo '
mq, = Mo'
Mo = 4
representing a surface in a four-dimensional space. Using Tresca's criterion,

this surface is bound by
ne = ±1; nq, = ±1; me = ±1; mq, = ±1
If Bem and Bq,m are the strain rates of the mid-surface and Xq, and i.e are the
rates of change of curvature, the rate at which energy is dissipated from a
shell element of unit area is
W = NeBem+Nq,Bq,m+Mq,Xq,+Mei.e
(11·28)
where
For the determination of the Tresca yield surface and associated flow rule,
it is convenient to express ne, nq,, me, mq,, and Bem• B<J>m• ke, kq, as functions of
three parameters p, q, r. Referring to Fig. 11·10,
. 4
Be Bem -i.e z = llem-t ke Z
4
eq, = Bq,m-Xq,Z Bq,m-t kq,z
and
Bem. Bq,m • q Bem+Bq,m
p = 4ks'
r
4k' = 4(ke+kq,)
(11·29)
4>
therefore
Bom = 4Cp(q-r)
Sq,m = 4Cr(p-q)
ko C(q-r)
kq, C(p-q)
where C is a magnitude parameter.

The rate of energy dissipation, per unit volume, from an element situated
at a distance z to the mid-surface is
w1 = ¥8
t/2
W= J Y8dz = N 0 (n 0 Bom+nq,Eq,m+m 0 k 0 +mq,kq,)

-t/2
One can also write (Ref. 9)

. aw aw aw
W = ;-;- Born+ ;-;- Bq,rn + .'1 k ko + .'1 k kq,
aw
u Born u Bq,m u o u q,
which, combined with the previous equation gives,
t/2
no = _1 aW = ! _a
N 0 iJB 6m t 0 Born
[ f 8 dz]
-t/2
and the analogous expressions for nq,, m6 , mq,. These expressions will now be
used for the derivation of the relations between the resultant forces and
moments and the parameters p, q, r. Take for instance the strain distribution
throughout the shell thickness shown in Fig. ll·lO(a). 8 is obtained as
shown in Fig. 11·1 O(b) and the integral
t/2
J8dz
-t/2
is equal to the shaded area. If Bem is increased by bBem' the new strain rates
Be and Bq, are given by the dotted lines in Fig. ll·lO(a) and the variation in
the integral is
or
1 A
- ~=p+q=no
t uBem
In the same way one obtains
1 A
- -.- = q + r = nq,
t b Bq,m
t {) Ake
1 2 2
= 1-2 (p + q ) = me
1 A
t b kq, = 1-2(q2+r2) = mq,
The results of a complete analysis are summarized in Table 11·2 (Ref. 9).
In all cases, the upper or lower signs must be used consistently in a given
line, the correct combination being the one that makes W positive. When
p, q orr (as calculated from Eqns. 11·29) are greater than t. they are replaced
by t in the expressions given in Table 11·2 for the stress resultants. Similarly
when p, q or r are smaller than - !, they are replaced by - t. When p = q = r
the intermediate parameter corresponds to the parameter with the largest
numerator in Eqns. 11·29. Expressing the resultant forces in terms of p, q, r,
the equation of the yield surface (Eqn. 11·27) is
F'(p, q,r) = 0 (11·30)
TABLE 11·2
TRESCA YIELD CONDITIONS FOR UNIFORM SHELL
Intermediate
Parameter ne nq, me mq,
p ±(p+q) ±(q-r) ± 1 +2(p2+q2) ±2(r 2-q 2)

q ±(p+q) ±(q+r) ±1+2(p2+q2) ±2(q 2 +r 2 )
r ±(q-p) ±(q+r) ±2(p•-q•) + 1 +2(q 2 +r 2 )
The tangent to this surface in the plastic regime t<p<q<r< --!is given
by the vector
or
S' = (dp+dq, dq+dr, -4pdp-4qdq, -4qdq-4rdr)
Defining the generalized strain rate vector
E = (88m• Bq,m• k9, kq,)
the product of the two vectors is
E.S'=O
It can be shown that this product is also zero for the other plastic regimes.
When the generalized strains and resultant forces and moments are expressed
as functions of p, q, r and Eqn. 11· 30 is satisfied, the flow rule associated
with Tresca's criterion is also satisfied.
It is apparent that the use of this yield criterion results in non-linear
problems of difficult solution. One possible simplification is to assume that
the shell behaves as if bending is taken by the outer layers and the inner core
has no tensile strength but takes all the shear. In such a sandwich shell, the
thickness of the core would be t' and that of the thin outer layers t", and
N 0 =2Y't"=Yt
M0 = Y't"t' = i Yt 2
For such shell, the Tresca yield condition is given in Table 11·3 (Ref. 10).
11·3·2 Simplified Yield Conditions

The expressions previously obtained are too complex to be used in the
majority of the applications, and in order to simplify the problem, various
approximations have been suggested.
TABLE 11·3
TRESCA YIELD CONDITIONS FOR SANDWICH SHELL
Face Stress Resultants Strain Rate Vector
as= y n6 +m6 = 1 C(1, 0, +1, 0)

G'.p = y n.p+m<P = 1 C(O, 1, 0, +1)
G'.p-0'6 = y -n6+n.p±(m6-m.p) =1 C(-1, 1, ±1, +1)
0'6 = - y -n6 ±m6 = 1 c (-1, 0, ± 1, 0)
G'.p = - y -n.p±m.p = 1 C(O, -1, 0, ±1)
a6 -a.p = Y n6-n.p+(m6-m.p) =1 C(1, -1, +1, ±1)
For the first approximation, k 8 and kq, are neglected:

E = (eom• Bq,m)
W = N 0 (8 0m n0 +eq,m nq,)
Yielding then occurs when
n0 = ±1, nq, = ±1 or n0 -nq, = ±1
the yield curve being the hexagon shown in Fig. 11·1. When the material
flows in the plastic regime corresponding to Face 1, n0 = 1 and the com-
ponents of the strain rate vector are (C, 0). Repeating this for the various
forces of the yield hexagon, Table 11·4 is obtained.
A second approximation was suggested by Drucker and Shield (11). In
this approximation it is assumed that the hoop moment can be neglected.
The longitudinal or meridional moment is taken into consideration, but it
is assumed that there is no interaction between it and the membrane stresses:
E = (eom• Bq,m• kq,)
W= No(e 0mn0 +eq,mnq,+kq,mq,)
In addition to the previous yield conditions, yielding also occurs when
mq, = ± 1. The yield condition is then represented in Fig. 11·11, and the
different plastic regimes are given in Table 11·5.
TABLE 11·4
YIELD CONDITIONS: MEMBRANE SOLUTION
Face Stress Resultants Strain Rate

Vector
I no= I C(I,O)
2 n,p = I C(O,I)
3 -no+n,p =I C( -I,I)
4 no= -I C( -I,O)
5 n,p =-I C(O,-I)
6 n0 -n,p = I C(1,-1)
n<f>
One moment limited interaction surface.
TABLE 11·5
DRUCKER AND SHIELD APPROXIMATE YIELD CONDITION
(One Moment Limited Interaction)

Vector
I no= 1 C(1,0,Q)
2 n,p = 1 C(0,1,0)
3 -no+n,p = 1 C(-1,1,0)
4 no= -1 C(-1,0,Q)
5 n,p = -1 C(0,-1,0)
6 no-n,p = 1 C(l,-1,Q)
7 m,p = 1 C(0,0,1)
8 m,p = -1 C(0,0,-1)
0
Hodge (10) suggests taking both resultant moments into account, assuming
that there is no interaction between them and the resultant forces. The yield
surface is then bounded by
n6 = ±1, nq, = ±1, n 6 -nq, = ±1
m 6 = ±1, mq, = ±1, m 6 -mq, = ±1
in a four-dimensional space. An ingenious representation of this fairly

complex surface is given in Ref. 11. Table 11· 5 can then be extended to cover
these conditions as follows.
TABLE 11·6
HODGE'S APPROXIMATE YIELD CONDITIONS
(Two Moment Limited Interaction)

Resultants
1 no= 1 C(1,0,0,0)
2 n,p = 1 C(0,1,0,0)
3 -n0 +n,p = 1 C( -1,1,0,0)
4 -n6 = 1 C( -1,0,0,0)
5 -n,p = 1 C(O,- 1,0,0)
6 n0 -n,p = 1 C(l, -1 ,0,0)
7 mo = 1 C(0,0,1,0)
8 m,p = 1 C(0,0,0,1)
9 -m0 +m,p = 1 C(0,0,-1,1)
10 -mo = 1 C(O,O,- 1,0)
11 -m,p = 1 C(O,O,O,- 1)
12 m 0 -m,p = 1 C(0,0,1, -1)
The projections of the yield surface on the (n 8 , nq,) and (m 6 , mq,) planes
will be two hexagons similar to the one of Fig. 11·1. In the n6-nq, hexagon
one can represent the plastic regimes 1-6 and in the m 6-mq, hexagon the plastic
regimes 7-12.
It can be shown (Ref. 12) that a yield surface of dimensions equal to those
of the two moment limited interaction surface multiplied by the constant
factor 0·618, lies within the Tresca yield surface. Using this modified limited
interaction surface therefore always results in conservative estimates.
11·4 APPLICATION OF LIMIT ANALYSIS TO DESIGN
Limit analysis methods-plastic design-have been successfully used for a

number of years for the design of steel frames. Their advantages are twofold.
On the one hand, their application to highly redundant frames is quite

simple and involves less computation than is required by other methods
based on the elastic behaviour of the structure. On the other hand, a better
utilization of the material is achieved, since they offer the possibility of
designing to higher working stresses for a given collapse-load/design-load
ratio.
During the past ten years, a pronounced interest has been shown in the
application of these methods to the design of pressure vessels. In this case,
however, the advantages of limit analysis over elastic design are less obvious
than in the case of open frames. First of all, the application of limit analysis
to shells is far from simple: while in the case of prismatic beams the yield
surface is just the hexagon or the ellipse shown in Fig. 11·1, in shells one has
a generalized surface in a four-dimensional space. In general, a solution is
only possible if simplifying assumptions that may jeopardize the exactitude
of the analysis are made (see § 10· 3·1 ). Secondly, the effect of temperature
stresses that can usually be neglected in most conventional structures is
frequently a very important factor in pressure vessel design. At present,
limit analysis cannot account for this effect except in elementary cases.
Finally, the collapse load very often has less importance in assessing the
safety of a pressure vessel than it has for other structures. Pressure vessels
are subjected to higher temperatures than most structures. They are also in
contact with fluids that may be corrosive. Under these conditions, creep,
brittle fracture, stress corrosion, etc., overshadow the importance of bursting
during the first pressurization. Limit analysis, however, is essential for the
prediction of the maximum load that the vessel can support under static,
time independent conditions. It is also likely to find an application for the
design of vessels subjected to incremental collapse (see Chapter 12).
It is interesting to note that the first pioneering papers on the application
of limit analysis to shells, other than elementary spheres or cylinders, were
published some ten years after the method became fully developed for the
design of steel frames. Even now, limit analysis, although a promising method,
is still seldom applied to the design of the pressure vessels or to the assess-
ment of their safety.
11·4·1 General Principles

In a perfectly plastic shell, the relationships between the collapse load and
the corresponding stress, strain rate and displacement rate systems are
defined by the following:
(a) Equilibrium conditions, correlating the load on a shell element with
the stress resultants (forces and moments). These conditions are the same
as for the elastic shell.
(b) Strain-rate/displacement-rate relations, analogous to the strain/dis-

placement relations for elastic shells.
(c) Yield condition
F(n 0 , nq,, m 0 , mq,) =0
and the associated flow rule.
In addition, the load, stress, strain rate and deformation rate systems have
to satisfy the boundary conditions. Also, from the principle of virtual work,
the work done by the stress resultants on the strain rates-internal work-
is equal to that done by the external loads on the displacement rates-
external work.
It is seldom possible to find the actual collapse load and its associated stress,
strain rate and displacement rates systems. In general, only upper and lower
bounds can be determined for the collapse load. A lower bound is obtained
by the determination of a statically admissible system, defined as any system
which satisfies the equilibrium conditions, the stress boundary conditions
and for which
Drucker et al. (13), have shown that
collapse load> statically admissible load.

An upper bound is found by the consideration of a kinematically admissible
system. This is defined by selecting a displacement rate system compatible
with the boundary conditions. The corresponding strain rate system is then
obtained from conditions (b), and the flow rule and yield surface define a
stress system which may not be unique but results, however, in a unique
value of the internal work. Taking the unit external work as the work of a
unit load on the selected displacement rate system.
. . 11 d . "bl 1 d
k mematlca internal work
y a miSSl e oa = . k
umt externa1 wor
and it can be shown (Ref. 13) that
collapse load< kinematically admissible load.
The application of these principles will now be illustrated by some examples.
11·4·2 Simply-Supported Circular Plate Under Uniform Load

In a circular plate under uniformly distributed pressure, as shown in Fig.
11·12, the equilibrium conditions are
d
dr (rN,)-Ne =0
d
r Nz- dr (r M,)+Me =0
with the deformation rate (Vm V,)

.
Bem
v,.
= -; e,m = dr
. dV,
r
1 dVn
i.e=---;
r dr
P,V,.
(b)
(a)
FIG. 11·12 Resultant forces, deformation rates and yield locus for a flat plate.
The equilibrium equations are simplified in this case, since N, = Ne = 0, and

Pr
2
d
-(rM)-Me
dr '
With p = P/N0 , q = NzfN0 and taking into account Eqn. 11·27, these
equations become
pr
q
2
2r 2 d
-p- - (rm )-me
t dr '
A displacement rate is now selected and defined by

v, 0
when R is the outer radius. This system is compatible with the boundary
conditions. The corresponding strain rate system, using the notation of
Eqn. 11·28, is
The generalized strain vector is then

t V0
E= 4 rR (0, 0, 1, 0)
while the stress vector is
S = (0, 0, m 8 , m,)
Tresca's yield condition can therefore be represented by the hexagon Fig.
11-12(b), and the yield state will clearly be AB.
The internal work can be obtained by integration of Eqn. 11·28:
W:. ID
t = f WdA = t2 Von y
2
area
The work of a unit load on the selected displacement rate system is
f(1-i)
R
W.,1 = V0 2nrdr
0
and the kinematically admissible load is

3 t2 y
pk .a. = -2R2- (11·31)
In this case, the kinematically acceptable system thus derived is also statically
acceptable. The equilibrium equations are
pr 3t
q ---r
2 2R 2
d
dr (rm,)-me
taking the plastic state AB, m0 = I, and from the preceding equation
m r
= (1- r2)
R2
which corresponds to a yield point along AB (A for r = 0) and satisfies the

boundary condition m, = 0 when r = R. Since the kinematically admissible
and the statically admissible solutions coincide, the collapse pressure is
entirely defined.
11·4·3 Band Reinforced Cylindrical Vessel

In a cylindrical shell, as shown in Fig. 11·13, the equilibrium conditions are
p
v,.
I
FIG. 11-13 Resultant forces and deformation rates for a cylindrical shell.
dN" 0
dx
dM"-N 0
dx z
with the deformation rate (Vn, V")

v,
Bom
r
d2Vn
Xo = O·' Xx
dx 2
M 9 , which does not appear in the equilib-
B rium conditions, has the character of a
reaction and may be eliminated from
the yield conditions. The one and two
moment limited interaction conditions
ne are then equivalent. With the same nota-
tion as in the previous section, the equilib-
rium equations become
A.
dnx = 0
dx
FIG. 11-14 Limited interaction sim-
plified yield condition for open ended
cylinder. dq 1
-+-no p
dx r
dm"-4!!. = 0
dx t
The last two equations are equivalent to

d2 m 4
--"+- (n 9 -pr) = 0
dx2 tr
We shall first solve the problem of a cylindrical vessel, open ended, with
a length 21 and simply supported at the ends. In order to derive a solution,
we first try
Since nx= 0, using the limited interaction yield surface (Fig. 11·11) it is
concluded that the plastic regime is AB (Fig. 11·14). From the previous
equation
where b and c are integration constants. At the centre
x = 0, ( d;:x) I"= 0 = 0 and b= 0

If there is no discontinuity
(dVn)l
dx x =o
_O
however, the rate of deformation field may well be as shown in Fig. 11·15,
in which case the condition is
FIG. 11-15 Deformation rate in cylinder with rigidly supported ends.
and a hinge circle is then produced. These hinge circles have the same effect
in shells as hinge joints in redundant frameworks. Taking the rate of deforma-
tion to be as shown in Fig. 11·15, one obtains c = - 1. At the ends,
(m,)lx=l 0
2
tr
2
- - (1-pr)l -1 0
p 1 (1
;:
tr)
+ 21 2
corresponding to a pressure
p (11·32)
The longitudinal moment is
and n8 = 1, n, = 0, m8 = 0 define the stress resultants. It can be checked

that the load and stress resultants thus defined and the rates of deformation
shown in Fig. 11·15 are both statically and kinematically admissible. They
o*
constitute the complete solution according to the limited interaction con-

dition.
If the cylinder is closed, an axial load is superimposed:
NIC = -J:Pr
The one moment limited interaction yield surface would still give the same
result. A better approximation to the Tresca yield surface is obtained using
the sandwich shell model. Taking, in Table 11·3,
nx = fpr<l
FIG. 11-16 Yield condition (sandwich shell) for cylinder with end load.
the yield locus shown in Fig. 11·16 is obtained. For simplicity the yield locus
will be taken to be ABCDE. From the previous solution
2
m = - - (1-pr)x 2 +c
x tr
at the hinge circle in the centre,
(mx) I
X= 0
= -(1-!!!);2
c = -(1- pr)
2
2 (1-pr)l-
-(;. 2 ( 1- pr) = 0
2
2 tr+21 2
corresponding to a pressure
2 Yt tr+2l 2
p (11·33)
r tr+4l 2
and a longitudinal moment
mx tr!~zz (T: -l)

Yield point of cylinder =Y
bands = Y'
t
I
'X
I
~.~
.
Deformed
l
surface
FIG. 11-17 Band reinforced cylinder.
If the cylinder had been closed with rigid ends, it can be shown that
2 Yt tr+ 12
p = -r- tr+2l 2 (l1· 34)
In the light of these results, the case of a band reinforced cylindrical vessel,
as shown in Fig. 11·17, will now be treated. It is apparent that in order to
achieve a balanced design, the shell and the bands should yield for the same
value of the internal pressure. From § 11·2 the maximum load transmitted
by the bands is
r+h Y' hw
Nzo ~ Y'wlogc-- ~--
r r
The shell will yield following Fig. 11·16, n8 is still assumed to be equal to
unity and hinge circles will be produced at the reinforcing bands (x = ± /)
and at the centre, x = 0.
(mx)ix= o= -(1-p;)
(mx)I x= I=
1-pr
2
another boundary condition is
e~x)lx=l =
( dd:x)lx =I
the integration constant then becomes
c = (mx)l X= 0
= -(1-pr) 2
mx 2 (1-pr)x 2 -
= -(;. ( 1-2
pr)
1-p; = -~ (1-pr)/ 2 -(1-P;)

2 tr+ 12
p = -;. tr+2f2
which corresponds to the same bursting pressure as given by Eqn. 11·34.

41 41
- tr ( 1 -pr) - tr+21 2 = qo
corresponding to
The dimensions of the reinforcing ring must be

Y'hw 2 Yt 2 1
--~
r tr+2 [2
Y 2 t2 l r
hw ~ (11·35)
Y' tr+21 2
the longitudinal bending moment is

2x 2 -l 2
m
x
= 21 2 + tr
so the complete solution satisfies the equilibrium conditions. Taking

V,. V0 (' -x); '~ l
Vx constant
the internal work becomes
· f
I
Wint = 2nrN0 Vo ('-x)dx

n8 --;:
0
and the external work
J V ((-x)dx-2nrM q V (,-l)-
I
W., 1 = 2nrN0 p 0 0 0 0
I l
-2nrM0 V0 (mx) x = 1-2nrM0 V0 (mx) x = 0 +2nY'whV0 (,-1)
= 2nN0 V0 z[pr(,-D-q 0 ;~ (,-1)-;~ (1-p;)]+

+2nY'whV0 (,-l)
The solution is also kinetically admissible. For the design of a band re-
inforced vessel, the only equations that are required are Eqns. 11·33 and
11·35, giving respectively the bursting pressure and the required dimensions
of the bands. The junction of the bands to the vessel must be sufficiently
rigid to prevent rotation.
11·4·4 Collapse Loads of Several Shells of Revolution

The collapse load of spherical caps has been obtained by Hodge (Refs. 10,
12). Hopkins and Prager (14), Hodge and Sankaranarayan (15) and Schumann
have studied various types of fiat plates and Hodge (17) has published general
solutions for shells of revolution loaded at the apex. Other cases are studied
in Refs. 12, 18 and 19 and a different method of approach to the determina-
tion of the collapse load may be seen in Ref. 20. Table 11·7lists some typical
results.
TABLE 11·7
COLLAPSE LOAD OF THIN SHELLS AND PLATES
Description Collapse Load

{I) Spherical Cap. Simp~l'
Supported Edge pcollapse = C ( -2tY)
r- t = shell thickness
t sin a
Upper bound, c < 1 + 4r y
log 1+sina ~sin a
e cos a
Lowerbound, c>1"0, c>0"618y
Solution valid only for,
cos1 a
sinJ a
[tog ---;;;sa
1+sin a
- sm. a ] ;a.
t
4i"
(2) Spherical Cap. Built-in 2tY)

pcollapse = C ( - , - t = shell thickness
Edge
Upper bound, c < 1 + :r
sin cp
= 1+-t .- = y
4r
log ~-sincp
e cos cp
Where cp <a
Lower bound, c > J·O, c > 0·6J8 y ; validity as (1).
(3) Circular Plate. Simply

Supported Edge P. _ 3 Yt 2
collapse- 2 --,:2
p I r
t = plate thickness
JilJJJJJ!jlllll~
- I -
(4) Circular Plate. Built-in

Edge Yt 2
f'collapse = 2· 814 f2
t = plate thickness
TABLE 11·7 Collapse load of thin shells and plates.

(5) Any Plate. Concentrated

Load
~I
(6) Conical Shell. Any Support
rrYt 2
Q collapse _- ---y- • 2
Sill a
t = shell thickness
(7) Any Shell of Revolution

Any Support. Load at Apex
~
t shell thickness
(8) Band Reinforced Vessel
p 2Yt tr+ 12
collapse = - r - tr + 21 2
d~-, =~ Minimwn cross sectional area of rings

f- ! - 21 given by Eqn. 11.35
1- ! -
c:::;.r.- ' ~tet
1---ir
(9) Cylindrical Shell. Ring

Load
Yt 2
~ollapse = ,.fit
Shell infinitely long
t = shell thickness, r = mean radius

REFERENCES
I. HoFFMAN 0. & SACHS G. Introduction to the Theory of Plasticity for

Engineers (McGraw-Hill, 1953).
2. HILL R. Mathematical Theory of Plasticity (Clarendon Press, 1950).
3. MARIN J. & Tu-LUNG WENG 'Strength of Thick-Walled Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 62-WA-227.
4. MARIN J. & Tu-LUNG WENG, Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 74,
1962.
5. LAKIN R. W. & GILL S. S. Proc. l. Mech. E. 174 (1960) 813.
6. DoNOVAN J. T., JOSENHANS M. & MARKOUTS J. A. Paper in Pressure
Vessel and Piping Design: Collected Papers (A.S.M.E., 1960).
7. BECKERS. J. & MOLLICK L. 'The Theory of the Ideal Design of a Com-
pound Vessel', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 59-A-125.
8. BECKERS. J. 'An Analysis of the Yielded Compound Cylinder', A.S.M.E.
Paper No. 60-SA-13.
9. 0NAT E. T. & PRAGER W. Proc. Academy of Sciences Amsterdam 57B
(1954) 534.
10. HODGE P. G. J. Appl. Mech. 27 (1960) 323.
11. DRUCKER D. C. & SHIELD R. T. J. Appl. Mech. 26 (1959) 61.
12. HODGE P. G. Limit Analysis of Rotationally Symmetric Plates and Shells
(Prentice-Hall, 1963).
13. DRUCKER D. C., GREENBERG H. J. & PRAGER W. Quart. Appl. Maths.
9 (1952) 381.
14. HOPKINS H. G. & PRAGER W. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 2 (1953) 1.
15. HODGE P. G. & SANKARANARAYAN R. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 8 (1960) 153.
16. SCHUMANN W. Quart. Appl. Math. 16 (1958) 61.
17. HODGE P. G. J. Appl. Mech. 27 (1960) 696.
18. HoDGE P. G. Plastic Analysis of Structures (McGraw-Hill, 1959).
19. ONATE. T. Quart. Appl. Math. 13 (1955) 63.
20. HIGGINSON G. R. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 2 (1960) 298.
12 Fatigue and Incremental Collapse
12·0 INTRODUCTION
C YCLIC fatigue is said to cause the failure of a structural member which

breaks during a load cycle that it has previously withstood. This type of
failure is perhaps the most common in machine elements subjected to cyclic
stresses in the elastic range. In the pressure vessel industry, a similar type of
elastic strain fatigue occurs when a component suffers rapid vibration, for
instance in welded brackets supporting unbalanced rotating machinery, in
pipes under pulsating flow, etc. The amplitude of the oscillations, compared
to the steady value of the load, is usually small and fracture occurs after a
large number of cycles, say 105-107 cycles. Design to prevent this type of
fatigue failure follows generally accepted rules and will not be discussed here
in detail, but the reader is referred to standard books on the subject (Refs.
1, 2, 3).
The necessity to reduce the safety factors in order to achieve a more
efficient use of the material, and the severity of the stresses set up during the
rapid transients to which modern plant is subjected, have brought to light
the problem of low cycle fatigue. In this case, failure occurs before about
104 -10 5 cycles, under applied stresses that are high enough to produce
appreciable plastic deformations, i.e. corresponding to a stress range of
about twice the yield stress. The mechanism of failure may be described as
follows. Assume that the stress-strain curve in uniaxial tension for a given
material is as shown in Fig. 12·1 and that cycling takes place between
+emax and -Bmw following the hysteresis loop OABCDA. The total strain
range is
Aer = Aee+AeP ~ AeP
where Aee is the elastic component and AeP the anelastic component. It is
usually possible to neglect the elastic component, thus obtaining the diagram
of Fig. 12·2. A rigid ideally plastic material, subjected to load cycles giving
the same strain range as before and complete strain reversals, would follow
OA 1 B 1 C1 D 1 A 1 • In this simple model, the difference between the strain
energy absorbed by the 'real' material and the ideally plastic material is,
421
2x t m(Aep) 2
per cycle. After N cycles, the energy becomes Nm(Aep) 2 • It is assumed that
Stress
D,, __
I D
I
I
I
I
FIG. 12·1 Plastic cycling diagram.
0'
FIG. 12·2 Simplified plastic cycling diagram.
the material can only absorb a certain amount of this energy (Ref. 4) and
that failure occurs when
(12·1)
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 423
where k is the critical value of absorbed energy (work hardening) for failure.
A further cause of cyclic failure is the progressive growth of the vessels
under a maintained load and cyclic stresses. This process, known as incre-
mental collapse or ratchetting, brings about failure through plastic instability.
In this chapter, fatigue and incremental collapse will be discussed in order
to derive the necessary design rules.
12·1 INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE
The mechanism of incremental collapse can be

illustrated by the following example, taken from
Ref. 5. Consider the three bar assembly shown
in Fig. 12 ·3, loaded in the elastic field by a weight
IJ A 8 P which is transmitted to the bars through the
rigid block C. The total cross-sectional area of
the outer bars is equal to that of the central
bar and the three bars are made of the same
material. Under these conditions, the stress in
all bars is equal to
p a 0 = P/(total cross-sectional area)
FIG. 12·3 Incremental collapse
of a bar. and the strain is
ao
Bo = E
where E is the modulus of elasticity. If the temperature of the outer bars is
now increased by T, the central bar will have to take a larger proportion of
the load, and it will yield when the temperature rises sufficiently. The condi-
tions will then be, for the central bar,
a~ a 0 +A 1
y a~- y
B~ = -+--
£ EP
assuming that the stress-strain curve may be represented by
a
B = - for a< Y
E
and
Y a-Y
-+--for a> Y
E EP
For the outer bars

(1~ Uo-~1
Uo-~1
e~ =
E
e~ -e~' a.T
If the temperature of the outer bars is now reduced by T, the central bar
will be unloaded and the stress-strain conditions become,
Stress
aT
aT
FIG. 12·4 Incremental collapse of a bar: stress-strain diagram.
u'2 = (1~ -~2
I ~2
e~ = el--
E
and for the outer bars,
u'{ u~' + ~2
y u'f.- y
e'f. = - +- - = e~ = e2
E EP
In Fig. 12·4 the points 2' and 2" correspond to the final conditions of the
central and outer bars.
Increasing again the temperature of the outer bars by T, the central bar is
loaded by Ll 3 , the outer bars are loaded by - il 3 and the difference between
the respective strain is rxT. In Fig. 12·4, points 3' and 3" are then obtained.
A reduction of the temperature by T would then cause a stress redistribution
by ± Ll 4 , and points 4' to 4" would finally correspond to the second tem-
perature cycle. It can be shown that points 2', 4', ... corresponding to the
stress-strain in the central bar at the end of 1, 2, ... cycles are located along
CA', symmetrical to CA with respect to OX, while 2", 4", ... are on CA.
Furthermore, the locus of points 1", 3", ... corresponding to the stress-
strain in the outer bars at the end oft. f, ... cycles is a line, parallel to CA'
and displaced by rxT.
A graphical method for the solution of the preceding equations is illustrated
in Fig. 12·5. Given the stress-strain curve, let 0 represent the initial condi-
Stress
c'
--r-=:::::::t~~~h:h=:==---:A'
:A."
FIG. 12·5 Incremental collapse of a bar: graphical solution.
tions. Take CA', symmetrical to CA with respect to OX, and C'A" displacing
CA' parallel to itself by rxT. The intersection of C' A" with the elastic portion
of the stress-strain curve is M, corresponding to I" in Fig. 12·4. The parallel
to the horizontal axis through M gives the point N on CA'. From N, the
parallel to the vertical axis gives PonCA. From P, the parallel to the elastic
part of the stress-strain curve gives Q on CA' and from Q, R is obtained by
drawing the parallel to the vertical axis. R and Q correspond to the points
2" and 2' of Fig. 12·4 respectively. Repeating this construction, the points
4, 6, 8, etc., are obtained. At the end of the first cycle the bars have stretched
by e2 , after two cycles by e4 , etc. It can also be shown that the points F, G, H,
I in Fig. 12·5 are aligned. The maximum elongation, after a sufficiently high
number of cycles, will be 6 00 :
\ ~
(a)
(b)
(
.f X Elongation (c)
Mid Surface
FIG. 12·6 Incremental elongation of mid-surface of plate under maintained

axial loading and alternating bending,
The case of a plate subjected to a constant axial load and to alternate

bending due, for example, to cyclic heating of one surface (Fig. 12·6), can be
treated in the same way. Initially, only the load P is present. The stress is
uniform and equal to um. When the bending moment is applied, yielding
occurs in the upper part of the plate, as shown in Fig. 12·6(a). Upon removal
of the bending moment, the whole plate behaves elastically and the final
stress distribution is obtained by adding the stress distribution (elastic) due
to a moment -M (Fig. 12·6(b)) to the previous stress. Figure 12·6(c) is then
obtained. It can be seen that, at the end of one cycle, the elongation of the
middle surface of the plate has been increased.
In pressure vessels, the cyclic variation of temperature or discontinuity
stresses added to stresses set up by steady loads, may have an effect similar
to the one described, i.e. a progressive growth of the vessel. This growth will
cause a gradual increase of the steady stresses until the onset of plastic
instability and the subsequent failure. It would appear that incremental
collapse is 'possible as soon as the sum of the steady and cyclic stresses
exceeds the yield point of the material. This is not necessarily true, because
as seen in the first example, the work hardening of the material may be
sufficient to stop the growth: provided that E 00 is lower than the strain
required for instability, the bars of Fig. 12·3, will not fail.
The extension of the previous examples to the determination of the incre-
mental collapse of vessels is an extremely difficult problem for which an
adequate solution has not yet been found (see, for instance, Refs. 5 and 6).
In a pressure vessel, consisting of several elementary shells-cylinders,
spheres, etc.-three types of stresses may be considered:
(a) Mechanically induced stresses in the elementary shells causing immedi-
ate collapse under sufficiently high load.
(b) Stress caused by the self-constraint of the structure, i.e. mechanically
induced stresses at the shell junctions, temperature induced stresses.
These stresses are not sufficient by themselves to cause collapse but,
together with the previous stresses, they may precipitate the onset of
plastic instability.
(c) Localized stresses caused by notch type stress raisers.
The phenomenon of incremental collapse is one which affects the structure
as a whole and therefore only those stresses causing gross deformation need
be considered: i.e. types (a) and (b). The limitation of the stresses of type (a)
has already been considered, a safe value being equal to 1Y. The maximum
elongation for the three-bar example, taking u0 = 1Y is
For an ideally plastic material, EP = 0 and 8 00 --+ oo. Incremental collapse

then occurs, unless
(a) (b)
aT= (a+l)2 I
a 3
(c)
FIG. 12·7 Elastic shakedown after the first cycle in an ideally plastic material
(3-bar example).
3aTE-4 Y = 0, aTE = 1- Y
in which case, elastic shakedown takes place after the first cycle. This is
illustrated in Fig. 12·7(a): cycling occurs between 2'-1' and 2"-1". A similar
effect is shown in Fig. 12·7(b), where
aTE <4 Y
In both cases, the final strain range for each bar is aT and the average stress
in the three-bar system u 0 •
In pressure vessels it is often the case that the deformation of a relatively
small part is forced by the elastic deformation of the bulk of the material.
In the three-bar &ystem, this condition can be approximated by assuming
the cross-sectional areas of bars II to be considerably larger than that of the
central bar I, say a times larger. For elastic shakedown to occur after one
cycle it is then necessary (Fig. 12·7(c)), to have
(a+l) 2 Y
aT'E ::::;; -
a 3
The limitation of the sum of the stresses of types (a) and (b), calculated by
means of an elastic analysis, to twice the yield stress has been suggested in
Chapter 10. In the three-bar example, the maximum stress, calculated
assuming elastic behaviour, is
a
u = u 0 +--
1 aTE
a+
In order to maintain this stress below 2 Y, one must have
4(a+l)Y
rxTE:::;; -
a 3
Comparing this expression with the previous one, it is apparent that the
working stress criterion only covers against incremental collapse when
a+l > 4, a> 3
For instance, when a = 1, the limitation to twice the yield stress of the
fictitious elastic stress requires
aTE::::;; tY
or twice the value previously calculated. In this case, incremental collapse
can only be prevented by strain hardening. On the other hand, when only
a very small portion of the vessel is affected-large values of a-the cal-
culated stresses may be higher than twice the yield point. This is a con-
servative criterion in the majority of cases. Complete and satisfactory design
rules are not yet available.
12·2 FATIGUE OF PRESSURE VESSEL MATERIALS
The problem oflow cycle fatigue, i.e. the effect on the pressure vessel material
of plastic straining, will be dealt with first. The failure of a material under
gradual uniaxial tension can be considered to be a case of low cycle fatigue,
in which failure occurs after i cycle. Referring to Eqn. 12·1, the critical work
hardening energy for failure provides a link between the conventional tensile
test and other cases of failure after a certain number of cycles.
Nm(Aep) 2 = k = ;imei
where ep is the strain to rupture, which can be calculated as follows. Assum-
ing that during yielding the volume of a specimen of initial length /0 and
area A 0 remains constant,
l0 A 0 = lA
Adl+ldA 0
dl dA
deF = -
l A
A
Bp =
-I~ Ao
= lo 100
g. 100-RA
where RA is the per cent reduction of area at failure. Referring to the first
equation
100 ) 2
N(Aep)
2
= 1 (
4 log. 100-RA
Assuming that the total strain range is approximately equal to the anelastic
strain, Eqn. 12·2 is obtained:
100
log. 100-RA
AeT = (12·2)
The effect on the pressure vessel material of cyclic variations of stress has
been studied experimentally by cycling simple specimens between two stress,
strain or load limits. In the case of ordinary, high cycle fatigue, the material
remains elastic and there is little or no difference between tests based on
controlled load, stress or strain range. This is not so in low cycle fatigue: if
the load range is the controlled variable, the strain range does not remain
constant throughout the test. Furthermore, due to the anelastic behaviour
of the material the stress is not proportional to the load and the stress range
also varies during the test. The work hardening and consequently the fatigue
damage per cycle then depends on the type of test.
From strain controlled tests with plain specimens, Tavernelli and Coffin (7)
found that Eqn. 12·2 predicted the fatigue life of twelve ferrous and non-
ferrous materials accurately over a wide range. Figure 12·8 summarizes their
results for several types of steel commonly used in pressure vessel construc-
tion, obtained under conditions of complete strain reversals.
Predicted Measured Material

12 0 347 S.S. (18Cr-10Ni-Cb)
A A-201 M.S. .
11 D 1Cr-lfzMo
StrbJ\ lEmax
10
7
r -V ____ _,__-Emax
0"!.
.;:
:.: 6
t:::i
5
2 10 J02
N (Cycles to failure)
FIG. 12·8 Comparison between strain controlled fatigue experiments and
theoretical prediction. (Complete strain reversals.)
In Fig. 12·9 (Ref. 8) the results obtained for Mn-! Mo steel to specifica-
tion A.S.T.M.-A302 under various mean strain-to-strain range ratios are
compared with the values predicted by Eqn. 12·2. It can be seen t~at the
predicted values are fairly accurate and that the errors are on the safe side
when
N> 4 and
0 (complete strain reversal)
When the mean strain differs from zero, Eqn. 12·2 can no longer be used.
A modified equation in good agreement with the experimental results is
the following:
I 100
oge 100-RA
AeT =
Taking Ae~ to be the strain range that would cause rupture after the same
number of cycles as AeT, under complete strain reversals,
Material A 302 ( Y.z Mo) Emean

Curve (Eqn.l2.3)
Aer
--o--
·-~~., 0
0•5
]·5
3•5
--c--
--t.--
--<>--
0
I\
52 \.
'''·
!a '\
'-,
40 ·-....----- Theoretical curve (Eqn. 12. 2)
0'5 ............ '\. Emean =0
"'-:-- [, Aer
]·5_.... ............. r"

..........
'~
2 :-- .... ~
....
- ~ .....
---·
--
3'5 1-7 ~-~
-~ .........
~ 8::! ~
r""
4 ...
10 100
N
FIG. 12·9 Comparison between strain controlled experiments and theoretical
predictions for various values of the mean strain (Ref. 8).
I 100
oge 100-RA
AeT ---------------- (12·3)
100
loge 100-RA -Bmean
where the strain range under complete strain reversals, equivalent to cycling
between Bmean±Aen is given by Eqn. 12·2.
When the number of cycles to rupture is below four, failure occurs at
lower strain ranges than predicted by the previous equations. This has been
explained by Sachs eta!. (9), who pointed out that in the static tension test of
ductile materials failure is usually due to a ratchetting process followed by
plastic instability, rather than to a work hardening process. It has been
suggested that the strain to rupture to be used in Eqn. 12·3 should then be
the 'apparent fracture ductility', sj,, obtained from extrapolation to N = !
of fatigue data. In general
' 1 100
SF< og. 100-RA = SF
In most experiments, the number of load cycles was considerably higher than
ten, and it therefore made little difference whether sF or sf. were used.
When the strain range is such that
y
AsT < 2 E
FIG. 12·10 Mean stress corresponding to cycling between emu and smln
(strain range less than twice yield strain).
work hardening-in the simple model of Fig. 12·2-only occurs in the first
cycle. The mechanism is then one of high cycle, low strain fatigue and cannot
be adequately described by the direct application of Eqns. 12·2 and 12·3.
In order to take into account the existence of an endurance limit in some
materials, or the tendency for the strain-range/cycles-to-rupture curve to
level off in others, Eqn. 12·2 can be modified as follows:
100
log. 100-RA 2S
----:-=-+-e (12·i)
2N 1 ' 2 E
where Se = endurance limit (unnotched specimens) or! of the stress range
to produce failure after 108 cycles (complete stress reversals). The yield stress
can be taken instead. When cycling occurs about a mean strain s 0 between
Smax and Smin> SUCh that
as shown in Fig. 12·10, the corresponding mean stress is Sm:
S = y _E!18r
m 2
The strain range under complete strain reversals, 118~, equivalent to cycling
between 8max and 8min• may be obtained from a Goodman diagram as usual:
U.T.S.
!18r E118r
U.T.S.-Y+-2-
12·2·1 Cumulative Fatigue Damage

In general, a structure is subjected to a certain number, n1 , of cycles under
an equivalent complete strain reversal (118~) 1 , n2 under (!18~) 2 , etc. The
number of cycles to failure would be N 1 under (!18~) 1 , N 2 under (!18~) 2 ,
etc. The fatigue damage, from Eqn. 12·1 is
k (~+ nz +···)
Nt Nz
When this damage is equal to the critical constant k, failure occurs. Following
Miner (1 0), it is then necessary for
(12·4)
in order to avoid failure.

An interesting application is the assessment of the reduction in fracture
ductility caused by n load cycles of strain range 118r ~ !18P:
Nm(!18p) 2 = i m(8~) 2
the damage is
and the reduced value of the fracture ductility is then
im(e~)i = im(e~) 2 (1-~).

(e~) 1 = e~J(l-~)
the material has therefore lost some of its original ductility, and shows an
increased tendency to brittle fracture.
12·2·2 Effect of Notch-Type Stress Raisers

As discussed in§ 12·1, the presence of a small discontinuity such as a sharp
surface notch, a flaw or a pinhole is not likely to have any ratchetting effect.
The highly localized stress concentration due to a notch is, however, known
to have a strong effect on the fatigue strength of a material. To study this
effect, two stress concentration factors are usually defined. The first one, K,
is the ratio of the maximum stress, calculated on an elastic basis, to the
nominal stress in the member. The second is the effective stress concentration
factor K 1 , defined as the ratio of the endurance limit of an unnotched speci-
men to that of a notched specimen tested under equal conditions. Peterson (1)
defines a notch sensitivity factor q, as
q = K 1 -1 (in general different from unity),

K, -1
l+(K,-1) q (12·5)
The notch sensitivity factor depends both on the material and on the notch
geometry. According to Peterson (1) the following approximate relationship
exists between q and the minimum notch radius r:
1
q ~ --
l+a/r
where a is a material constant. Equation 12·5 then becomes
a
1+-
rK,
K 1 =K, - - - <K,
a
1+-
r
For steel
255+U.T.S.
a = 10 165 in.
w
0\
"""
13
12
11
10
9
Kf 8
7
4 '"C
::c
m
3
"'
c::"'
2 ::c
m
t I I I I I I
I
lr o·s <
m
2b (inches) "'"'m
1:"'
FIG. 12·11 Stress concentration factor: longitudinal crack and ellipsoidal cavity (Ref. 11).
t:l
m
......
"'
0
z
with the ultimate tensile strength expressed in 103 lb/in 2 • Since for most
pressure vessel steels U.T.S. is less than 100,000 lb/in 2 , a conservative value
of a is 0·007 in.
It is sometimes possible to estimate K 1 more accurately than can be done
by the application of the method summarized in the previous paragraph.
This has been done in Figs. 12·11 and 12 ·12, based on Ref. 11. These figures
show the effective stress concentration factor for several types of stress
raisers. In all cases, K 1 refers to the net cross-sectional area. For other stress
raisers (grooves, shoulder, etc.) refer to the very comprehensive book by
Peterson (1). It must be noted that the maximum value of K 1 does not
correspond to r = 0, for which value Kr-+ oo. This is in agreement with
experimental results obtained for aluminium, where it was found that the
critical value of the notch radius corresponding to the maximum weakening
Worm holes
r (inches)
FIG. 12·12 Stress concentration factor: worm holes and spherical cavities
(Ref. 11).
was 0·006 in. A maximum value for K 1 , specified by the A.S.M.E. Boiler
and Pressure Vessels Code (Nuclear Vessels), is five. For threaded members
the recommended value is four.
An important question that arises is whether or not the effective stress
concentration factor is independent of the number of cycles to fracture. It
is well known that the strength of a ductile material in a tensile test(-!- cycle to
failure) is not affected by the presence of a notch. This would indicate that
lower values of K 1 should be used when the nominal stress in the member is
increased, and when the number of cycles to failure is reduced. From experi-
mental evidence obtained by Coffin, Langer (11) concludes that K 1 may be
taken as independent of the number of cycles to failure when this is over
100. For smaller numbers of cycles, the strain required to produce failure is
so large that the geometry of the specimen becomes appreciably altered and
p
the derivation of K 1 , based on the original undeformed geometry, has no

longer any meaning.
Knowing the stress distribution in a structural member, the reduction in
fatigue strength caused by the introduction of a notch can be estimated as
follows. Assume that amax and amin are respectively the maximum and
minimum principal stresses, calculated in accordance with the theory of
elasticity, in the plain unnotched member and in the region where the notch
will be introduced. Take
and apply the effective stress concentration factor to a. For cyclic variations
of a, between a' and a", the notch is assumed to be under cyclic straining
between the two limits K 1 a' IE and K1 a" IE. The initial value of the mean
strain is then
and the strain range

a'- a"
ll.er = K1 --
E
When ll.er > 2 Yl E the equivalent strain range (complete strain reversals) is
obtained from Eqn. 12·3, taking e0 = fimean· Substitution into Eqn. 12·21
then gives the number of cycles to failure.
When ll.er<2YIE, the equivalent strain range is obtained from Eqn. 12·31
and the number of cycles to failure is then obtained from Eqn. 12·21•
12·2·3 Effect of Other Variables

Some variables, such as temperature, do have an effect on ratchetting, simply
because they influence the mechanical properties of the material. Their
effect on the fatigue strength is considerably more complex and will be
discussed now very briefly.
Below the creep range, present evidence (Ref. 12) points towards some
reduction in fatigue strength for increasing temperature, but no general
quantitative rules correlating fatigue strength and temperature have been
obtained.
Cyclic stresses are often produced by variations in the temperature distribu-
tion through the vessel such as occur, for example, during starting up and
shutting down of the plant. Coffin (13) has shown that it is possible to repro-
duce the fatigue effects of these variable temperature cycles in tests conducted
at constant temperature and involving the same strains. The constant testing
temperature is then called the equivalent mean temperature of the cycle, and
is not necessarily the mean of its highest and lowest values. Thus, if most of
the damage occurs near the maximum vessel temperature, the equivalent
mean temperature will be shifted towards this maximum. Here again, no
quantitative rules can be given, the only general rule being that at tempera-
ture well below the creep range the fatigue strength may be taken to be not
much lower than at room temperature.
The most severe case oflow cycle fatigue occurs when the surface of a vessel
is rapidly heated to a high temperature and cooled down again, or vice versa.
In this case, small cracks forming an irregular pattern may appear on the
Material 347 S.S.

l:ie =I%
T= 662 °F Uniformly twisted
specimen
/
~
~"' 10"1--+--+--e-+-----i~-t
a
~
~
!:::
~
]021----::1-~+:--~~~-t_
o·2 o·4 o·6 o·s 1'0
Annealed Length
S=·
Specimen Length
(a)
(b)
FIG. 12·13 Effect of non-uniformity of material (Ref. 14).
surface, spreading gradually throughout the whole plate thickness. The

fatigue strength is often improved by machining off the cracked layer.
It is generally agreed that the fatigue strength depends on the speed of
cycling and on the shape of the load-time curve. Tests on almninium, stain-
less steel and several other materials show that the fatigue strength decreases
when the speed of cycling is reduced. It has been suggested that the fatigue
strength becomes nearly independent of the speed of cycling when this is
lower than a certain value. Coffin (loc. cit.) found, however, that an appreci-
able improvement in the fatigue strength resulted when the speed of cycling
was increased from 0·16 to 2·5 c.p.m. It is obvious that the slow cycling of
perhaps one or two cycles a day, occurring in actual practice, cannot be
reproduced in the laboratory because it is essential to keep the test time
within a reasonable limit. We would therefore expect that the semi-empirical
expressions derived in the previous paragraph, on the basis of conventional
tests, would give an optimistic assessment of the fatigue strength of a material
under most operating conditions.
The significance of non-uniformity of the material in low-cycle fatigue is
well illustrated by Coffin (14). An annealed specimen (Fig. 12·13), was cold
worked by applying a torque through the enlarged central portion, which
was later machined down to the same diameter as the adjacent portions. In
this way, the central portion remained in the annealed condition while the
rest was cold worked. The number of cycles to failure N, under cyclic strains
of 1%, is plotted in Fig. 12·13(b) as a function of s:
annealed length
s =
total length
From Fig. 12·13(b) it can be seen that the life of the uniformly twisted
specimen was about ten times higher than the life extrapolated from the test
points. This is explained by the reduction in fatigue strength caused by the
presence of a non-uniform region between the annealed and the cold-worked
portions.
The presence of weldments in pressure vessels introduces non-uniformity
regions, similar to those introduced by Coffin in his tests. A reduction in
fatigue strength due to the presence of the weldments is therefore to be
expected. To some extent, this reduction is counteracted by the properties of
the filler metal, the absence of flaws, inclusions, etc., and the post-welding
heat treatment.
12·3 APPLICATION TO DESIGN
For the application of the preceding considerations to the design of pressure

vessels, it is necessary to know the cyclic strain range, 11er. and the mean
strain. Since very large deformations are usually involved, this basic informa-
tion would have to be based on an elasto-plastic analysis of the vessels,
which is difficult and time-consuming even in the best of cases. In general,
a realistic appraisal of the strain cycling can only be undertaken when the
loading history is perfectly well known, when the vessel consists of an
elementary thin shell of revolution under axially symmetrical loading and
when the material is such that a simple yield criterion, such as Tresca's for
ideally plastic materials, is applicable. Otherwise, the simplifying assumptions

required can hardly be justified. In fact, the loading history is seldom known
and straining usually occurs in the proximity of structural discontinuities-
at the junction of several elementary shells-or due to variations of tempera-
ture. In addition, pressure vessel materials are usually anisotropic. None of
these facts can be taken into consideration by any of the elasto-plastic models
that have been suggested.
Under these conditions, it has been found convenient to base the design
on an elastic stress analysis of the vessel. Assuming that the material remains
elastic, the principal stresses, u 1 , u 2 , u 3 are obtained and combined in
accordance with Tresca's criterion,
ii = u 1 -u 3 with u 1 > u 2 > u 3
The maximum variation of the combined stress ii during the loading cycle
then defines the equivalent elastic stress range (E.S.R.).
When E.S.R. ::::;2Y, strain range~(E.S.R)/E.
When E.S.R.>2Y, strain range#(E.S.R.)/E,
the difference increasing with increasing values of the E.S.R.
The cyclic strain range, ~8~, under complete strain reversals can then be
obtained from Eqn. 12·3:
100
K (E.S.R.) log. 100- RA
1 E 100
log. 100-RA +8mean
when KiE.S.R.)>2Y. Usually, the mean strain is considerably smaller than

the strain to rupture, in which case
(E.S.R.)
~ K1 E when K 1 (E.S.R.) > 2 Y (12·6)
From Eqn. 12·31
(E.S.R) U.T.S. I
~8~ = K1 when K 1 (E.S.R.) < 2 Y (12·6)
E (E.S.R. )
U.T.S.- Y+K1 -'---::-2-'--
In both Eqns. 12·6 and 12·6', K 1 is the stress concentration or fatigue reduc-
tion factor caused by notch-type stress raisers.
The application of Eqns. 12·2 and 12·21 for the evaluation of the fatigue
life, using the values of ~8~ assessed from Eqns. 12·6 and 12·61, can only be
justified if enough experimental confirmation is available or, alternatively, if
the assumptions involved are theoretically acceptable. It has been shown that
this is possible in the case of specimens tested under uniaxial straining between
two known strain limits. An obvious source of error is now introduced by

the assessment of the strain range on the basis of elastic behaviour. When the
high cyclic strains that lead to fatigue failure occur over a small region in the
neighbourhood of a notch-type stress raiser, the plastic deformation near
the notch is entirely forced by the adjacent elastic regions. An elastic stress-
strain analysis of the unnotched member will then give a fair assessment of
the maximum strain near the notch, and the application of the effective stress
concentration factor wiii then indicate the fatigue strength. Moreover, since
the bulk of the material remains elastic, cycling may be under controlled
load, strain or stress conditions without influencing the fatigue strength. In
this case, the elastic method of analysis gives a fair approximation of the
true strain range, and Eqns. 12·2 and 12·21 may be applied to estimate the
number of cycles to fracture. In general, however, plastic deformations are
spread over comparatively large areas and experimental confirmation is
essential.
An additional complication arises when straining is caused by a mechanical
load, as is often the case in pressure vessels, since then the loading (and not
the strain range) is the controlled variable. In this case, progressive growth
or distortion may well change the stress-strain distribution. A similar
situation exists in piping systems under restrained thermal expansion. Here,
the overall deformation is the controlled variable, but the highly stressed
flexible components of the system, bends or bellows, are not necessarily
subjected to cycles of constant strain amplitude.
Mild steel bends, nozzles and tube plates have been tested by Lane (15),
Lane and Rose (16), Rose (17) and Markl (18) and other investigators.
Figure 12·14 summarizes their results, taking as abscissae the number of
cycles to failure for a given E.S.R. in ordinates. In all cases, the E.S.R. was
determined from theoretical or experimental elastic stress analysis and it was
modified, when necessary, to take into account the effect of mean stress
(Eqns. 12·6 and 12·61). The fatigue strength for the materials used, as pre-
dicted by Eqn. 12·21, is also plotted in Fig. 12·14. It is apparent that there is
poor agreement between predicted and experimental results, a possible
explanation being the effect of surface discontinuities, notch-type stress
raisers and heterogeneity of the material. The application of a safety factor
of two on the strain range gives conservative values for most cases, but it
appears that a higher safety factor is required when
E.S.R.>2Y
The best-fit curve lies then below the! (Average Predicted Fatigue Strength)
curve. It is to be presumed that this tendency will continue for higher values
of the E.S.R. Unfortunately, the available experimental information is
mainly limited to the region covered by Fig. 12·14.
r- '!i
>
...,
....
l 0
c:::
VA1·eragc fll'<'<iicted fatiKIII! strengt/1 (Eq11 . 1:!.1} ttl
Lam: {Smool/1 bentl,·, pulsating pressure)
10
I~ ........ "' I
>
6. Lam: (Smooth hentls, hcnding) z
..._ - tl
o Lane & Ro.,e (No::les, pulsating pressure)l ....
-s.
::::::. ,;x. Rose ( PerjiJra!ed p!.ucs) z
' ..... ('l
,~ c .llm-kl (Smooth hl'nds, bending) :;.:l
t...... ..... ............... ttl
-.. + PJ'RC fAS.\f£ Sertio11 Ill) - ;(
c:::: ~ 1 x precli-;:;;;,. ~ ttl
~
1 -·...... from Eq11. 1:!.2'
z...,
'- /Jest fit ...... r--- ~ i""t-- r-
., .......... .............. I
>
t"'
~ Do~ A
<::: ('l
a:: '""' r- r- 0
t"'
~~
~
c..., lt:
t: /(} ~ f::~ 1-:, t"'
ll
};
---- 1---1-- >
"d
~"' ....,._ "'"" r.
1 .. "'»-"- lc.
I / 0 "'ttl
~ -~ I :<I .... l'll''
~
I t-r-- J 0 11!"~-
-
·~ y A veragt' prl.'clicl<·d jilligllt'
I In 1'0
~ strength 1( Eqnj 11/) JJJ I -~
10
/02 /OJ 10 4 JO[J !U 6 •
Full Reversal Cycles to Failure (N)

FIG. 12·14 Predicted and experimental results from actual vessels.
t
\..>
This apparently anomalous behaviour may be explained first of all by the

fact that the estimation of the strain range by means of an elastic analysis can
hardly be justified when large regions of the vessel yield. It is, unfortunately,
the only method at our disposal since the application of elasto-plastic
analysis may lead to equally false estimates. Another factor that has to be
taken into account is that when failure occurs after very few cycles, it may
well be due to a ratchetting process rather than to fatigue damage of the
material, as is the case in plain specimens failing after less than four cycles.
Here again, there is no generally applicable way of assessing the vessel
growth per cycle and hence the number of cycles required to produce plastic
instability. At the limit, the onset of plastic instability after ! load cycle
occurs when the strain is considerably lower than ep. For a typical mild steel,
the onset of plastic instability corresponds to
ecritical ~ 20%
in the conventional tensile test, ep~90%. Taking, in Eqn. 12·21, ecriticai

instead of ep, the curve shown in Fig. 12·14 is obtained. It is apparent that
this modified curve is a better approximation to the experimental results
than the original one. Moreover, in all the cases investigated conservative
prediction of the fatigue strength is obtained from the following equation:
Ae' =
T
1 [ecritical
2 2N1/2
+2 S
E
e] (12·7)
This equation is similar to Eqn. 12·2', with ecriticai instead of ep and the
application of a safety factor of two on the strain range.
Strictly speaking, Eqn. 12·7 is only applicable to mild steel vessels loaded
under cyclic conditions causing failure between 300 and 106 cycles. Its
extension to cover other materials and conditions must be left to the discretion
of the designer.
For the application of Eqn. 12·7, it is necessary to know Se and ecriticai
for the selected material. While the former is readily available, this is not so
for the latter, which can be obtained from a true stress logarithmic strain
curve (see Chapter 11). Alternatively, it can be taken to be equal to the
maximum uniform strain preceding necking of the conventional tensile
specimen. This limit of uniform strain forms part of the commercial specifica-
tion in various European countries.
Having obtained the number of cycles to failure, N, under a strain range
Lie~, the assessment of the fatigue damage after n cycles is then made follow-
ing Miner's criterion.
As an example of the application of the previous equations, consider a
low alloy steel bar with the following mechanical properties:
E 29 x 106 lbjin 2
y 45 x 103 lb/in 2
U.T.S. 80 x 10 3 lb/in 2
se 50 x 10 3 lbjin 2
Bcritical = 20%
Assume that the effective stress concentration factor Kf• due to the presence
of a threaded part, is four and that the bar is subjected to 1000 stress cycles
from 0 to 20,000 lbjin 2 :
E.S.R. 20,000
Kf(E.S.R.) 80,000 < 2 y
From Eqn. 12·6\ the equivalent strain range (complete strain reversal) is
Ae~ = 85,500
E
and from Eqn. 12·7, the number of cycles to failure is
N =[ E Bcritical ]
2
= 1660
4(EAe~-Se)
and nj N = 0·6.
If the bar is subjected to ten thermal stress cycles, between 10,000 and
60,000 lbjin2 ,
E.S.R. 50,000
KJ(E.S.R.) 200,000 > 2 y
From Eqn. 12·6
200,000
Ae~ = E
and from Eqn. 12·7
N = 94; njN = 0·1
Assuming that no more cyclic variations of stress occur, the cumulative
fatigue criterion
n
:t- = o-1 < 1
N
indicates that the bar will not fail.
At present the only Code to cover the design of vessels under cyclic loading
is the A.S.M.E. Section III (Nuclear Vessels). The set of rules given therein,
based on the work of Langer (19, 20), are particularly comprehensive and
p*
simple to follow. The fatigue strength is assessed by means of two design

curves, one for carbon and low alloy steels and another for stainless steels
and nickel-chromium-iron alloy. These design curves are derived from
experimental results on polished specimens by applying a factor of safety of
two on stress or twenty on cycles, whichever gives the more conservative
estimate. The only experimental points, obtained from actual vessel tests,
are those marked with a cross in Fig. 12·14, in the range of 104 -10 5 cycles.
Outside this range the application of the A.S.M.E. curves does not appear
to be entirely justified.
REFERENCES
1. PETERSON R. E. Stress Concentration Design Factors (Wiley, 1953).
2. HEYWOOD R. B. Designing by Photoelasticity (Chapman & Hall, 1952).
3. FORREST P. G. Fatigue of Metals (Pergamon, 1962).
4. MARTIN D. E. 'An Energy Criterion for Low-Cycle Fatigue', A.S.M.E.
Paper No. 61-Met-4.
5. MILLER D. R. J. Basic Eng. 81 (1959) 190.
6. EDMUNDS H. G. & BEER F. J. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 3 (1961) 187.
7. TAVERNELLI J. F. & COFFIN L. F. 'Experimental Support for Generalized
Equation Predicting Low-Cycle Fatigue', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 61-WA-
199.
8. SESSLER J. G. & WEISS V. 'Low-Cycle Fatigue Damage of Pressure Vessel
Materials', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 62-WA-233.
9. SACHS G., GERBERICH, W. W., WEISS V. & LATORRE J. V. Proc. A.S.T.M.
60 (1960) 512.
10. MINER M.A. Trans. A.S.M.E. 67 (1945) 159.
11. LANGER B. F. Bettis Technical Review WAPD-BT-18, Apri11960.
12. YAo J. T. P. & MUNSE W. H. Welding J. (Res. Supp.), 41 (1962) 182s.
13. CoFFIN L. F. Trans. A.S.M.E. 76 (1954) 931.
14. CoFFIN L. F. Paper in Symposium on Effect of Cyclic Heating and Stress-
ing on Metals at Elevated Temperatures, A.S.T.M. Spec. Pub. No. 165
(1954).
15. LANE P. H. R., B.W.R.A. Rep. FE 16/41/56.
16. LANE P. H. R. & RosER. T. Paper in Symposium on Pressure Vessel
Research Towards Better Design (I.Mech.E., 1962).
17. RosER. T. loc. cit. Ref. 16.
18. MARKL A. R. C. Paper in Pressure Vessel and Piping Design: Collected
Papers (A.S.M.E., 1960).
19. LANGER B. F. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 37 (1959) 4lls.
20. LANGER B. F. J. Basic Eng. 84 (1962) 389.
13 Low Stress Brittle Fracture
13·0 INTRODUCTION
T HE brittle fracture of normally ductile materials, particularly of ferritic

steels, was first brought to the attention of designers following the
catastrophic failure of welded open-frame structures. The failure of welded
ships, during the Second World War, emphasized the importance of the
problem.
The number of welded pressure vessels, tanks, pipelines, penstocks, etc.,
that have suffered complete failure due to brittle fracture is, in contrast,
comparatively small. This is probably due to the fact that they are simple
structures and that the standards of workmanship and design are generally high.
Shank (I) lists thirteen brittle fractures in storage tanks, four of them
leading to complete destruction. Boyd (2) reports five additional cases. Four
cases of brittle failure in pressure vessels are described in Ref. 1, two in
Ref. 2, six cases are studied by Puzak eta/. (3) and another one by Galletly (4).
Besides these widely publicized failures, localized cracking of weldments or
plates during fabrication is comparatively frequent and has been reported
on several occasions (Refs. 5, 6).
Numerous cases of failures in pipelines and penstocks have been reported
by Shank (1), Boyd (2) and Pellini (7). De Leiris eta/. (8) have described the
failure of a large number of gas storage bottles.
Since the material used for the majority of vessels is mild steel it is not
surprising that very few failures in alloy steel vessels have been reported.
Among the cases previously mentioned, one vessel was fabricated from A204
(C-!Mo) steel, two from A302 (Mn-!Mo) and A293 (Ni-Mo-V) was used for
a forging that failed after the formation of a fatigue crack during service.
In addition, at least one case involving the failure of a Cr-Ni-Mo-V low alloy
steel vessel is known.
Most of the failures occurred in non-stress relieved vessels. One exception
was the A302 vessel studied by Puzak et al. (case no. 6 in Ref. 3), which was
stress relieved at 620 oc and cooled at 70 oc per hour. The A204 steel vessel
(case no. 5, Ref. 3) was stated to have been stress relieved at 510 oc, at which
temperature the stress relaxation would not be very significant. The A293
forging (case no. 8, Ref. 3) was in the normalized and tempered condition.
According to Wells (9), no service failures by brittle fracture in mild or low
447
alloy steel vessels which were furnace stress relieved have been recorded in
Britain.
The calculated average stress in the structures when the failures occurred
has usually been reported to be within the limits specified by the design
Codes and, sometimes, much lower. Since the methods used for the analysis
of the stresses ignore in most cases the effect of bending in the shell, it is
suspected that high discontinuity stresses were present. This was proved, at
least in one case, by Galletly (4).
A notch effect, causing a highly localized stress concentration, has always
been present. This effect has sometimes been due to bad design details such
as the existence of sharp re-entrant corners or to cracks caused during
fabrication, welding or service. The propagation, in a brittle way-i.e.
unstable and fast-of fatigue or stress corrosion cracks is by no means un-
common. In general, all failures were preceded by insignificant deformation.
Finally, the temperature at the time of the failure ranged from 20 oc to
-163 oc. Since service failures have all occurred at low temperatures, it has
been suggested that a transition temperature exists for each structure, above
which the behaviour is ductile and below which there is a potential brittle-
ness. Since the change in the fracture properties occurs more or less gradually
over a certain range, a transition range would be a more correct term.
It is generally agreed that brittle failure has occurred due to a combination
of three factors, viz. the material, the temperature and the presence of a
notch. In addition, the service experience shows that high stresses have
existed in the neighbourhood of the notch. These high stresses may result from
the loading itself, from structural discontinuities, from notch effects, or they
may be residual stresses due to the fabrication process. Brittle fractures have
started with little deformation and proceeded through areas stressed well
below the generally accepted limits, causing the catastrophic failure of the
structure at a load below its calculated load carrying capacity.
The initiation, under progressive loading, of brittle fractures in normally
ductile materials has been studied in detail by engineers and metallurgists,
and the reader is referred to the work of Parker (I 0), Tipper (11) and Week
(12). In this chapter, only those aspects of direct interest to the pressure
vessel designer will be discussed.
13·1 INTERPRETATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL

INFORMATION
For the past 20 or 30 years, a great deal of effort has been devoted to the
study of the brittle fracture problem and several theories have been proposed
LOW STRESS BRITTLE FRACTURE 449
to explain and systematize the experimental results and to suggest new lines
of research. Most of the theories fit into one of two groups. The first group
includes the dislocation theories, dealing with the physical nature of the
fracture phenomenon. They are based on the microscopic behaviour of the
aggregates of elementary particles (grains) that form the material and they
are of special interest for the study of the metallurgical variables involved.
In this group, the theories developed by Cottrell, Petch and others have been
remarkably successful in providing some insight into the fundamental laws of
the problem and have been applied to explain the effect of the grain size,
alloying elements, neutron irradiation, etc. In the second group, the problem
is approached from a different standpoint. The material here is assumed to be
isotropic and the theory's aim is to develop a fracture criterion to be used with
Brittle -c- 1i, -.. Ductile

Temperature
Fro. 13·1 Yield and rupture curves.
the macroscopic concepts of stress and strain. As a first step, the classical
theory initiated by Ludwick in 1920 and developed principally by Orowan
and Irwin, is summarized here.
13·1·1 The Classical Theory

The classical theory has been criticized as being purely descriptive, bypassing
the atomic mechanism of fracture and therefore failing to provide an under-
standing of the problem. Nevertheless, it still provides a very useful frame-
work for the interpretation of the more practical aspects of the problem
and their integration into rules of design.
The principle of the classical theory is illustrated in Fig. 13·1. It is assumed
that yield and cleavage fracture are independent processes and that, while
the yield stress (uniaxial) Y is strongly dependent on the temperature, the
rupture stress S remains almost constant. At a temperature above Tb fracture
can only occur after yield takes place, it is preceded by large deformations
and the fractured surfaces are fibrous. At temperatures below Tb the fracture
occurs before any yield takes place, it is ·not preceded by any significant
deformations and the fractured surfaces are crystalline. A modification to
Fig. 13·1 is suggested by Orowan (13) to take into account the work of Hahn
et al. This is illustrated in Fig. 13·2, where it can be seen that at a temperature
below T 1 , the fracture stress curve lies between the upper yield and the lower
yield curves, indicating that plastic yield and cleavage fracture are strongly
related and that fracture takes place after some plastic deformation.
The approximate relationship between stress-strain and temperature is
'
''
'
s
..._./Constrained yield
-
...._curve, qY
...... .....
Temperature
FIG. 13·2 Modified yield and rupture curves.
shown in Fig. 13·3. When the temperature is T 0 , below Tb fracture occurs

without plastic deformation, before the yield condition is reached. When the
temperature is Tc higher than Tb, the material stretches elastically up to
point C, from where it yields on to point D. In Fig. 13·3(ci), the existence of
four distant zones is illustrated. In zone E, the material remains elastic at
small strains. In zone P, plastic flow occurs, followed by fracture after con-
siderable straining (zone R +P). In zone R, rupture occurs without plastic
flow.
Assuming now that the specimen contains a notch, which can be compared
to a coin, I, compressed between two blocks, II (Fig. 13·4), the stress required
to cause yielding is higher than the uniaxial yield stress Y, since it has to
overcome the frictional resistance. The net effect is therefore to raise the
yield point to a value qY, where q may be as high as 2-3. From Figs. 13·2
and 13·3 it can be seen that the transition temperature Tb, is raised from
T1 to T 2 • At the same time the strain-to-rupture at a temperature equal to or

higher than the transition temperature is reduced.
Besides this plastic constraint the uniaxial yield curves can also be raised
Fracture
Rupture curve, S
Constrained
yield curve, qY
Strain
Yield curve, Y
Strain
o;J 7b
(a}
(Tl) P-+R
.,.... c b
;:s
~
.,.... E = Elastic behavour
~ P = Plastic
r::: R = Rupture
Fro. 13·3 Stress-strain/temperature diagram.
by increasing the straining rate. This is especially noticeable in the case of

the low-carbon steels usually used in pressure vessel construction, and is one
of the reasons why brittle fractures in specimens under progressive loading

can only be obtained at very low temperatures. On the other hand, such
-
fractures are readily obtained when the specimens are
li tested under impact. In a specimen with a notch whose
plastic constraint factor is q, tested under progressive
1 loading at a temperature above T 2 , plastic deformation
will be required for the initiation of a crack. Once
II started, the crack will propagate in a brittle manner pro-
vided that the strain rate effect is sufficient to bring the
FIG. 13-4 Plastic yield curve above the fracture curve at the test tempera-
constraint.
ture. A high average stress, of the order of yield, is
required to produce the plastic deformation of the notch required to start
the crack.
36"
Full plate
thickness.
FIG. 13·5 Typical B.W.R.A. wide plate test.
The form of failure of welded structures is fundamentally different from

that of the test specimens under gradual loading previously mentioned.
First of all, there is seldom any evidence of large plastic deformations prior
to the initiation of the crack; second, the average stresses are well below yield
point. Brittle fractures of this type have been obtained in the laboratory by
Greene, Week, Wells, Soete and others. Greene (14) and Week (15) obtained
spontaneous fracture of notched and welded plates which were clamped to
a rigid frame while cooling. Soete (16) carried out experiments by welding a
disc containing some weld runs (as the notch effect) into a stiff frame;
spontaneous fracture while cooling was also obtained. In all these tests, no
prior deformation was observed. Wells (17, 18) tested wide plates as shown in
Fig. 13·5. When the plates are in the stress relieved condition, and when the
sawcuts are made after welding, brittle fracture only occurs at an average
stress approaching yield, indicating large strains in the vicinity of local strain
raisers. In some cases spontaneous fractures occurred, the cracks extending
for a few inches at either side of the weld. In order to extend these cracks
'I/HII/111/1111111/1111.
'1/l/1/ll/1/1/ll/1111111.
10"
l
(a) Plate (b) Complete Specimen
Flo. 13-6 Test specimen used by Mylonas (Ref. 19).
average stresses of the order of yield were again required. Plates notched
previous to welding and non-stress relieved reproduced the low stress,
negligible deformation, fast crack propagation features of service fractures
remarkably well. Mylonas (19, 20) was also able to reproduce these features
using notched plates, as shown in Fig. 13·6. These plates were subjected to
in-plane compression, causing a prestrain of about 2% over their net section.
They were then welded to specimen holders thinner than the plate and tested
under progressive tension. Brittle fractures, some of them at an average
stress as low as 12% of yield, were observed.
These results cannot be explained only by the plastic constraint and strain
rate effects upon the uniaxial yield curve. A reasonable explanation, suggested
by Mylonas, is that the ability of the material to sustain large deformations
before breaking has been lost in the notch region. The precompression of the
plate causes a strain in the notch region much greater than the overall 2%.
As a result, this region work hardens. Exhaustion of ductility in the notch
region, through work hardening, could also account for the low stress brittle
fractures of the B.W.R.A. plates.
In these cases, the stress relieving treatment would restore to the material
its original ductility, and fracture at low strains-corresponding to low
average stress-would be impossible. This is confirmed by Wells' experiments,
where brittle failure did not occur in any of the specimens stress relieved
at 450-500 oc.
The loss of ductility due to work hardening of the notch region depends both
on the amount of prestrain and on the temperature. When prestraining occurs
at very high temperatures (above, say, 700 oq little loss of ductilityisobserved
(Ref. 21). The reverse is the case when a steel is prestrained in the blue brittle
range 400-600 oc. Age hardening, which occurs in many structural steels at
temperatures of 100-200 oc, also causes a reduction in the ductility. From
these considerations, it follows that the behaviour of a welded structure or
specimen will be affected by the temperature cycle during fabrication as well
as by the existing notches.
If residual stresses of the order of the yield point Y are present in the
vicinity of the notch, they can be relieved by small plastic strains of the order
of Y/E or 10- 3 • Assuming an elastic stress concentration factor at the tip of
the notch of five, an average stress of 0·2 Y will then be sufficient to iron out
the residual stresses. This average stress was largely exceeded in most of the
experiments before fracture occurred, and it must therefore be concluded
that when the specimens broke all localized residual stresses had disappeared.
In specimens that broke spontaneously, however, these stresses must have
had an important effect, probably in conjunction with severe embrittlement
due to welding. It is known that in very brittle materials stresses of this type
do cause fracture.
Although residual stresses have no effect on the initiation of a crack in any
but the very few cases where severe embrittlement has taken place, large fields
of residual stresses can help to propagate a crack under reduced external
loading. In Week's experiments, spontaneous cracking may have been
initiated by the severe embrittlement and high localized residual stresses in
the heat affected zone. The propagation through unaffected material may have
been due to the strain rate effect and to other reasons that will be discussed
next.
13·1·2 Griffith's Theory of Crack Propagation

The very large discrepancy between the strength of a material, estimated from
the magnitude of the interatomic forces, and the observed values of the stress
to rupture was studied by Griffith in 1920 (22). His well known theory pre-
dicts the conditions under which a crack in an elastic, brittle material would
become unstable and grow without further increase in stress. Westergaard (23)
has shown that when the notched plate of Fig. 13·7 is subjected to a uniform
tension (J, the volume of the notch (crack) becomes
2n(Ja 2
v = -E-
The strain energy associated with this expansion is
1t(J2a2
w = 1 v(J = -E-
which is equal to the work required to close the crack. When the crack grows,
the rate of energy release is
Following Griffith, the work required to a

produce a crack of unit wall surface area
is equal to the surface tension, S,. The
work required to produce a sharp crack
of length 2a in the plate of unit width is Plate
then thickness = 1
w = 4aS1
For unstable propagation W~w.
n(J2a
~~2S1
a
This equation has been derived under FIG. 13·7 Plate with a slit notch
conditions of plane stress, as would exist (crack).
in thin plates.
Oro wan (24) observed that for the preceding expressions to be experimentally
verified, it was necessary to replace the surface tension S, by another term,
defined as the plastic work factor. A further modification was proposed by
Irwin (25), who defined the crack extension force as, in this case,
and the fracture toughness, which is a material property,
where the subindex c indicates that the various magnitudes are measured at
the onset of instability. Defining the stress field parameter associated with a
crack extension force G by the equation

K2 = GE = na 2 a (for plane stress)
the instability condition is then expressed in the form
K ~ Kc
The magnitude of the stress field parameter is essentially dependent on the
state of stress and not on the mechanical properties of the material.
The existence of a small plastic zone at the tip of the advancing crack is
taken into account by assuming an effective critical crack length:
2(a)effective = 2a [1+! (~YJ

in the case of plane stress, and,
2(a)effective = 2a [1+ 4 ~2 (~YJ

for plane strain. The value of K for a through crack in a large, thin plate is
(Ref. 26)
and the fracture condition becomes
(13·1)
Once the fracture toughness is known, Eqn. 13·1 can be used to predict the
critical stress corresponding to a given crack length. For the determination
of Kc, a tensile test in a notched plate or bar, measurement of the critical
stress (ac) and corresponding minimum crack length (ac), is sufficient. The
application of Eqn. 13·1 to design will be discussed in § 13·3.
The Griffith theory, based on elastic analysis, has been successfully used to
explain the mechanical properties of brittle materials such as glass. Irwin's
extension finds increasing application for the determination of the fracture
behaviour of high strength materials with a yield stress-to-density ratio of
about 7 x 10 5 in (200,000 lb/in 2 for steel). In such materials, plastic flow is
confined to a very small region round the tip of the advancing crack (see
for example Ref. 27). A further extension to materials loaded at or beyond
general yield has recently been proposed by Wells (28).
A serious shortcoming of Griffith's theory is that it ignores the increase in
yield due to accelerated strain rate, which, as previously mentioned, is an
important factor in most structural steels. For these strain rate sensitive
materials, no quantitative information can be gained from Eqn. 13·1. A

modified approach of a qualitative nature has recently been initiated by
Irwin (29) but has not yet been sufficiently developed.
From the preceding considerations it is concluded that temperature, plastic
constraint, exhaustion of ductility through prestrain or other causes, strain
rate, crack size and stress level, all affect the brittle behaviour of a structural
member made of a potentially brittle material. At a given temperature the
plastic constraint and the exhaustion of ductility are the principal causes for
the initiation of a brittle crack, while the propagation, in a brittle manner, of
an existing crack depends mainly on the strain rate effect, the crack size and
the stress level. Given the large number of variables involved and their
complex relationships, the necessity for quantitative information, in order
to establish rules of design and to select the most suitable material, can only
be met by gross simplification of the problem. One such simplification is to
assume that the tendency to brittle fracture of a structure or material can be
defined by the experimental determination of the transition temperature.
Some of the tests used for this purpose are reviewed in the following section.
13·2 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE TRANSI-

TION TEMPERATURE: TOUGHNESS TESTS
Several tests have been proposed for the determination of the transition
temperature and have also been used for the substantiation of the brittle
fracture theories. It is apparent that the first aim, intended to be of immediate
application to the design of structures, is better served by testing large struc-
tural components under simulated service conditions. Although this has been
done in the past, it becomes an almost impossible task on a commercial
basis and at the same time limits the value of the test by narrowing its field
of applicability. Most of the tests are then made using relatively small
specimens under simple loading conditions. The tests differ according to the
actual fracture property used for the definition of the transition temperature,
to the form of loading and to the geometry of the specimen.
Table 13·1 and Fig. 13·8 summarize the typical features of a few of the
most widely used tests. From Table 13·1 it can be seen that the transition
temperature may be assessed using three main criteria. The appearance of the
fracture gives an indication of the actual mode of failure, brittle (cleavage)
fractured surfaces having a crystalline aspect while ductile (shear) fractures
look matt and fibrous. The ductility can also be measured by the amount of
deformation preceding failure, i.e. the contraction at the notch root of bend
specimens or the reduction of area of tensile specimens. This offers a second
.f::o.
Ul
00
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IMPACT
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criterion for the assessment of the type of failure. A third criterion is given
by the fact that the impact energy required to break a notched specimen
drops when the fracture changes from ductile to brittle. In slow tests, the
maximum stress to rupture may be used instead.
Whatever the criterion selected for the assessment of the brittleness, it
has already been mentioned that the change from ductile to brittle fracture
ror-----------------------.
SEMI-KILLED ST.E/EL, ____"'_
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TESTING TEMPERATURE, DEG f
FIG. 13·9 Transition characteristics of Charpy V specimens (Ref. 30).

(Courtesy American Welding Research Council)
usually occurs more or less gradually over a certain temperature range. The
transition temperature is then conventionally defined as that temperature at
which there is a given degree of brittleness. For example, Fig. 13·9 (taken
from Ref. 30) shows the variation with temperature of brittleness, assessed
according to the three criteria previously defined and using the Charpy V
test specimen. Usually, in commercial specifications, the transition tempera-
ture is defined as the temperature corresponding to l>. minimum impact
energy of 15lb ft, although 50% crystallinity or I· 5% lateral contraction could
be used instead. The three values thus obtained for the transition tempera-
ture are, respectively, 35, 50 and 15 °F.
Besides the tests mentioned in Table 13·1, many others have been proposed
and used by several investigators. Among them, the following deserve

mention:
(a) Impact bending-Hounsfield, Pellini explosive test.
(b) Tension-Ludvik, Kuntze, Sachs, Davidenkov, Bruckner.
(c) Tension and bending-Bagser, Sachs.
(d) Special-Soete, Esso, S.O.D.
Details of these tests are found in Refs. 11, 30 and 31.
Although not used to obtain a transition temperature the normal tensile
test is sometimes used to give an indication of the ductility of the material,
and it is customary to specify a minimum elongation of 18-20% before
rupture. Early attempts to correlate this ductility with brittle failure in
service have been unsuccessful.
TABLE 13·1
TESTS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
(see also Fig. 13·8)
Type Name Comments: Criteria for determination of T.T.
Charpy V 1, 2, 3*
T.T. usually defined by 15 lb ft impact energy
50% crystallinity, 1· 5% lateral contraction (less
frequent)
Most frequently used in commercial specifications
Charpy Keyhole 1, 2, 3*
Izod 1, 2*
Impact Schnadt 1, 2, 3*
bending T.T. sometimes defined by 2 kgmfcm 2 impact
energy. The stress distribution in the vicinity of
the notch is controlled by the dimensions and
form of the notch. The most severe test corre-
sponds to the 'tachycoheracic' specimen, Ao
Pellini N.D.T. (Nil ductility temperature) defined by

fracture under single blow. The lateral contrac-
tion is then less than 1%. Thicker plates or
harder steels should be tested modifying the
anvil-to-specimen distance (see Ref. 31)
The hard weld bead (notched) acts only as a
crack starter, the propagation of the crack
depending only on the plate material
VanderVeen 1, 2*
T.T. defined by fracture appearance, fibrous zone
extending to 32 mm or deflection under maximum
load 6 mm
TABLE 13·1 contd.
Type Name Comments: Criteria for determination of T.T.
Slow Kinzel 3*
bending T.T. defined by 1% lateral contraction at
below notch root
"* in
Test developed to study the effect of welding and

heat treatment of the parent plate
Ludley & Drucker 2*

Reversed bending test. Precompression (radius of
bent specimen) variable
Tension Wide Plates (U.S.A.) 1, 2*

Tipper, etc. T.T. sometimes defined by 20,000 lb in energy
Mylonas Rupture stress, extension or fracture appearance.

(Fig. 13-6) Precompression variable
B.W.R.A. (Fig. 13-5) As above; 0·5% average strain at fracture
Combined Navy Tear 1, 2*

tension T.T. defined by 50% crystallinity or sharp
and bending decrease in energy after maximum load
Special Robertson T.T. defined by the temperature of crack arrest in

gradiathermal tests at various stress values
*Notes
1. Brittleness assessed by energy (to fracture or to initiate crack)
2. Brittleness assessed by fracture appearance
3. Brittleness assessed by deformation
13·2·1 Correlation Between Test Results

Considering the diversity of the test conditions, it is not surprising to find
that different tests give conflicting results for a particular steel. Wells (32)
has shown, from tests conducted on thirty steels, that variations as high as
60 oc in the transitions temperature are obtained for a given steel, depending
on the testing method. Of the five tests that were discussed, the Robertson
(8 tonjin 2) and Pellini were in agreement within ±20 oc, the Charpy V 50%
crystallinity gave consistently higher results than the Charpy V 15 lb ft and
no correlation could be found between the VanderVeen test and the other
four. Figure 13·10, reproduced from Ref. 32, illustrates this point.
It has been stated that the correlation between test results is facilitated by
the consideration of two different transition temperatures in structural steel,
the fracture transition and the ductility transition (Ref. 30). The ductility
transition temperature has been defined as corresponding to crack initiation
without significant deformation, and the fracture temperature as correspond-
ing to crack propagation by cleavage. This conception can be approximated

to another widely held one, which is that the mechanism of brittle initiation
is different from that of propagation. Robertson (33) has shown that a fracture
can propagate into a plate, subjected to a low tensile stress, provided that the
plate temperature is kept above a level which is higher than the one required
to initiate the crack. This would indicate that the energy required for its
propagation is lower than the energy required for initiation. It is also evi-
dence for the fact that the ductility transition temperature is always lower
than the fracture transition temperature.
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• A• • • ~
:::E
I=! -20 A ...r-A A o A
•
• ....~-•-• o A A
Z -30 •,A•. - - ; - 0 • A •
Q 6 • •A oao• o •o o
c.n -40
!:: (. 0
6 "' o A 0 o 0 °
z '50
i§
1- -60 I
.a• 0
0 0
A
o
• IS ft-lb }
-70 X A • SO"L crystallinity Charpy V
A 32 mm fibre: Van der Veen
-80 0
- 8 tons/sq. in.: Robertson
-90 0 • Nil ductility: Pellini drop weiqht
FIG. 13·10 Correlation between five transition criteria for thirty steels
(Ref. 32).
(Courtesy Commission IX, The International Institute of Welding)
Of the tests previously discussed, the Charpy V, 15 lb ft can be considered

to be descriptive of crack initiation behaviour, and would therefore give an
indication of the ductility transition temperature. On the other hand, the
Charpy V 50% crystallinity describes crack propagation, meaning the frac-
ture transition temperature. The higher values obtained with the Charpy V
50% are therefore explained, at least in part, by this consideration.
Alterations to the notch geometry of the test specimen affect only the
crack initiation, not its propagation. Welding, residual stresses or any process
resulting in the storing of energy in the neighbourhood of the crack would
have the same effect. As a result, these factors influence the ductility transi-
tion temperature but not the fracture transition.
In the light of these considerations, Johnson and Stout (30) have examined
the correlation between various tests. They found that the disparity between
Pellini and Charpy tests was substantially reduced if the criterion used for
the assessment of the Charpy V transition temperature was the 1·5% lateral
expansion. Good agreement was also obtained with the Kinzel test, when
establishing the properties of the plate material, but wide discrepancies were
observed when heat affected zones were present. For rimmed and semi-
killed steels, the Pellini N.D.T. (see Table 13·1) corresponded roughly to the
Charpy V 10 lb ft, while for killed and low alloy steels the Charpy V 85%
crystallinity was found to be in better agreement.
It must be emphasized that the above correlations were only obtained on
a statistical basis, and that wide and unexplained variations still existed. The
idea of grouping the tests according to their emphasis on crack initiation
and propagation, or on ductility and fracture transitions, has been criticized
because the two processes are too intimately related to be separated. It is
always possible to obtain some correlation between two tests, for a given
group of steels, by altering the criterion for the assessment of the transition
temperature, but it does not necessarily follow that this agreement still exists
for another group. For example, the agreement between N.D.T. and Charpy
10 lb ft for rimmed and semi-killed steels has been mentioned already. When
it is desired to extend this to alloy steels, it is necessary to alter the Charpy
transition temperature, using either the 85% crystallinity or higher impact
energy criteria. This confirms that the transition temperature is an indication
of the brittleness of a material under specific testing conditions. It is not a
constant material property, as may be concluded from§ 13·1.
13·2·2 State of Stress at Notches and Size Effect

One of the reasons that have been proposed to explain the discrepancies
between the various tests for the determination of the transition temperature
is that the strain distribution, and hence the plastic constraint at the notch
root, is not the same for all the tests. According to Schnadt (34), this can be
illustrated as follows. Taking the state of stress at the notch root as given by
the three principal stresses ad I >I > 1,
a2 J J a 3 the 'plastifying power' is
defined as
This magnitude is assumed to be essentially dependent on the specimen

geometry. Two different states of stress are equivalent when their maximum
principal stress and their 'plastifying power' are the same. It is also assumed
that the plastic constraint caused by a given state of stress can be described
by a 1 and rr 1 • The material behaviour at constant temperature and strain

rate may then be illustrated as in Fig. 13·11. For uniaxial stressing, II= 1.
When a 1 is progressively increased from zero, and a 2 and a 3 are maintained
equal to zero, plastic flow occurs at B, where a 1 = Y.
00 Q
~·
a
~ §
f..;
t; v
e:
~ ~
.q-.
o·5a
C~t
,...-..
-¢--
....,I=
.........
J•/5
JA -LJ-a
0"58
A" t=mT
ff·
0•5
A' B'
at
FIG. 13·11 Stress diagram (after Schnadt) constant temperature and strain
rate.
If a 1 continues to increase, rupture will finally occur at C and will be preceded

by plastic deformation. In principle, the value of a at C will be the U.T.S.
In a pure torsion test, II- 1 = 0· 58; yielding occurs at B", plastic flow from
B" to C" and rupture at C". In a similar way, A'B'C' and A" 'B" 'C"' are
obtained for the states of stress shown in the diagram. Under hydrostatic
load II = 0, plastic flow is inhibited and brittle rupture occurs at a stress

(u 1)M. Finally, one obtains the following loci:
yield locus 0M
fracture locus----MNP (preceded by plastic deformation)
MQ (brittle)
For rr- 1 smaller than (II- 1)M or u 1 smaller than (u 1)M, brittle fracture
cannot occur. The yield and fracture loci are essentially temperature and
strain rate dependent, and the variation with temperature is illustrated in
Fig. 13·12. Maintaining the strain rate constant, a specimen characterized by
a plastifying power II2 , can only fail in a brittle manner at temperatures
equal to or lower than T2 • The transition temperature in this case would then
be taken to be equal to T 2 • On the other hand, if a different specimen made
-
Temperature
(0)
FIG. 13-12 Variation of elastic/plastic/fracture point with temperature.
of the same material has a different plastifying power, say II3 , the transition
temperature would be T 3 • The dependence of the transition temperature on
the state of stress is then apparent. A graphical representation of this effect
can also be seen in a paper by Kochendorfer and Scholl (35).
It is generally agreed that the larger the specimen the smaller is the pro-
portion of the crack initiation stage. This size effect has been remarkably
well brought to light by Wundt (36). Using Charpy specimens with
various ratios of notch/specimen depth and notch sharpness, they proved
that whereas general yield was required to break small sharply notched
specimens, fully brittle fracture was obtained in the larger sizes. A similar
effect was observed in experiments with welded plates (Ref. 18). Here again,
3 in thick plates fractured in tension with little deformation while 1 in thick

plates did not. According to Tipper (31) this size effect may be explained on
the assumption that fracture is initiated by very small sharp cracks, dis-
tributed within the material and acting as centres of nucleation. Similar
theories are used to explain the statistical nature of other phenomena, such
as fatigue. Drucker (20) points out that such statistical size effect should be
negligible if the size of the structural member or specimen is large compared
with that of flaws. The same author reports several tests in which no size
effect was observed. The higher tendency to brittle fracture of thick plates
could also be explained by metallurgical factors, and by the fact that condi-
tions of plane strain may exist in internal notches, thus increasing the plastic
constraint. It has also been suggested that the crack propagation is controlled
by the elastic energy stored in the specimen and is therefore dependent on
the average stress and the size as well as, in the case of pressure vessels, on
the energy stored by the contained compressed fluid.
13·2·3 Correlation with Service Experience

Given the lack of agreement between the various tests, it might be asked
whether some of them agree better with service experience than others.
Most of the information available comes from the study of the brittle failure
of mild steel structures, especially welded ships. For notch-tough killed and
low alloy steels of the types used more and more frequently in pressure
vessel construction the evidence is very meagre indeed. It is also unfortunate
that most service failures have only been analysed using one testing method,
or at the most a few making almost impossible the task of comparing the
various proposed transition temperature criteria with service experience.
What little evidence there is, however, points to the fact that there is no
clear correlation between the transition temperature defined by a single test
and the temperature at which a structure shows a tendency to brittle fracture.
This is illustrated in Fig. 13·13 for rimmed and semi-killed steels used in the
construction of ships and tanks. In this diagram the difference between the
transition temperature, established following the Charpy V 15 lb ft or the
Robertson test, and the temperature at which the structure failed, has been
plotted in abscissae. The ordinates represent the number of observations in
each 5 oc interval. About 70% of the observations are within ± 10 oc of the
casualty temperature, the Charpy V 15 lb ft transition temperature tending
to be lower than the Robertson crack arrest temperature and lower than the
casualty temperature. On the other hand, the Robertson crack arrest tempera-
ture tends to be higher than the casualty temperature, the maximum deviation
in five cases out of twenty-eight being + 25 oc for Robertson and - 30 oc for
Charpy V 15 lb ft. A comparison between the casualty temperature and the
transition temperature evaluated by the Charpy V 15 lb ft, 85% crystallinity,

0·15% contraction and the Pellini N.D.T. is shown in Fig. 13·14. In this case
the materials used were carbon (semi-killed or killed) and low alloy steels
and failures at temperatures considerably lower than the transition tempera-
ture were observed. The best agreement, on a statistical basis, is shown by
the Charpy V 15 lb ft while the N.D.T. is always higher than the casualty
temperature. From these examples, it is concluded that the Charpy and the
T.T. Assessed by test T.T. Assessed by test

lower than --- higher than
casualty temperature 12 casualty temperature
II
- - - Charpy V I 5 lb ft
- - - --Robertson C.A. T.
(8 ton/in 2 )
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15

[(Transition temperature)- (Casualty temperature)] (°C)
FIG. 13-13 Comparison ofCharpy V 15lb ft and Robertson (C.A.T.) transi-
tion temperature with service experience. Rimmed and semi-killed steels
(Refs. 7, 30, 31).
Robertson crack arrest test can be used for the prediction of the transition
temperature of a structure made of rimmed or semi-killed steel, within
± 30 °C. For fully killed and low alloy steels, the casualty temperature cannot
be predicted by any test. Both the Charpy V 85% crystallinity transition
temperature and the Pellini N.D.T. are higher than the casualty temperature
for these steels. However, given the good agreement between the N.D.T.
and the Robertson crack arrest temperatures it is possible for the N.D.T.
to be lower than the casualty temperature for some rimmed or semi-killed
steels.
T.T.
Assessed T.T.
Assessed Charpy V - - - 15lb ft
by test
- b y test
loH·er tlza11 higher than
casualty casualty - - - - 85% cryst.
temperature temperature
- - - o·J5% lat. cont.
5
4 ~ N.D.T. ·
·-,
r·-· ·-· l !
I
I I
20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 140
[(Transition temperature) - {Casualty temperature)] (°C)
Flo. 13-14 Comparison of Charpy V 15 lb ft, 85% crystallinity, 0·15%

lateral contraction and Pellini (N.D.T.) transition temperatures with service
experience. Low alloy and fully killed steels (Refs. 7, 30).
13·3 APPLICATION TO DESIGN
13·3·1 General Considerations

It may be concluded from the previous paragraphs that the low-stress brittle
fracture of a pressure vessel is possible as a result of the following factors:
(a) Presence of a notch.
(b) High localized stresses in the vicinity of the notch.
(c) Operation at a sufficiently low temperature.
(d) Wrong selection or treatment of material.
To guard against this contingency, the presence of a notch acting as a
severe stress raiser or in a highly stressed region, at low temperatures, must
be avoided. In addition, the material must be the correct one for the specified
service conditions and must not suffer any unexpected damage during fabri-
cation or in operation.
The most important source of notches in welded pressure vessels are the
welds themselves. Weld cracks occur when cooling down a weld between
Q
two rigidly clamped plates, showing the necessity to allow for the differential
contraction of the two sections being joined without setting up high restrain-
ing forces. For instance, thick small bore protruding nozzles may be too
rigid to be welded to, say, a boiler drum. Even when cracking does not occur
during welding, if a large number of such nozzles is regularly spread over a
small area of the drum, the restraining forces may well be excessive and
cracks may spread before stress relieving. Besides this problem, due attention
must be paid to the correct selection of electrodes, welding procedure, pre-
heating, etc., developed if necessary with the help of full-scale mock-ups.
The welding sequence in large site-welded vessels is also important. Another
source of notches are the weld defects, i.e. slag inclusions, fish eyes, etc. Bad
workmanship is naturally a primary factor, assuming that the weld procedure
is correct, but the conditions under which welding took place must always
be considered. Lack of protection at site, bad accessibility, unnecessary
complications introduced in the design are all excuses for bad workmanship.
Here again it is important to emphasize that simplicity of design and good
accessibility must be achieved.
Notches are also caused by machining operations, such as drilling and
tapping for the attachment of lugs or covers, undercuts when machining
flanges and forgings, etc. Simplicity in the design will naturally help to avoid
these defects. All drilling and tapping should be located only in areas sub-
jected to stresses well below the average stress in the shell.
Finally, defects in the material itself, like slag inclusions and laminations
in plates and forgings, constitute notches.
Notches can only be avoided by good design and careful selection of
materials and welding procedure, together with good workmanship con-
firmed by regular tests of the welders. However, the assurance that notches
are indeed absent can only be obtained by inspecting material and weld-
ments alike, using the non-destructive methods summarized in Chapter 3.
After inspection and the necessary repairs to make good any defect, a final
check will take place. Two questions then arise; the one is how detailed must
the inspection be, the other is what defects are not permissible. At present not
enough is known about the relative severity of the various types of defects
to give a qualified answer to the latter. To say that, until we have this answer,
no defect whatsoever can be accepted is a safe but unrealistic position. It is
therefore left entirely to the inspector's discretion, assisted in some cases by
more or less arbitrary Code rules, to say which defects have to be repaired
before the vessel is commissioned. A similar situation arises with the former
question: the safe position would be to specify complete non-destructive
inspection. This again is always expensive and sometimes impracticable.
Furthermore, to constitute a danger a notch has to be in a highly stressed
area, or must act as a severe stress raiser. It would therefore follow that a
LOW STRESS AND BRITTLE FRACTURE 471
detailed inspection is only necessary in the vicinity of structural discon-

tinuities such as occur at the junction of cylindrical and spherical shells,
nozzles, brackets and other attachments, etc. The inspection of areas sub-
jected to stresses at or below the average-main plating remote from dis-
continuities, main seams, etc.--could then be spot radiography or any
similar method, covering only a small proportion of the whole area. The
purpose of such a procedure is to ensure the complete absence of notches in
highly stressed areas, and in areas in which a large number of notches con-
stitute an important stress raiser where stresses would otherwise be low.
This criterion is justified by the well-known fact that cylindrical vessels with
a great number of ellipsoidal cavities in the main longitudinal seams have
only failed after general yielding. On the other hand, all failures in service
have occurred due to the presence of a notch in the proximity of structural
discontinuities. Few weld defects can be as severe as the saw cuts introduced
in the B.W.R.A. plates. Yet those plates, stress relieved, only failed at high
average stresses.
The general policy of the inspecting authorities asks for 100% non-
destructive examination of the main seams for those vessels subjected to a
severe duty (Class I vessels). Spot radiography is specified for medium duty
vessels (Class II) and all vessels subjected to low stresses (Class III) do not
require any radiographic inspection. The need to ensure the absence of
notches in highly stressed areas is recognized by the International Institute
of Welding. Since radiography can seldom be used in these areas, ultrasonic
inspection is suggested. For nuclear reactor vessels, it is customary to specify
ultrasonic scanning of all plates, 100% radiographic or ultrasonic inspection
of all main seams, ultrasonic inspection of all other pressure containing
welds and dye penetrant or magnetic particle examination of all other welds
to the main shell.
The prevention of high localized stresses by rounding off all junctions and
re-entrant corners is a general principle of design that is too often forgotten.
In addition, localized stresses are always present at the junction of shells, as
discussed in Chapter 4. It is especially important to ensure complete freedom
from cracks in those regions. Part penetration welds of, say, nozzles to shells,
are sometimes considered as incorporating a built-in notch. The B.W.R.A.
tests previously mentioned, however, do not seem to justify this opinion
(Ref. 18).
Residual stresses are known to be of little importance in themselves when
they are localized over a small area. Large fields of residual stresses, on the
contrary, add a substantial amount of stored elastic energy and may therefore
contribute to the propagation of cracks. Since in addition to the residual
stresses the heat affected zone in the vicinity of the weld is usually brittle,
stress relaxation by some heat treatment is indicated. In this way, not only
the residual stresses are relaxed but also a substantial improvement in the
material ductility may be achieved. When local stress relieving is required,
due to the size of the vessel, special care must be taken to avoid yielding
during the cooling period. This requirement imposes some limitations to the
type of joints, since the presence of large heat sinks or protrusions in the
neighbourhood may well restrict the feasibility.
Mechanical stress relieving, performed by causing plastic flow, has some-
times been used. Although it is adequate in some very simple cases, it is
possible to embrittle the material by work hardening. This method should
therefore be limited to peening of the different weld runs during welding.
13·3·2 Application of Toughness Tests

Toughness tests are used to evaluate the tendency to brittle behaviour of
materials, and consequently in the selection of the most suitable material
for a given application. A further purpose is the assessment of the effect of
fabrication, i.e. welding, cold working, etc., and of service on the material.
Although most materials show some tendency to notch embrittlement to a
greater or lesser degree, this is usually overlooked in all but ferritic steels,
where it is particularly severe. With some exceptions, the different tests
coincide in the arrangement of steels in order of merit. They also agree in
their evaluation of the effects of grain size, chemical composition, deoxidation
practice, ageing, work hardening, heat treatment and environment (see for
instance Ref. 37).
Of the tests listed in Table 13·1, the most widely used is the Charpy V, in
which an energy criterion defines the transition temperature. In commerical
specifications, the complete energy-temperature curve is not required. It is
sufficient for the energy to be higher than a specified value at the operating
temperature, usually 15 lb ft, a criterion taken from service experience with
rimmed and semi-killed structural steels. However, it is considered that the
complete curve is a necessity. It would appear that a ductility criterion, such
as lateral contraction at failure, is more suitable than an energy criterion,
to establish the toughness. Since there is fair correlation between these
criteria, the energy criterion tends to be preferred as being simpler to apply.
The Charpy test has been developed for the determination of base plate
properties, but it is also used to determine the properties of the weld itself
and of the material in the heat affected region. The Kinzel test is more useful
for this purpose, since it gives information on the relative merits of chemical
composition, heat treatment and welding procedures. A test often used in
Europe is the one developed by Schnadt.
The reverse bend test, developed by Ludley and Drucker, would appear to
present the most correct picture of the behaviour of a material subjected to
work hardening. Full plate width specimens can be used, thus eliminating the
possible problem of size effect while retaining the properties of the plate.
Some typical results are shown in Fig. 13·15. With this test a study can also
be made of the effects of ageing at various temperatures, environment and
heat treatment. The properties of a weldment can also be investigated using
a specimen as shown in Fig. 13·16. A disadvantage of this test is that it does
1?()0
I E -STEEL UN AGED
: 1000
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0:
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COMPRESSIVE PRE 51 ~A IN
nc. 13·15 Reversed-bend tests of unagcd bars prcstrained at various
temperatures (Ref. 20).
f '"
(Courtesy John Wiley & Sons Inc.)
/ .,E ~./
vo J6t
~ "';,~'"" p/o"
Fro. 13·16 Reversed-bend test specimen for the investigation of the effect of
a weldment.
not give any quantitative information in terms of stress to rupture at a

given temperature in a simple form. This can be overcome by means of wide
plate or notched bar tests under gradual loading. The advantage of such a
presentation would be the possibility for the designer to ensure the prevention
of brittle failure through the selection of a working stress (see Chapter 10).
Assume a test in which an artificially embrittled specimen-notched, work
hardened, etc.-is loaded gradually. By plotting the nominal breaking stress
against the test temperature, a diagram as shown in Fig. 13 ·17 would be

obtained. An increase in the severity of the embrittlement would shift the
curve towards the higher temperatures and vice versa. If the specimen
incorporates the most severe embrittlement likely to occur in practice, a safe
working stress for a structure designed to operate at a temperature T1 would
be u 1 • Few tests can be imagined as severe as the Robertson, in which a
crack initiated at a notch by a short, sharp, blow propagates rapidly through
the plate (Fig. 13·8). In this case, the temperature plotted in abscissae is the
one required to stop the progress of the crack in the stressed plate. This
Rupture curve
N.D.T. N.D.T. N.D.T.

+30°F +60°F +120°F
Temperature
FIG. 13·17 Variation of crack arrest temperature with nominal stress (after
Ref. 7).
temperature is referred to as the crack arrest temperature (C.A.T.). A point that
must be borne in mind when estimating the C.A.T. from a Robertson gradia-
thermal test is that the crack does not have a distinct front. The tip is usually
further advanced at plate mid-thickness than at the surfaces (tunnelling
effect) and the crack nucleates before the position where it actually forms, as
discussed in Chapter 10.
A serious drawback of the Robertson test is that it is involved, costly, time
consuming and requires the use of special equipment not usually available
in the conventional material testing laboratory. For this reason it is only
used in extraordinary cases. According to Pellini (7), the temperature
corresponding to point A, where the curve (Fig. 13·17) levels off, is predicted
by the N.D.T. test (see Table 13·1 and Fig. 13-8). At a temperature equal to
the N.D.T. +30 °F, the breaking stress equals half the yield stress. At
N.D.T. +60 °F it equals the yield stress and at N.D.T. + 120 °F, the U.T.S.
The safe operating temperature for a vessel designed to work, say, at ! Y,
would then be N.D.T. +30 °F. The N.D.T. can be assessed by the use of the
Charpy V test as well as drop-weight tests. An empirical correlation has been
published elsewhere (Refs. 38, 39).
The preceding criteria assume that an extremely severe notch is present in
the vessel. If this is not the case, they may well prove overcautious. This is in
fact illustrated in Fig. 13·14, which shows that failures have occurred at far
lower temperatures than the N.D.T. Furthermore, the maximum permissible
Shear lips
Crack length ;. 21
FIG. 13·18 Formation of a through crack.
size of notch cannot be estimated. Irwin (26) has used equations similar to
Eqn. 13·1 to overcome this drawback. In a pressure vessel of wall thickness t,
an internal crack starts as shown in Fig. 13·18, filling the area enclosed by
curve 1. It then proceeds to spread until it reaches curve 3, when shear lips
are formed and leakage ensues. A safety criterion is to prevent the spreading
of the crack in a brittle manner at any stage of its development. This is known
as the 'leak-before-break' criterion. Assuming that the length of the crack at
curve 3 is 2t and that the stress is equal to yield, the minimum required
toughness to satisfy the 'leak-before-break' criterion is obtained from Eqn.
13·1,
K~ = 2n Y 2 t
The fracture toughness is determined as a function of the testing temperature
from wide plate tests as described in Ref. 40. An equivalent criterion applied
to surface cracks, caused by fatigue, corrosion, etc., requires a minimum
toughness established from notched bar tests (Ref. 41) equal to twice Kc.
The variation of fracture toughness with temperature is of the same type as
illustrated in Fig. 13·17. Values of K for various types of notches have been
determined by Paris and Sih (42).
Irwin's method can only be applied to strain rate insensitive materials, as

discussed in § 13·1.
A method has recently been proposed (Ref. 43) for the determination of the
minimum safe operating temperature, taken as that temperature at
which a B.W.R.A. wide plate (Fig. 13·5) fractures after a 0·5% plastic
TABLE 13·2
MAIN DESIGN PRECAUTIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF BRITTLE FRACTURE
GENERALLY ACCEPTED IN BRITAIN (B.S. 1500) AND THE U.S.A. (A.S.M.E.
CODES)
Minimum
Operating Special Materials Other Precautions
Temperature
("C) U.S.A. Britain U.S.A. Britain
0 none none none none
0 to -20 A.S.T.M. A7, Non-impact tested Weld test pieces

Al13 and A283 steel subject to impact tested.
excluded. thickness limita- Stress relief re-
Impact tests tion. none commended (car-
not required Impact tested bon and low
B.S. 1510-LTO alloy steels)
Careful design to
-20 to -30 B.S. 1510-LT15 avoid notch effect
-30 to -35 Impact tests at B.S. 1510-LT15

the design temp-
erature required B.S. 1510-LT30
-35 to -60 B.S. 1510-LT30 Main seams

double butt
B.S. 1510-LT50 welded
Vessel stress
-60 to -100 Low alloy steel Low alloy steel to relieved
to A.S.T.M. B.S. 1510-LTIOO
A203
-100 to Austenitic Cr-Ni Austenitic Cr-Ni

-190 steel or 9% Ni to steel to
A.S.T.M. A353 B.S. 1510-LT190
extension. This value is based on the permanent set measured in the vicinity
of structural discontinuities. This method is susceptible to extension to cover
the determination of permissible size of defects and of working stresses.
Finally, the design criteria accepted by the British Standards and the
A.S.M.E. are summarized and compared in Table 13·2. In most cases, the
use of steel-whether impact tested or not-is subject to thickness limitations

by most design Codes (see for instance B.S. 1500: 1958 and A.S.M.E.
Section VIII).
REFERENCES
1. SHANK M. E. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 17 (1954).

2. BoYD G. M. Paper in Brittle Fracture in Steel (H.M.S.O., 1962).
3. PuZAK P. P., BABECKI A. J. & PELLINI W. S. Welding J. (Res. Supp.)
37 (1958) 391s.
4. GALLETLY G. D. 'Torispherical Shells-A Caution to Designers',
Pressure Vessel and Piping Design: Collected Papers (A.S.M.E., 1960).
5. HARRIS H. West of Scotland Iron St. Inst., October 1956.
6. JONES T. E. M. & MARSHALL J. D. Brit. Welding J. 9 (1962) 353.
7. PELLINI W. S. & PuzAK P. P. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 88
(1963).
8. DE LEIRIS H., CouTURE J. & CRUSSARD C. Metaux-Corrosion Usure 19
(1944) 95.
9. WELLS A. A., I.I.W. Report IIS/IIW. XI B-6-59.
10. PARKER E. R. Brittle Behaviour of Engineering Structures (Wiley, 1957).
11. TIPPER C. F. The Brittle Fracture Story (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1962).
12. WECK R. loc. cit. Ref. 2.
13. OROWAN E. Paper in Fracture, AVERBACK B. L., FELBECK D. K. &
HAHN G. T. (ed.) (Wiley-M.I.T., 1959).
14. GREENE T. W. Welding J. 28 (1949) 193s.
15. WEeK R. Welding Research 7 (1953) 70.
16. HEBRANT F., LoUis H., SoETE W. & VINCKIER A. Revue de Ia Soudure
3 (1955) 139.
17. WELLS A. A. & BURDEKIN F. M. Brit. Welding J. 10 (1963) 270.
18. WAKEFIELD B. A. & WELLS A. A. Brit. Welding J. 9 (1962) 29.
19. MYLONAS C. Contribution to papers 5, 6, 7, loc. cit. Ref. 2.
20. DRUCKER D. C. Paper in Fracture of Solids, DRUCKER D. C. & GILMAN
J. J. (ed.) (Wiley-Interscience, 1962).
21. MYLONAS C. & RocKEY K. C. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 40 (1961) 306s.
22. GRIFFITH A. A. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 221 (1920) 163.
23. WESTERGAARD H. M. Trans. A.S.M.E. 6 (1939) 4.
24. 0ROWAN E. Paper in Fatigue and Fracture of Metals MURRAY W. M.
(ed.) (Wiley, 1952).
25. IRWIN G. R. Article 'Fracture' in Encyclopaedia of Physics, Vol. 7
(Springer, 1958).
Q*
26. IRWIN G. R. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 41 {1962) 519s.

27. GETZ D. L., PIERCE W. S. & CALVERT H. F. 'Correlation of Uniaxial
Notch Tensile Data with Pressure Vessel Fracture Characteristics',
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 63-WA-187.
28. WELLS A. A. Brit. Welding J. 10 {1963) 563.
29. IRWIN G. R. 'Crack-Toughness Testing of Strain-Rate Sensitive
Materials', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 63-WA-217.
30. JOHNSON H. H. & STOUT R. D. Welding Research Council Bulletin
No. 62 (1960).
31. TIPPER C. F. Paper in loc. cit. Ref. 2.
32. Int. Inst. of Welding, Report IIS/IIW-77-61, Brit. Welding J. 9 (1962) 70s.
33. ROBERTSON T. W. J. Iron St. Inst. 175 (1953) 361.
34. ScHNADT H. M. Oerlikon Schweissmitteilungen 16 (1958) 14.
35. KOCHENDORFER A. & SCHOLL H. Arch. Eisenhut 277 (1957) 15.
36. WUNDT B. M. Paper in A.S.M.E. Metals Eng. Conf 1959.
37. ADENIS D. & BLANCHARD P. Fragi!ite et Fragi!isation des Metaux
Alleages (Dunod, 1963).
38. PUZAK P. P., SCHUSTER M. E. & PELLINI W. S. Welding J. (Res. Supp.)
33 (1954) 433s.
39. A.S.M.E. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III Nuclear Vessels
(A.S.M.E., 1963).
40. A.S.T.M. Special Committee on Fracture Testing of High Strength
Materials, A.S.T.M. Bulletin Nos. 243, pp. 29 and 244, p. 18, Jan-Feb.
1960; Matis. Res. & Stds., 1 (1961) 389, 1 (1961) 877, 2 (1962) 196,
4 (1964) 107.
41. BOYLE R. W., SULLIVAN A. M. & KRAFFT J. M. Welding J. (Res Supp.)
41 (1962) 425s.
42. PARIS P. C. & SIH G. C. M. paper in Fracture Toughness Testing and
its Applications (A.S.T.M. 1965).
43. WOODLEY C. C., BURDEKIN F. M. & WELLS A. A. Brit. Welding J.
11 (1964) 123.
14 Creep
14·0 INTRODUCTION
Wdeformation
a material, subjected to a constant load, undergoes a progressive
HEN
with time it is said to show creep. In the conventional creep
test, a prismatic specimen withstands a constant load at a fixed temperature
and its elongation is recorded and plotted against time. Very often curves of
the type illustrated in Fig. 14·1(a) are obtained, showing three different
stages. In the first stage-primary creep-the strain rate decreases; in the
secondary stage of creep, the strain rate remains constant and it increases
during the tertiary stage until rupture occurs. If, during the tests, the load
is removed, only a part of the elongation is recovered and the creep curve
during unloading follows A-B.
It is generally accepted that the primary stage of creep is mainly a result of
thermal activation, enforcing slip under sufficiently high stresses. The thermal
activation required is very small, as is proved by the fact that primary creep
exists at very low temperatures. On release of the load, only a small amount
of the deformation is recovered and the behaviour of the material is prac-
tically indistinguishable from normal plastic flow. In both cases, the material
deforms until it strain hardens enough to withstand the applied load.
At higher temperature a complex mechanism of softening-thermal re-
covery and recrystallization-is superimposed on the strain hardening pro-
cess, resulting in increased plastic flow. When equilibrium between the strain
hardening and the thermal softening is reached, the strain rate remains
constant. This is the secondary stage. It may only last for a very short time,
in which case it will be shown as a point of inflexion in the creep curve. On
the other hand, several regions of equilibrium as shown in Fig. 14·1(b) may
exist. In this diagram, AB, DE and GH correspond to regions of secondary
creep and BD and EG are the so-called transition regions.
Tertiary creep may be partly due to plastic instability, brought about by
the progressive reduction of area during deformation and the resulting
increase in the true stress under constant loading. In the same way as with
the conventional tensile specimen, this decrease in area can be due to the
growth of internal cracks or voids (see Chapter 10). Metallurgical factors,
479
leading to the progressive embrittlement of the material can, however, cause

rupture before the onset of plastic instability. Depending on the material, the
service temperature and the stress history, the fracture may be trans- or inter-
crystalline and it may or may not be preceded by large deformations. Typical
Primary Secondary
(a)
.·§
Elementary· ..
til
-- -B
Time
(b)
With
Transitional
Regions
£=:
Time
FIG. 14·1 Typical creep curves.
inter-crystalline fractures, preceded by very small deformations, are those of

many highly creep resistant materials.
In this chapter we shall review only those aspects of creep of direct interest
to the pressure vessel designer. The reader interested in the more fundamental
aspects should consult Refs. 1, 2 and 3.
CREEP 481
8
i)
6
/
(a) I 1.
.s 11'4 Ton/in 2 9·5 To1/in 2
v
. .v
Creep Strain / Time ~ 4 ' v
/sostress 14 Ton/~
2~,_..... ~
7'6Totin 11-
0
~~
100 I
I
1/u
80
(b) 1/9'5 Ton/in 2
Ton/in 11 11·4 Ton/in
I
Creep rate Time
0
I
/sostress
)
0
)
f]
.. v
2o......._ /
ol~ K I- 7·6 Ton/in 11
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (10 6 hr)
(c) 14
Creep Stress I Strain
-
Isochronous 12'75
2,500hr
;;"'
.s Jl·S
0:::
~
'-
~ 10'25
~
9
8
Creep Strain (10-2)
FIG. 14·2 Creep curves for 1 Cr-!Mo steel at 500 oc (Ref. 6).
14·1 PRESENTATION AND AVAILABILITY OF DATA
The bulk of the information on creep of specific materials comes from con-
stant uniaxial load and constant temperature tests. Ideally, the testing time
should be at least equal to the design life, but since this is seldom possible
three types of tests are used, as described by Oro wan (4):
(a) Abridged tests, conducted at the anticipated service temperature and
various initial stresses.
(b) Mechanically accelerated tests, conducted at the anticipated service
temperature and higher initial stresses than the estimated design stress.
(c) Thermally accelerated tests, conducted at temperatures higher than the
one anticipated in service and under initial stress of the order of the esti-
mated design stress.
5 tonsfi~2
0·2
0
0' 0·1
~ O·Ob·
....
0::
-...... ....
V)
u 0·02 ',, __
i=
V>
<
-I 0· 01 --- - .... _ ---,
Q..
=i. 0·006
0>- 3in.plate
N.920°C
0·002 T.2 h 650°(
f0·9 10·8 10·7 10-o 10·' 10·3

CREEP RATE, in./in./h
FIG. 14·3 Family of strain/rate curves at constant stress on 1·2% Mn Steel

(Ref. 5).
(Courtesy J. Iron Steel Inst.)
It will be noted that the actual stress varies during the test. This variation
is only significant in the tertiary stage, in which there is a significant reduction
in area.
The total testing time is usually 1-10% of the design life. The test results
may be expressed in the conventional forms shown in Fig. 14·2(a), (b) or (c).
These diagrams reproduce the results of tests performed at 500 oc and nominal
stress of 7·6, 9·5, 11·4 and 14 tonjin 2 in a lCr-tMo steel. In Fig. 14·2(a)
the strain is plotted against time while in Fig. 14·2(b) the ordinates represent
strain rate (Ref. 6). In Fig. 14·2(c), the stress required to reach a given strain
CREEP 483
after a specified time interval is plotted against the strain. The form shown in
Fig. 14·3 is due to Glen (5). In this, the strain is plotted against the strain rate
40·01--:--~-===:;===-=:=.:=---1
,~ /
I
I '
I
I
I
I
I
l
l
I
\
0 \
o- '\
z~
\
< \
---
\
0:: \
I- \
V)
',,
v
i=
< 0·1
V) -- -,
~ O·Ob ', \
',~'o,
'~i,l
---- ........ _
0·01
0·006 4so•c
0·002
to·& 10· 5 to-• 10· 3
CREEP RATE,in./in./h
FIG. 14·4 Family of strain/rate curves at constant temperature on Al-killed
1% Mn steel (Ref. 5).
(Courtesy J. Iron Steel lnst.)
-
40
- ••
---
-;- I-
-X-'f- X X
.... :-=:
-- ---- -
~
- -- ----
---~~--1<-~ X
t--+- - - t--.r---
----X
:-
~ 10
.., 8 -r-~- ~
::-- .......__
X-
~
1/1 8
1- STEEL A ~
• 500° .......
X550°
0 575°
+ fJOOj
2
100 1000 10 000 100000
TIME-h
FIG. 14·5 Creep-rupture curves for 1 Cr-i Mo steel (Ref. 6).
(Courtesy Instn mech. Engrs)
for tests conducted at 5 ton/in 2 nominal stress and various temperatures.
The broken curves are extrapolated from the full ones. Figure 14·4 shows a
similar family of curves obtained at constant temperature. It will be noticed

that in Figs. 14·3 and 14·4 the creep curves show sharp changes in slope
reflecting a change in the creep behaviour of the material, i.e. transition
regions. These transitions are clearly defined using this type of diagram.
Other forms of representation are listed by Marin (7).
Another creep test commonly used is the rupture test, in which the time that
elapses until rupture, under constant loading and temperature, is recorded.
Sometimes the elongation at rupture is recorded too. The results are plotted
in the forms shown in Fig. 14·5.
Stress relaxation data obtained by means of creep tests under constant
strain are of interest, for instance, in the case of bolting materials or for the
determination of the time required to relieve the residual stress to a specified
level. These tests are not standardized, but their results are usually presented
as shown in Fig. 14·6
Temperature T
Time
FIG. 14·6 Presentation of stress relaxation data.
Creep tests are expensive, time consuming, and difficult to perform. In

addition, the creep strength of nominally identical materials may differ
considerably depending on variations of the microstructure, slight ~Iterations
in their chemical composition, etc. It is therefore advisable to seek the
manufacturer's advice as to the best estimates of the creep behaviour of a
given material. Trade publications are usually freelyavailable onrequestfrom
most manufacturers and they should be consulted. General information on
some typical materials is contained in the references quoted in Chapter 2, in
particular, in the A.S.M. Metals Handbook, and also in Ref. 3. In addition,
a wealth of up-to-date information will be found in the Proceedings of
conferences and symposia on the subject (see, for instance, Refs. 6 and 8).
Relaxation data on alloy steel is included in Ref. 9. As in all matters con-
CREEP 485
cerning the selection and properties of materials the designer should consult
an experienced metallurgist at an early stage of the project.
14·2 EXTRAPOLATION OF DATA
One of the main problems that the designer has to face is how to apply the
results of tests, that do not extend over a period of more than one year, to
vessels with a service life of more than 20 years. Very often, the only informa-
tion required by the designer or by the specified design Code is of the form,
(a) The value of the initial stress required to produce rupture after a
specified time at the operating temperature.
(b) The value of the initial stress required to produce a specified creep
strain at the operating temperature.
(c) The value of initial stress required to produce a specified minimum
strain rate at the operating temperature.
This information can be obtained from the creep tests previously described,
or from standard, short time, creep tests (see B.S. 3228 and B.S. 3500). In
general, the testing time should be at least of the order of 1-10% of the
service life. Extrapolation may be done graphically, from curves such as
those shown in Figs. 14·2-14·5.
When the only information required is in the form of time to rupture at
the design stress and temperature, Allen (10) has suggested that two sets of
curves should be used for the extrapolation. One set is as illustrated in Fig.
14·3(a). The other is a plot of (!/temperature) against log (time to rupture)
for selected values of the initial stress. An entirely different approach is based
on the application of equations that attempt to represent the creep behaviour.
One such equation, proposed by Dorn (II) for low stresses, is
e = Clu"e-H/RT (14·1)
where e = strain rate = defd(), H = activation energy, R = Boltzmann
constant, T = temperature COK) and C 1 ,n = constants.
Assuming that the volume of an element of cross-sectional area A and
length l remains constant during creep, AI = constant and
. .
. l A
e = - = -- (14·2)
l A
Assuming now that rupture is mainly due to plastic instability, it will occur
when
. .
F = &A-Au = 0 (14·3)
as in the case previously studied in Chapter 11. Combining Eqns. 14·2 and
14·3, we obtain at rupture 8 = aju, the stress at rupture being infinity.
Substituting this expression into Eqn. 14·1, and integrating
(14·4)
where 0, is the time to rupture and u0 and 80 the initial values of the stress
and the strain rate respectively. Equation 14·4 can also be written in the form
log. 0, = :T-log. nC 1 u8 (14·5)
_j_r---------:ilj
~ ,~
2Lr
1, ~
~
~
.
log &r log &r

(a) (b)
FIG. 14·7 Extrapolation of creep rupture data (Orr, Sherby & Dom's
equation).
Orr, Sherby and Dorn (11) assume that the activation energy H is indepen-
dent of the stress, in which case
N
log1o 0, = T+log 10 S(u 0 ) (14·6)
where N is a constant and S(u0) is a function of the initial stress. Testing the
material at constant initial stress and recording the times to rupture at the
temperatures T1 and T 2 (expressed in °K)
log1o 0' 1 = N
O,z
(_!_-
Tl Tz
!._)
It is then possible to extrapolate the data obtained in two iso-stress curves
at temperatures T1 and T2 to any other temperature. Plotting, as suggested
by Allen, log 10 0, against 1/T in Fig. 14·7(a), N is obtained and it is possible
to predict the time to rupture 0, 3 corresponding to the temperature T3 •
Extrapolation to other stress conditions is also possible. To this end, it is
CREEP 487
noted that if the material is tested under the initial stress a0 and, at equal
temperature, under the initial stress a 0
log10
0,
0; =
S(a 0)
log1o S(ao) = -log1o
(ao)"
~
Extrapolation on a log 100,-log 10a 0 diagram is then quite straightforward

(Fig. 14·7(b)). The data required for the extrapolation to any other condition
of temperature and of initial stress can be derived from only three stress-
rupture tests, two under initial stress a 0 at temperatures T1 and T 2 (thermally
accelerated tests) and one under initial stress a0 and temperature T 3 equal
to the design temperature (mechanically accelerated test). It is apparent that
the accuracy of the extrapolation can be increased by averaging the results of
many tests, rather than using only three results. At the same time, the extra-
polation is only valid if no transition regions exist during service that are not
detected during the test.
Larson and Miller (12) assume that N (Eqn. 14·6) is stress dependent and
that the variation of S with the initial stress is small. Equation 14·6 can then
be expressed in the form
= N(ao) -L
T
or
T(log 10 O,+L)
which comes to the same as
a 0 = F [T(log 10 O,+L)]
where the term inside the square brackets is called the Larson-Miller para-
meter. The constant L may be averaged from any two tests under equal
initial stress and temperature T1 and T2 :
L = Tl loglO e,l- T2 loglO 0,2
T2-Tt
Usually this constant is taken to be equal to 20. Plotting the initial stress
against the Larson-Miller parameter, with the constant equal to 20 or
determined experimentally, the curve shown in Fig. 14·8 is obtained. Pre-
diction of the rupture time is then possible by extrapolation of this curve.
A purely empirical approach to the problem of extrapolation is followed
by Manson and Haferd (13). From a large number of tests, these authors
observed that the following expression was satisfied:
log10 0, = P-Q(ao)T
where P was a constant. This equation can be rewritten in the form

P = log 10 8,+Q(u0 ) T = log 10 8, 1 +Q(u0 )T1
\
\
\
\
T("R)
\
L "'20 (standard}
&,,hours
Experimental
data
''
'' ..
T(log1o &, + L)
Flo. 14·8 Extrapolation of creep rupture data (Larson-Miller parameter).
(a) (b)
' .. ...
T-T, T
logto &,1 - logto&r
FIG. 14·9 Extrapolation of creep rupture data (Manson-Haferd parameter).
and then
log 1 0 8, 1 -log 1 0 8,
T-T1
CREEP 489
which is equivalent to saying that the initial stress depends on the Manson-
Haferd parameter
log 10 0, 1 -log 10 0,
and can be plotted against this parameter as illustrated in Fig. 14·9(a).
T1 and log 10 0, 1 are two constants that may be obtained from Fig. 14·9(b),
which expresses the relationship
log 10 0, 1 = P-QT1 = P-Q'T1 = P-Q"T1 = · · ·
Once T1 and 0, 1 are obtained from experimental data, the curve of Fig.
14·9(b) can be plotted and extrapolated.
Other extrapolation methods have been proposed by Graham and Walles
(14), Murry (15), Brozzo (16), etc.
A very promising method for the extrapolation of data has been proposed
by Rabotnov and proved to give satisfactory results by Goldhoff (17). If a
family of isochronous curves (as shown in Fig. 14·2(c)) is plotted, Rabotnov
found that each curve could be obtained from another one by multiplying
its ordinate by a certain function of time. Taking
u = cf> (e)
to represent the equation of stress-strain curve in an ordinary tensile test
cf> (e)
u = l+Oab
where a and b are constants. Goldhoff found that excellent agreement was
obtained when b was taken to be equal to 0·3 and a and cf>(e) were derived
experimentally. Prediction of creep data would then be possible from a
conventional tensile test and one constant load creep test at the same tem-
perature and reduced stress. Having obtained a and cf>(e), a family of iso-
chronous creep curves can be plotted. The results may then be presented in
the more conventional forms of Fig. 14·2(a).
The parametric methods of extrapolation of Larson-Miller, Dorn and
Manson-Haferd, have been compared in great detail by several investigators.
It would appear that the Manson-Haferd method is marginally more exact
than the other two. Large errors are, however, possible if the creep curve
shows unexpected transition regions and the predictions of any of these
methods must be looked upon with some suspicion. The same can be applied
to Rabotnov's method. A method of extrapolation such as the one proposed
by Glen, although it has the disadvantage of requiring a large number of
experimental results, is considered to be more rational and to give more
exact and useful results.
The shape of the creep curves is seldom as simple as the one illustrated in
Fig. 14·1, and in general transition regions will exist. If this is the case, the
methods previously described for the extrapolation of data will be inapplic-
able. Extrapolation is, however, possible from experimental strain-rate curves
(Figs. 14·3 and 14·4). Once a family of such curves is plotted, either from tests
at constant stress or at constant temperature, creep curves at lower stresses
or temperatures can be estimated from the general pattern. Having obtained
the estimated creep curve at the design stress and temperature, it is possible
to derive the ordinary strain-time curve by graphical integration. A step by
step procedure for this integration may be seen in Ref. 5, but any standard
method can be used.
14·3 INTERPRETATION OF DATA: UNI-AXIAL STRESS

SYSTEMS
In order to apply creep data in design it is necessary to have analytical rela-

tions between the variables-stress, strain, time and temperature-for the
material selected. Several equations have been proposed to describe this
relationship, based on the fact that creep is a thermally activated process,
Eqn. 14·1 being typical of these equations of state. Other creep relations,
based on the approximation of experimental creep curves by analytical
functions as proposed by several authors, are reviewed by Marin (7). In
the first type of equations an attempt is made to derive an analytical function
of the type
F(u, e, (), T) = 0
that will agree with experimental data. In the second type of empirical equa-
tions the aim is to fit a family of curves defined by the relation
f(u, e, ()) = 0
to the experimental curves shown in Fig. 14·2(a), obtained at a constant
temperature T. It is apparent that the elimination of the temperature variable
simplifies the problem considerably. Even so, none of the empirical relations
that have been proposed can be applied over the whole range of the remain-
ing variables. It has been shown that the time-to-rupture can be predicted
directly from the extrapolation of experimental data and, in fact, the designer
will seldom be interested in the strain distribution under tertiary creep. In
general, the region of greatest interest is the one corresponding to the second-
ary stage of creep, and it is for this reason that those empirical relations
valid for such region will be emphasized in this chapter.
Simple expressions can easily be derived for the approximation of a given
CREEP 491
creep curve, such as the one shown in Fig. 14·1, at least over a certain region.
It is, however, difficult to derive an analytical expression that will also take
into account the creep recovery effect-branch AB-and that will remain
valid under large stress variations.
14·3·1 The Superposition Method: Steady Creep and Creep Recovery

The superposition method has been proposed by Marin (7) for the derivation
of an analytical expression to describe the simple creep curves of the type
shown in Fig. 14·1(a). In this method it is assumed that in the primary and
secondary creep stages the total strain is equal to the sum of four strain
components:
e = ee+ep+e; +e~' (14·7)
where ee = u0 / E is an elastic strain
eP = C 1 ug is an instantaneous plastic strain
e; = C2 (1-e-q 8)u0 is a transient creep strain
e~ = C 3 0u~ is a 'minimum rate' creep strain,
and cl> c2, c3, p, q, m, n, are constants.
Takingp = m = n, Eqn. 14·7 becomes
e = E +[C 1 +C 2 (1-e-q 1 +C 3 0]u0

Uo ~
(14·8)
An interpretation of this relation is shown in Fig. 14·10.

In Eqn. 14·8 the five constants C 1 , C2 , C3 , q and n can be determined experi-
mentally and a good fit may be achieved in the primary and secondary stages
of creep. When a good fit over the short time range of the curve-primary
creep-is not required, the transient creep term can be neglected. Equation
14·8 then becomes
(14·9)
It will be noted that in the preceding Eqns. (14·7-14·9), the strain is

expressed in function of the initial stress u 0 • In the conventional creep test,
the stress may be taken to be constant and equal to its initial value until the
onset of the tertiary stage. This stage is outside the range of application of the
method of superposition, which is still adequate for the interpretation of
the remaining stages in constant stress or constant load tests.
When there are substantial variations in stress during the test the following
relation can be used:
8 8
e = i+C 1 u"+ fqC e-q 2 8 u"d0+ fc 3 u"d0 (14·10)

0 0
where a is the actual stress at time (). This equation is identical to Eqn. 14·8
for constant stress a = a 0 • If at a given instant the load is removed (point A
in Fig. 14·1(a)) it follows from Eqn. 14·10 that only the first two components
of the strain are recovered. This is shown in Fig. 14·11, which represents a
r------------------------------------iEp
Time
Flo. 14·10 Approximation of creep data by the superposition method.
a
E
c
D
1qC ae
0
&
2
.
-q&
dfi
Time
FIG. 14·11 Creep recovery in superposition method.
constant stress test up to point A followed by a sudden removal of the load,

the strain-time curve being OABC. A modification to Eqn. 14·10, taking into
account the fact that some of the transient creep strain is recovered, i.e. that
CREEP 493
the curve followed during recovery approximates ABD, is suggested by

Marin (7) but will not be used here.
When only the strain after a long time interval is required, it is possible to
neglect the elastic, plastic and transient components. In that case
8 ~ 8~' = c3 ea:; (14·11)
at constant stress, and
6
8 ~ fC 3 a"d0
0
or
8 c3 a" (14·12)
under variable stress conditions. The similarity between Eqns. 14·12 and
14·1 will be noticed.
14·3·2 Strain and Time Hardening Theories: Creep Damage Factor

The derivation of creep relations to cover the tertiary stage is usually under-
taken in accordance with either the strain or the time hardening theories.
In the former, it is assumed that the strain rate at a certain time is given by
expressions of the type
8 = C4qR8m
In the time hardening theory it is assumed that

8 = C 5 a"OP
where C4 , C 5 , n, m, p are empirically determined constants. In general, the
values of these constants will be different from those of§ 14·3·1.
It is generally agreed that the strain hardening theory gives a more accurate
interpretation of long-time creep data than either the time hardening theory
or the superposition method. Unfortunately, the computational difficulties
it involves make it unsuitable for the solution of any but the simplest problem.
A combination of both the strain hardening and the time hardening theories
has been successfully used by Johnson et al. (18) who also found that the time
hardening theory led to satisfactory results in many cases (19). In their work,
expressions of a more general type than those previously quoted were pro-
posed. The application of some of these expressions will be seen later.
Another approach to the problem of the derivation of an analytical expres-
sion for the description of the creep behaviour has been proposed by Rabotnov
(20). In his method, a creep damage factor ro is introduced and visualized as
related with the reduction of cross-sectional area due to the growth of
cracks. The true cross-sectional area, A*, is
A* = A(1-ro)qfn
and the true stress

A
u* = u - u(1-w)-qfn
A*
Substitution into Eqn. 14·12 gives
8 = C 3 un(1-w)-q
where q is a constant. It is also assumed that a similar equation holds for the
creep damage factor:
w = C6 u'(1-wY
where r and s are constants. By integration of these equations the creep
strain may be obtained. In this method, specially suitable for the interpreta-
tion of data in the tertiary creep stage or for highly creep resistant materials
that break in a brittle manner, two possibilities of failure are recognized:
(a) Failure may be due to excessive creep strain in a material that remains
ductile and basically undamaged. In this case, the creep damage factor re-
mains close to zero and the stress-strain relation is of the type of Eqn. 14·1
or 14·12.
(b) Failure may be due to the propagation of cracks preceded by negligible
strain. This is the form of failure that occurs, for instance, in alloy steel
bolts. In a constant load test no appreciable change of the stress will occur
under this condition, the criterion of failure being
{ro)failure = 1
corresponding to u*--+oo, and the time to rupture becomes
1
(}, = {s- l)C6uor
The creep damage factor and the strain hardening theory methods are
believed to be applicable even when there are large variations in stress during
service, and with suitable modifications they can be used over the whole
time range. The superposition and the time hardening theory methods, on
the other hand, are of much simpler application and they are likely to be at
least equally accurate in the short and medium time ranges, before the onset
of tertiary creep, under conditions of constant or slowly changing stress. A
serious limitation common to all these methods is that they are not entirely
adequate for the prediction of recoverable and non-recoverable creep.
Alternative expressions, based on spring-and-dashpot models to imitate the
behaviour of the material, have been proposed by various authors (Refs.
2, 3, 6, 21).
In spite of its limitations, the relationship between stress and creep strain
at a given temperature will be assumed to be similar to Eqn. 14·10, slightly
CREEP 495
modified to take the time hardening theory into account as follows:
I I
6 6
e = i+C1u"+ qC 2 e-q 6 u"d8+ C3 u"8md(} (14·13)

0 0
where m is an additional constant that may be equal to zero. This equation, in

a more or less simplified form-such as Eqn. 14·10-will be used throughout
this chapter.
14·3·3 Stress Relaxation

In relaxation tests the strain is maintained constant and equal to the initial
strain e0 , while the stress drops from the corresponding initial value u 0 to
a lower level u. Equation 14·10 can be used for the interpretation of data.
Writing
I f
6 6
i+C1u"+ qC 2 e-q6 u"d8+ C 3 u"d(} = e0

0 0
and taking derivatives with respect to (}, the following equation is obtained:
(~+nC 1 u"- 1 ) t:T+u" (qC 2 e-q6 +C 3 ) = 0
The solution of which is
1 ) [ u"-
E(n- 1
1 1- J
1 1 +nC1log-;
o0- CT0
= C 3 0+(1-e-q6)C2
A simplified approximate expression can be obtained if the plastic and tran-
[( )n-1 J
sient terms are neglected:
0 - ~-1
0 CTo -1
- E(n-1)C 3 --;
This expression can be used for the interpretation of relaxation data, the
parameters 1/E(n-1)C3 and n-1 being then determined experimentally.
14·4 GENERAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
The stress-strain relations in the presence of creep are taken to be similar

to those studied in Chapter 11 for plastic flow; the only difference is that the
strain rate in the case of creep has the meaning of strain increment per unit
time. Significant stresses and strain rates, if and dejd(), can be defined in the
same way. It may be assumed that the preceding relations, valid for uniaxial
stresses and strains, are also valid for significant stresses and strains in the
case of general stress systems. In addition, relationships of the St Venant
type will also hold, together with the volume constancy condition, i.e.
Ill +82+83 = 0
and
or
81 2 C [a 1 -Ha2+a3)]
82 = 2C[a2-Ha 1 +a3)]
83 = 2C[a3-t(a 1 +a2)]
which, together with the significant stress and strain (von Mises' criterion)
(14·14)
can be written in the form

de 1
dO x ~ [a1 -Ha2 +a3)]
de 1
dO x B[a 2 -Ha1+a3)] (14·15)
de 1
dO x ~ [a3 -Hal +a2)]
The relations previously quoted between uniaxial stress and strain rate will
now hold between the significant stress and strain rate. For instance, under
steady creep conditions (Eqn. 14·12)
-x-1 = C3 a-n-l
de
d() (j
81 = c3 ii"- 1 [a1-Ha2 +a3)]

82 = C3ii"- 1 [a2-Ha1 +a3)]
83 = C3 ii"- 1 [a3-Ha 1+a2)]
CREEP 497
The creep damage factor is assumed to act only on the maximum principal
stress, so that Tresca's criterion and its associated flow rule are more suitable
for the application of this method to the general stress systems (see Ref. 20).
Metallurgical changes, hysteresis effects and the development of aniso-
tropy during service restrict the validity of the preceding relationships. The
effect of loading and temperature history, being even more important in the
case of creep than in the case of plastic flow, cannot be ignored without
impairing the accuracy of the analysis. In addition, creep strains of the same
order of magnitude as elastic strains are sometimes important, restricting
even further the validity of the basic assumptions that lead to the formulation
of the general stress-strain relations. Under these conditions, any analysis
can only be aimed at results of a very approximate nature.
Johnson eta!. (18, 19), have discussed the application of these and other
more complex equations to the solution of creep problems. More accurate
relationships between the stress-strain invariants have also been suggested.
However, some development is still required before they can find general
application in design. In the following sections the simplified stress-strain
relations, adapted from plasticity theory, will be used bearing in mind their
shortcomings.
14·5 APPLICATIONS
14·5·1 Thick-Walled Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under Internal

Pressure
The problem of the steady creep of thick cylindrical vessels was first solved
by Bailey (22). The initial assumption, justified experimentally, is that the
axial strain rate is zero. The constant volume condition is then
The compatibility condition (Eqn. 11·1 0) can be written in the form

• • dee
Ee-E
r
+r -dr = 0
for small deformations. The solution of this equation, with the volume
constancy condition previously given is
Be = ktr-2
where k 1 is an integration constant.

The significant strain rate is obtained from Eqns. 14·14 and the volume
constancy condition:
de 2 .
,J3
- Bo
df)
Assigning to the subindices 1, 2, 3 in Eqns. 14·14 and 14·15 the hoop,

radial and axial directions it is apparent that
and the significant stress becomes
ii = 2,J3 (uo-u,)
The steady creep law (Eqn. 14·12), valid for uniaxial stress, is assumed to
hold for the significant stress and strain, so that
de
dfJ = c3 ii"
or
,j3)n+ 1
eo (2 C3(uo-u,t = k 1 r- 2
On the other hand, the equilibrium condition (Eqn. 11·141) can be written in
the form
Eliminating (u9 -u,) between the two preceding equations

n+1
du, (2)- n 11
---
2
---1
- =- C "knr n
dr ,J3 3 1
The solution of this equation, with the boundary conditions

-P for r ri (internal radius)
0 r r0 (outside radius)
IS
(14·16)
CREEP 499
and 2
( -;;-1 ) (r-;)2/n +1
(14·17)
p (rn)2/n
- -1
r;
r. .
The hoop strain rate is
.
.. ~ T
(.}3)n+ 1
c, ~
(2)n
p [(
n
~r -1
(~J ~
(14·18)
Better results are obtained using a simplified form ofEqn. 14·13:
the total strain rate being the sum of an elastic, a plastic and a creep-time
hardening component. The elastic strain rate components are obtained from
Hooke's law, with 2ux = ue+u,:
Bee = :0 [21 {ue(2-v)-3 vu,} J

£
Bre :0 [21E{u,(2-v)-3vue} J
For the plastic component, with the same assumptions as in the previous
analysis,
dep C ( .}3)n ( _ )n- 1 d(ue-u,)
d() n 1 2 Ue u, d()
and for the creep component
~~ = ]3 Bee - C 3 unem = C3 (~3J (ue-u,)nem
J
The total strain rates in the hoop and radial directions are then
d [ 1 (.}3)n+1 C 1(ue-u,t
·
Be = d(} 2 E {ue(2-v)-3vu,}+ 2 +
.}3)n+ 1
+C 3 ( T (ue-u,)nem
1
d [ 2E
d(} {u,(2-v)-3vue}- (.}3)n+1
2 C1(ue-u,t - J
J3)n+1
-C 3 ( 2 (u8 -u,)nfr
Assuming that the variations in geometry are sufficiently small to take

drfd()= 0, it can be shown that the two preceding equations together with
the equilibrium and compatibility conditions are equivalent to
or
The constant Q can be obtained from the condition
which exists when a steady creep state has been reached, after a sufficiently
long time, and neglecting the initial strains. ((}'6 -(}',) 00 is therefore obtained
from the previous analysis. Having obtained the constant Q, integration of
the general equation will give ((}'6 -(J',) at any given time, and hence the creep
strain rate. This approach has been successfully followed by Johnson eta!.
(18, 19, 23, 24).
Thick spherical vessels can be treated in the same way. Taking in this
case the meridional and hoop stresses to be equal as well as the meridional
and hoop strains, one obtains for the steady state conditions:
)3/n -1
r0
(-
-P (; )3/n
(14·19)
0
- -1
r;
(14·20)
(}X 811 (14·21)

CREEP 501
14·5·2 Steady Creep of Thin Cylindrical Vessels Under Internal Pressure and
Axial Loading
Pipes, tubes and cylindrical vessels are sometimes subjected to axial loading,
bending or torsion in addition to the internal pressure. The weight of the
vessel and its contents results in a bending moment acting on long horizontal
vessels, and a direct load in vertical vessels. External constraints may also
induce twisting moments on piping systems. In general, the magnitude of
these external loads can be reduced by the adequate distribution of supports
and anchors. These are usually quite inexpensive, since their design is fairly
simple; they can be made of ordinary mild steel and their fabrication does not
require any particular skill. The addition of more supports than would be
strictly necessary therefore seldom involves a very high economic penalty.
Under these conditions, a rough estimate of the effect of the external load on
the piping system or vessel is all that is required to guide the designer in the
selection of the number and distribution of the supports and anchors. This
estimate is usually based on a steady creep analysis.
In a thin-walled cylindrical vessel the radial stress can be neglected; the
hoop stress is
Pr
(14·22)
t
where tis the thickness, and the axial stress is
ae
ax = 2 + b ae (14·23)
where b is a parameter equal to zero when the vessel is under internal pres-
sure only. It is assumed that the vessel will always be subjected to an internal
pressure when its temperature is within the creep range. The significant
stress is (see Eqn. 14·14)
-
(J =
ae 1
-y3+4b 2
2
and the hoop and axial strain rates become, from Eqns. 14·12, 14·14 and 14·15,
88 = 2~; 1 a~(3+4b 2).~ 1 (3-2b)

(14·24)
When the vessel is under internal pressure only
(-./3)"+
T
1
c3 ae
n
R
When a direct axial load F is present, in addition to the internal pressure,

F 1 F
b = -x- (14·25)
2nrt u0 2Pnr 2
and we obtain
. (3+4b
Bop ---
2
3
)2 3-2b
n-1
3
---
. 4 (3+4b
Bop- --
3
2
3
)2 n-1
Taking n = 4 and b = 0·25, the strain rate in the hoop direction is reduced
from 80p to about 0·9380p, while the axial strain rate increases from zero
to 0·3788 p.
The total strain after a time interval() is obtained from Eqn. 14·9, neglecting
the plastic component and assuming implicitly that the variation of the
stress is small. The resulting strain is
n-1
BoFP :;( 1 -~-bv)+(~3)"+l c 3 (~rJ 8 C+;b )~ 3-32b2
(14·26)
()C+:bz)z-
n-1
BxFP = ;;(b+~-v)+(~~)"-l c 3 (~r)" b
where b is given by Eqn. 14·25 and the factor time may appear with an
exponent m, different from unity.
Although Eqns. 14·22, 14·23 and 14·26 are generally used for the design
of tubes subjected to internal pressure and axial load, more exact relations
will be developed by taking into account the variation of stress during opera-
tion. Similar methods have been used by various authors, for instance
Rimrott eta!. (25). The hoop stress is given by Eqn. 14·22, where rand tare
respectively the mean radius and thickness at the instant 8. The longitudinal
stress is
During operation, the radius increases while the thickness decreases, and it
is apparent from the previous equation that the rate of increase of the
longitudinal stress component due to the axial load is smaller than that of
the component due to internal pressure. Taking ux to be given by Eqn. 14·23,
where b is constant, will therefore lead to conservative results. The hoop and
CREEP 503
longitudinal strain rates are then obtained from Eqns. 14·24. The radial
strain rate is
(14·27)
At the same time
f i
' 8, =
r
and therefore
Pf
--f
Pri
= tPr e• -t
8
Pr •
e,
(" .)
= u8 e6 -e,
Substitution of 89 and 8, from Eqns. 14·24 and 14·27 into this equation gives
6C n-1
O'n+l __3 (3+4b2)"""2
9 2n+l
the solution of which is
(14·28)
where u90 is the initial value of the hoop stress. Also

n-1 ] 1
= [ 1 _ 3C3u9on(3+4b )-z 0
2 -ii
(14·29)
0'" O'JCO 2"
and
fi = c3
9 2n+l
u:
90
[1-3C3u9on(3+4bz)~
2n
o]-1(3+4bz)-·;-t(3-2b) (14·30)
The total strain is, neglecting the anelastic component,
_ f
B9-B9e+
9
•
89
d() _
-B9e-~
3-2b l [ -
oge 1
3C 3 U::0 n(3+4b
2"
2 )~ ()]
(14·31)
0
= _ 4b 1 [ 1 _3C3 u00 n(3+4b 2 )~ o]

B" BJCe 6n oge 2"
Eqns. 14·28, 14·29 and 14·31, with b obtained from Eqn. 14·25, then define
the state of stress and strain reached after a time () in a cylindrical vessel
under internal pressure and axial loading.
Bending
In bending, it is assumed that plane sections remain plane, and that the
vessel behaves as a conventional beam, so that the following relation applies:
. y .
BxMy = -r BxMr
where BxMy is the axial strain rate of the cylinder under internal pressure and
bending, at a distance y from the neutral plane (see Fig. 14·12). From this
expression and Eqn. 14·24
n-1 n-1
(3+4b;)_2_ by= (3+4b;) 2 b! (14·32)
'r
FIG. 14·12 Thin cylindrical vessel under external loading.
where by and b, are respectively the values of the parameter b corresponding

to positions y and r. The condition of equilibrium
M =I uxydA
then becomes
(14·33)
-r
From Eqns. 14·32 and 14·33 it is possible to obtain b,. The problem is
simplified when the bending stresses are much smaller than the pressure
stresses, in which case Eqn. 14· 32 becomes
by ~ br ~r
and substituting into Eqn. 14· 33
M My
b =
r 1! r2 tuo nr4 P
CREEP 505
The state of stress and strain after a time lJ can then be obtained from Eqns.
14·22, 14·23, 14·26 or 14·28, 14·29, 14·31, taking in those equations
b =by
Usually, only the conditions in the outer fibres (b = b,) will be required.
The rate of curvature of the vessel is
r
or
r
the initial curvature being
)n-t CoE
so that
rate of change of curvature = C 3 ( .)3
2 u6
Since it has been assumed that the bending stresses are small compared with
the pressure stresses, the preceding equation is only valid when u6 ~0.
Torsion
When a cylindrical vessel is subjected to internal pressure and to a torsional
moment M 1, the stress components are
Pr
t
Pr
(14·34)
2t
M, M,
r = --
2 = fu 6 with f = - -3-
2nr t 2nr P
J{(O'e; O'xy
the principal stresses are then
0' 1 = O'x:O'e + +r2}
O'z O'x;O'e _ J{(O'e;O'xy +r2} -,tu6 (3-.J(l+16j2)) (14·35)

and the significant stress

ii = (~3 )(1+4/ 2 ))u 8
The principal strain rates are obtained from Eqns. 14·12, 14·14 and 14·15, as
J3)n+l n-1
f (2 C3a6(1+4/ 2 f 2 (1+)(1+16j2))
-! ( ~3 J+l C3a6(1+4/ 2 )0 ~ 1 (1-)(1+16j2)) (14·36)
When the stress system does not change much with time, the strains, after
a certain time interval (), are obtained by multiplying the strain rates by the
factor e.
14·5·5 Piping Systems and Shells of Revolution

The first detailed analysis of piping systems under steady creep was published
by Robinson (26), who was able to show the creep strain concentration effect
in some typical configurations. Gorczynski (27) has used a similar method for
the analysis of U-expansion loops with rigid corners. Both authors assume
that the position of the thrust line (see Chapter 9) does not change during
operation. In addition, Robinson assumes that the reactions due to the
combined effect of torsion and bending-in three-dimensional systems-can
be obtained by adding the reactions due to each effect considered as acting
alone. If these simplifying assumptions are accepted, there is no difficulty in
extending the method to any type of piping system, provided it is only
formed by straight runs of pipes. Such an analysis will still be unable to give
any information on the state of stress and strain in the corners, usually
smooth bends, which are generally the most critical components. All the
same there is not sufficient experimental evidence to justify the use of the
simplifying assumptions previously mentioned. Similar shortcomings are
found in the method proposed by Marin (28). The only promising approach
consists in the application of strain energy principles, as described by Hoff
(29). Noting the analogy between the steady creep law (Eqn. 14·12) and the
stress-strain relation for non-linear elastic materials
e = Ca"
it can be shown that any strain energy method applicable to non-linear
elastic materials can also be applied to steady creep problems. In doing so,
CREEP 507
the strain energy to be computed is not defined in the usual form,
W = I ude
but is defined by
W' = I edu
and is called the 'complementary strain energy'. Some simple examples

showing the application of this method may be seen in Refs. 3 and 7.
The analysis of creep in shells of revolution under axially symmetrical
loading has received some consideration by Calladine (30), Onat and Yiiksel
(31) and Bailey and Murray (32). The methods used by these authors have
not been sufficiently developed to be applied to the design of pressure vessels.
In some cases, their indiscriminate use may lead to serious errors (see, for
instance, the discussion to the papers by Calladine and Bailey and Murray
in Ref. 30). Penny (33) has proposed the extension of a finite difference
method of analysis, first applied by Mendelsohn et a/. (34) to rotating discs,
to the general shell of revolution. In principle, any type of creep law can be
used. The computation involved must be programmed for high speed digital
machines. The difficulties involved are not mentioned by Penny, who only
outlined the general procedure. As it stands, the designer will not find this
method practicable. With some further development, however, it could be
highly successful.
Approximate methods of analysis that are being developed are based on the
determination of upper and lower bounds for the energy absorption of
creeping structures, and the interpolation between solutions in elasticity and
plasticity. The reader could refer to the papers by Calladine and Drucker on
the subject (35, 36). Finally, an experimental determination of creep deforma-
tion in a large nuclear reactor pressure vessel has been reported by Wood and
Anderson (37).
14·6 DESIGN STRESSES IN THE CREEP RANGE
In Chapter 10 the design stresses suggested were based mainly on considera-

tions of plastic instability, and they were defined in function of short-time
properties-yield point or U.T.S.-at the design temperature. At elevated
temperatures, in the so-called creep range, creep may precipitate plastic
instability or it may cause inacceptable deformations or ruptures. At this
point it becomes necessary to introduce new design stresses based on creep
rather than on short-time properties.
In the case of carbon steel, the design stresses can be based solely on short-
time properties up to a design temperature of 350 oc, while a knowledge of
the creep behaviour of the material is required for design temperatures
above 400 °C. These temperature limits are raised by some 75 oc for alloy
steels. While below the creep range the design stress varies little with the
temperature, it is important to point out that in the creep range a small
increase in the temperature often results in a large reduction in the creep
strength and, consequently in the design stress.
A comparison between the various Code rules for the determination of
design stresses in the creep range shows that they are all roughly in agreement
(see Table 3·1 ). Two criteria are usually specified, one of rupture and one of
deformation. According to the rupture criterion, the design stress is defined
as 0·6-1·0 times the minimum or average stress for rupture after 100,000 hr
at the design temperature, determined by extrapolation from creep data. As
an additional check, the German Code specifies that the design stress must
not exceed the stress for rupture after 100,000 hr at a temperature 15 oc
higher than the design temperature. In accordance with the deformation
criterion, the design stress is usually defined as the average stress for 1%
creep strain after 100,000 hr, or 0·01% per 1000 hr creep strain rate. Very
often the design stress is established by deformation rather than by rupture
considerations.
On the whole, the application of these design stresses has resulted in satis-
factory designs. Most failures of pressure vessels and piping systems operat-
ing at elevated temperatures have been due to unforeseen metallurgical
factors rather than to excessive stresses. With the introduction of expensive,
creep resistant materials in conventional plant, it becomes advisable to con-
sider increasing the design stresses in order to achieve more economical
construction. Given the record of safety of the present design stresses this
should be possible. On the other hand, unconventional designs, not backed
by previous experience, would require the acceptance of even lower stresses
than those specified by the Codes, as well as other precautions. These also
apply when load or temperature cycles occur in operation or when notches
are unavoidable.
For the selection of the design stresses in the creep range, it is necessary
to consider the design life, the possibility of regular inspection, the cost in-
curred by replacements and the hazards involved in a failure. If a very long
design life is required, expensive creep resistant materials or cheaper materials
with poorer creep properties operating at very low design stresses will be
used. Peculiar to the creep phenomenon is the wide scattering of the material
properties, which may be poorer than expected. Satisfactory operation can
only be assured by regular inspections and consequent repairs or replace-
ments. These inspections could justify the use of higher design stresses and
CREEP 509
of expendable units requiring frequent replacement. In some cases this may

prove cheaper than one single unit designed to last for the whole life, and is
standard practice in boiler and heat exchanger tubes. The hazards involved
in a possible failure, of course, overrule all other considerations.
An apparent anomaly of the Codes is that they specify 100,000 hr for the
time-to-rupture at a stress equal to or higher than the design stress, without
taking into account the actual design life. It is obvious that this results in an
unduly conservative design for a short-lived vessel and it may not be suffi-
ciently conservative if a long design life is required. For instance, the design
stress established by the A.S.M.E. (Section VIII) is equal to the average stress
for rupture after 100,000 hr. This implies that a vessel, designed in accordance
with this rule, will not last longer than 100,000 hr on average. Since the
normal life of most vessels used in chemical and steam plants is of 20-25
years, it has been suggested (Ref. 38) that 200,000 hr should be used instead.
At the same time, it must be recognized that vessels do not work at full load
throughout the whole life. A linear criterion similar to Miner's criterion for
cumulative fatigue damage has been proposed to take this fact into considera-
tion (Ref. 39). Assuming that cr 1 , cr 2 , ••• , cr;, .•. are possible stress levels
during operation, active during the times 81, 8z, ... , 8;, ... at the tempera-
tures T 1 , T 2 , ••• , T;, ... and that, at these temperatures, they would cause
rupture after 8,1, 8,z, ... , 8,i, ... , the criterion is
The values of 8,1> 8, 2 , ••• , 8,;, ... can be obtained from conventional constant
load creep tests, since the effect of stress variation due to reduction of area
is either negligible or leads to conservative results.
When deformation is the deciding factor, a similar criterion could be used.
If 8 ~. 8;, ... , 8;, ... are the times required for the stress cr 1 , cr 2 , ••• , cr ;, ...
at the temperature T1 , T 2 , ••• , T;, ... to cause a specified creep strain or
strain rate
8.
L~<1
•
where 8 1 , 82 , ••• , 8;, ... are the times of action of the corresponding stresses.
Randall (39) has examined the validity of these considerations and found
that they were justified in the case of A.S.T.M. A 201 boiler quality steel at
temperatures below 500 oc, but not when a period of high initial tempera-
tures-above 600 °C-was followed by operation at temperatures of about
450 °C.
Although the preceding considerations are not always fully justified, they
still provide some guidance as to the relative magnitude of the design stresses
R*
on the basis of the design life and the required time between inspections. It is
obvious that when safety is of paramount importance, the design stresses
should be equal to or lower than the Code values, and the materials used
must be backed by adequate service experience.
Glen (40) points out that the true safety factors have generally been lower
than those specified by the Codes, since the predicted long-time properties,
on which the Codes base the design stresses, have been proved to be opti~
mistic. This is a reason for accepting higher design stresses provided that they
are backed by abundant and accurate data obtained from long-time tests to
reduce as much as possible the extrapolation errors.
Material under
cyclic loading
only 100%
relaxation
Cyclidoading
and creep
relaxation
J
FIG. 14·13 Combined cyclic loading and creep.
14·6·1 High Strain Fatigue Combined With Creep

At temperatures in the creep range, some relaxation in the secondary stresses
can occur. Taking, for instance, the case of a straight run of pipe fixed to
rigid end supports, heating will cause a compressive stress which is assumed
to be lower than the yield point Y. This compressive stress may be entirely
relaxed by creep so that, upon cooling, the same stress will appear as a tensile
stress, assuming for clarity that the modulus of elasticity and the yield point
CREEP 511
remain the same. In subsequent cycles the stress will vary between a positive
value, when the pipe is cold, and zero when it is at the operating temperature.
The effect of creep in this simple case is, therefore, beneficial except when a
brittle material such as cast iron is used, since it could fail under the tensile
stress. When the initial compressive stress exceeds the yield point, and the
cyclic strain range is constant and equal to Aee+AeP, it is apparent from
Fig. 14·13 that the material subjected to creep suffers more work hardening
than the one under pure fatigue (see Chapter 12). However, Fig. 14·13 must
be regarded as an over-simplification of a very difficult problem and the
conclusions one could infer may be, in fact, completely false. An idea of the
complexity of the behaviour of mild steel under strain cycling at elevated
temperatures is given by the experimental work ofTavernelli and Coffin (41),
while a general discussion of this problem is found in Ref. 42.
The development of any design rules, similar to those derived in Chapter
12, to take into account high strain fatigue combined with creep is seriously
hampered by lack of experimental information. It is obvious that this infor-
mation, besides requiring expensive and lengthy testing, can only be of
interest in a very narrow field, so that its scarcity is not surprising. For this
reason, the design has to be based more on the designer's intuition and
experience than on factual information, relying on large factors of safety.
14·6·2 Effect of Local Constraints, Discontinuity Stresses and Notch-Type

Stress Raisers
Local constraints in members subjected to creep are of special importance.
For example, in tubes constrained at either end by welding or expanding to
a rigid tube plate, creep failure occurs due to bulging at the ends, where the
majority of creep deformation takes place. This localization of the creep
deformation can be illustrated by the following example. Take the stepped
bar AB, as shown in Fig. 14·14, and assume a constant axial load F. Under
elastic conditions, the strains in sections I and II are
F F
ei = EAI; en= EAu
i.e.
Under steady creep conditions

i.e.
/! I /!
FIG. 14·14 Stepped bar.
It is apparent that section I tends to deform at a faster rate than II, so that
after a certain time most of the deformation will be localized in the thinner
section. If the bar is heated between two fixed supports
u1A1 = uuAu
th+eu = constant or e1+liu = 0
Taking Eqn. 14·10 to represent the creep law, and neglecting the plastic and
transient components,
e =
and
0 = e1+eu d-1+d-n C ( n
. . = --E-+ 3 u1+uu = o-1 T+u;
") 1+: 1
[
1+ (A)"] c3
A;1
therefore
and the expression finally obtained is
>0
CREEP 513
The strain in the most highly stressed section tends to increase, while that in
the rest of the bar tends to decrease. After a sufficiently long time, most of
the deformation will be localized in the thinner section, as previously.
The general effect of local constraints or any other type of discontinuities
is therefore to localize the creep strain in a region that may become seriously
overstrained. It is important to note that this strain concentration occurs
even when the stress level is relaxed. For this reason, the stress distribution
throughout a structure operating in the creep range must be maintained as
uniform as possible. The presence of components such as bolts, bellows, pipe
bends, etc., operating at a much higher stress than the rest of the structure
is undesirable. Peak stresses in the vicinity of welded nozzles, flanges and other
discontinuities must be minimized. The designer must also be aware of the
fact that besides these geometrical stress raisers, local variations in the
material properties due to welding, cold working, etc., have exactly the same
effect. It is obvious that the strain amplification, serious as it is under steady
loading conditions, is even more harmful when the structure is subjected to
cyclic loading, since the strain range over a certain critical region may be
such as to produce severe damage or instability after a few load cycles. The
provision of smooth transitions and the careful dimensioning of all reinforce-
ments, junctions and discontinuities is essential for vessels and piping systems
designed to operate in the creep range. The design must be undertaken as a
whole; it is of little use to design a given component as distinct from the rest
of the structure. For example, if the bar in Fig. 14·14 is so designed as to have
a stress within the limits permitted by a Design Code over its centre portion,
it may still be unsatisfactory in service due to creep strain concentration
effect.
The effect of notch-type stress raisers is considerably less clear than that
of structural discontinuities, since sharp notches give rise to metallurgical
changes and embrittlement. Moreover, a stress analysis in the region of the
notch becomes a truly formidable task due to the variations with time of the
notch geometry, especially in the case of ductile materials. This makes
prediction of the notch effect from tests in smooth specimens impracticable.
For this reason tests on notched specimens have been proposed for materials
of limited ductility by several authors (Ref. 43). It is obviously of interest
to avoid notches in the design, but sometimes this is not possible, a typical
example being the use of bolts and other threaded components. In these
cases the stress concentration must be minimized by providing smooth
transitions, avoiding undercuts during machining and achieving a smooth
surface finish whenever this is economically feasible. Reference 44 is finally
suggested for further reading on the subject.
REFERENCES
1. COTTRELL A. H. Dislocation and Plastic Flow in Crystals (Oxford Univ.

Press, 1953).
2. DoRN J. E. (ed.). Mechanical Behaviour of Materials at Elevated Tempera-
tures (McGraw-Hill, 1961).
3. FINNIE I. & HELLER W. R. Creep of Engineering Materials (McGraw-
Hill, 1959).
4. OROWAN E. 'Strength and Failure of Materials', Chapter in Design of
Piping Systems (M. W. Kellogg Co. & J. Wiley, 1956).
5. GLEN J. J. Iron St. Inst. 18 (1958) 333.
6. KRISCH A. Paper in Joint International Conf on Creep (A.S.M.E.,
A.S.T.M. & I.Mech.E., 1963).
7. MARIN J. Mechanical Behaviour of Engineering Materials (Prentice-Hall,
1962).
8. DUsseldorf Conferences on Creep, First Conference, Archiv fur das
Eisenhuttenwesen 28 (1958), Second Conference, do., 33 (1962).
9. Report IIS/IIW-91-62 (ex. doc. X-273-61) Brit. Welding J. 10 (1963) 292.
10. ALLEN N. P. The Extrapolation of Creep Tests, a Review of Recent
Opinion (lnst. of Metals, November 1960).
11. ORR R. L., SHERBY 0. D. & DORN J. E. Trans. A.S.M. 46 (1954) 113.
12. LARSON F. R. & MILLER J. Trans. A.S.M.E. 74 (1952) 765.
13. MANSON S. S. & HAFERD A. M., N.A.C.A., TN-2890, March 1953.
14. GRAHAM A. & WALLES K. F. A. J. Iron Steel Inst. 175 (1955) 105
15. MURRY G. loc. cit. Ref. 6.
16. BROZZO P. loc. cit. Ref. 6.
17. GOLDHOFF R. M. Proc. A.S.T.M. 61 (1961) 907.
18. JOHNSON A. E., HENDERSON J. & KHAN B. Complex-Stress Creep Relaxa-
tion and Fracture of Metallic Alloys, Nat. Eng. Lab., H.M.S.O. Edinburgh,
1962.
19. JOHNSON A. E., HENDERSON J. & KHAN B. loc. cit. Ref. 8.
20. RABOTNOV Y. M. loc. cit. Ref. 6.
21. CRUSSARD C. loc. cit. Ref. 6.
22. BAILEY R. W. Proc. I. Mech. E. 131 (1935) 1.
23. JoHNSON A. E. & KHAN B. Creep of Metallic Thick-walled Cylindrical
Vessels Subject to Internal and External Pressures and Torque at Elevated
Temperatures, Nat. Eng. Lab. Rep. 139.
24. JOHNSON, A. E., HENDERSON J. & KHAN B. Proc. 1. Mech. E. 175 (1961)
1043.
25. RIMROTT F. P. J., MILLS E. J. & MARIN J., 'Prediction of Creep Failure
Time for Pressure Vessels', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 60-APM-7.
CREEP 515
26. RoBINSON E. L. Paper in Pressure Vessel and Piping Design: Collected

Papers (A.S.M.E., 1960).
27. GoRCZYNSKI W. 'A Method of Assessing Structural Efficiency of Pipe-
work Designed for High Temperature Service', Conference on Thermal
Loading and Creep in Structures and Components, London (I.Mech.E.,
1964).
28. MARIN J. Trans. A.S.C.E. 108 (1943) 453.
29. HOFF N. J. Quart. Appl. Math 12 (1954) 49.
30. CALLADINE C. R. Paper in Symposium on Nuclear Reactor Containment
Buildings and Pressure Vessels (Butterworth, 1960).
31. ONATE. T. & Yt.iKSEL H. Third U.S. Nat. Conf Appl. Mech. (A.S.M.E.,
1958).
32. BAILEY R. W. & MURRAY R. K. 1oc. cit. Ref. 30.
33. PENNY R. K. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 6 (1964) 44.
34. MENDELSOHN A., HIRSCHBERG M. H. & MANSON S. S. J. Basic Eng. 81
(1959) 585.
35. CALLADINE C. R. & DRUCKER D. C. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 4 (1962) 12.
36. CALLADINE C. R. loc. cit. Ref. 6.
37. WooD D. S. & ANDERSON D. loc. cit. Ref. 27.
38. BOLTON B. E. loc. cit. Ref. 6.
39. RANDALL P. N. J. Basic Eng. 84 (1962) 239.
40. GLEN J. 'The Shape of Creep Curves', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 62-WA-133.
41. TAVERNELLI J. F. & COFFIN L. F. loc. cit. Ref. 6.
42. Symposium on Effect of Cyclic Heating and Stressing on Metals at
Elevated Temperatures. A.S.T.M. Spec. Publ. No. 165, 1954.
43. WAHL A.M. loc. cit. Ref. 27.
44. BROWN N. F. Summary of Session on New Investigations Relating to
Stress Concentrations Under Creep Conditions. J. Basic Eng. 84 (1962)
244.
15 Buckling
15·0 INTRODUCTION
I sidered
N the preceding chapters plastic instability and fracture have been con-
as possible sources of failures. In thin-walled vessels, subjected to
compressive stresses over an extensive region, the possibility of buckling
must be considered also. The imposition of an external force on a vessel in
equilibrium under a given basic load results in some additional deformation,
which may or may not vanish upon removal of the external force. In the
first case the equilibrium is stable, while it is unstable in the second. At
sufficiently low values of the basic load the equilibrium will be stable, but
when the basic load is increased above a critical value the equilibrium
becomes unstable, any insignificant load giving rise to large, permanent
deformations. Buckling is then said to occur and it may be followed by the
complete collapse of the vessel.
Elastic buckling is usually the decisive criterion in the design of vessels
operating under vacuum or, in general, under external pressure; and of shell-
like structures such as containment vessels and storage tanks subject to
wind loads. In thick-walled vessels, the critical pressure for elastic buckling
often exceeds the value required to initiate yielding and plastic instability then
becomes the design criterion. This is a similar situation to that existing in the
design of columns where failure is due to elastic buckling or to plastic
instability, depending on the slenderness.
In large site-erected vessels, the minimum thickness is often based on
considerations of stability during erection rather than on the buckling of the
completed vessel. Once completed, the vessel will be remarkably stiffer than
any of its components taken separately. In small vessels, considerations of
dimensional stability may also require an increased thickness or some addi-
tional stiffeners during fabrication and transportation. In these cases the
design is mainly based on experience, the only general rule being to ensure
that sufficient stiffeners in the form of temporary frames, spiders, etc., are
provided. At the same time, the use of thicker plates than theoretically
necessary may be an economical proposition, especially when an inexpensive
material like mild steel is used, since it may simplify the construction.
516
BUCKLING 517
The classical theory of buckling of thin shells is essentially based on Love's

linear differential equations, which were derived assuming that the deflections
of the shell were small. For this reason, one would expect that the theory will
not be applicable to the study of the post-buckling behaviour of the shell,
due to the large deformations that occur. In addition, the classical linear
theory does not explain adequately the large discrepancies observed between
the calculated and experimentally obtained critical loads. Recourse must then
be taken to more involved large deflection theories, which have been developed
primarily for the very thin stressed skin structures used in aeronautical
engineering and have only found limited application in pressure vessel design.
This chapter will be limited to the description of a simplified method of
design, since the adequate treatment of the buckling theory of shells is out-
side the scope of this book. The readers interested in the subject are referred
to the well-known book by Timoshenko (1) and, for a more advanced
approach, to the books by Fliigge (2) and Cox (3). A bibliographical survey of
the buckling of spherical shells will be found in Ref. 4.
15·1 CYLINDRICAL VESSELS UNDER UNIFORM EXTERNAL

PRESSURE
15·1·1 Critical Buckling Pressure

The most widely used expressions for the prediction of the critical buckling
pressure were first derived by von Mises and were later corrected by Winden-
l
burg and Trilling (5). For cylindrical vessels loaded under radial pressure
only, open ended vessels free to expand axially, we have
J (t)
2E~
1 22n 2 -1-v 2E 3 D
Pc=3 n-1+ 2(2L)2 (1-v2) D + 2 [2(2L)2 ]2(15·1)
n - -1 (n -1) n - +1
nD nD
where Pc = critical buckling pressure, L = unsupported length of the

vessel, D = external diameter, t = thickness, E = modulus of elasticity, v =
Poisson's ratio and n = number of lobes forming at buckling.
This formula is derived following the small deflection theory for cylindrical
shells with simply-supported ends. When rings are used as circumferential
stiffeners, the unsupported length is taken to be equal to the distance between
stiffeners. In plain shells the total shell length will be used instead, always
assuming that the ends are free to move axially and to rotate, and that they
are restricted only in their radial expansion by their attachment to a rigid
bulkhead. The critical buckling pressure is increased by additional restraints

at the end supports, but this effect can be neglected in most cases since the
influence of the end conditions extends only to a distance of about .J(Dt/2).
A simplification, valid for very long tubes, is possible by neglecting all
the terms with (2L/nD) 2 in the denominator. Equation 15·1 then becomes
Pc = 3 (:~v 2) (n -1) (~) 3

2
The minimum value of the pressure corresponds to n = 2, therefore
pc = 1 ~~2 (~J (15·2)
For a close-ended vessel loaded under uniform pressure, the critical

buckling pressure is given by
with the same notation as in Eqn. 15·1. The number of lobes can be obtained
from Fig. 15·1, reproduced from Ref. 5. Here again it is assumed that the
ends are free to rotate and to expand axially, and that only radial expansion
is prevented. In the case of cylindrical vessels with dished heads, a fictitious
simply-supported end is assumed along a circumference situated at one-
third of the depth of the head from the head-cylinder junction. The distance
Lis measured as shown in Fig. 15·2.
The application of Eqn. 15·3, although considerably simplified by using
Fig. 15·1, is still rather cumbersome. An approximate formula (independent
of the number of lobes) obtained by Windenburg and Trilling (5) that can
be used instead, is
2-42E
(1-v2)3f4£
- -0·45 -
(t)112 (15-4)
D D
15·1·2 Effect of Initial Out-of-Roundness and Plastic Collapse

In practice, cylindrical vessels do not have a perfectly circular cross-section;
and it becomes necessary to calculate the reduction in the critical buckling
pressure caused by this out-of-roundness in order to specify manufacturing
c:::
=
(")
~
t""
-z
0
JOI
9
8
7
.., 6
c
...... 5
)(
~ 4
.::::.
3'
1
o·J 1 10
L/n
Vl
FIG. 15·1 Number of lobes formed in buckling: closed ended cylindrical shells (Ref. 5). -IC
tolerances and to choose a safety factor. As a rough guide, if the maximum

deviation from the true circular shape is equal to the shell thickness, the
critical buckling pressure will be less than 50% of the calculated value for
the perfect shell. If it is one-tenth of the shell thickness, the reduction of the
critical buckling pressure is not more than 25%.
h
L
L
L
~--·-·-·-·----------,
ll JJ
FIG. 15·2 Determination of free length.
In relatively thick vessels, the nominal stress corresponding to the critical

buckling pressure is sometimes higher than the yield stress. Failure by plastic
instability rather than by elastic buckling then becomes the design criterion.
This type of failure can be precipitated by the deviation of the actual shell
from the true circular shape, due to the bending stresses that are set up.
This effect is taken into account in the German Code, in which the design
pressure is defined as a certain fraction of the collapse pressure obtained by
BUCKLING 521
means of expressions similar to Eqn. 15·5 (Ref. 6):

t
2K-
D D
P'c with -<5
1·5u(1-0·2D/L) L
1+
100 ~
D (15·5)
2Kt D
P'c - - with ->5
D L
Ovality Local Flat
FIG. 15·3 Out-of-roundness of cylindrical vessels.
where P~ = collapse pressure, K = modulus of failure (yield stress in ductile

materials, U.T.S. in brittle materials or based on creep data as detailed in
Chapter 3) and u = out-of-roundness, defined as the larger of
2(Dmax- Dmin) X 100
Dmax+Dmin
or~ x 100 (see Fig. 15·3).
Another expression, proposed by Holt (7), is the following:
t
2K-
D
P'c (15·6)
where Pc = collapse pressure of perfectly circular shell (Eqns. 15·1-15·4),

K = modulus of failure, approximately equal to the U.T.S. and A = maxi-

mum deviation from radius of corresponding perfect shell, measured over
an arc length equal to one-halflobe length, as shown in Fig. 15·4 (for n = 3).
It is assumed that the initial shape of the actual shell is similar to that of
the perfectly circular shell on the point of buckling. This assumption is
conservative.
Actual shape
(n = 3)
Perfect shell
FIG. 15·4 Determination of out-of-roundness with circular templates.
For the determination of the out-of-roundness A, circular templates with

an arc length
a.D 2nD nD
(15·7)
2 2n 2 2n
can be used, as shown in Fig. 15·4. This diagram represents a vessel with the
following parameters:
L t _2
- = 3·0 - = 10
D ' D
subjected to uniformly distributed pressure and with closed ends. From
Fig. 15·1, n = 3 and therefore
a.D nD
2 6' IX
BUCKLING 523
Constructing a template with this arc length, we measure for A a certain

maximum value which we assume to be equal to the thickness t. If the material
is mild steel, with
K ~ U.T.S. = 85,000 lb/in 2
E 29 x 106 lb/in 2
v = 0·3
weobtainfromEqn.15·3Pc = 254lb/in 2 andfromEqn.l5·6P;~I50lb/in 2 •
It will be noted that when the number of lobes in the actual shell is even
and equal to the number of lobes formed during buckling
2(Dmax-Dmin) 4A
On the other hand, when it is an odd integer as in Fig. 15·4, we may find
that Dmax ~ Dmin and consequently, in the absence of local flats, u becomes
zero. Local flats are likely to be entirely within the arc defined by Eqn. 15·7,
so that a = A. Taking, in Eqn. 15·5
u 4A
100 = D (15·8)
and, from Eqn. 15·5, the collapse pressure of the vessel previously considered
becomes
P~ = 132 lb/in2
with a yield stress of 45,000 lb/in 2 • The agreement between this value and
the one previously obtained from Eqn. 15·6 is fairly good in this case, but
no general conclusion should be inferred from this.
Holt's method is definitely a rational approach to the problem. The out-
of-roundness is clearly defined and can be measured in a very simple way,
but the calculation of the critical pressure is less straightforward than in the
German Code method. The use of Eqn. 15·5 with u as defined by Eqn. 15·8
may then be preferred to that of Eqn. 15·6.
Deviations from the circular shape can be caused by external loading in
service, for example concentrated radial loads transmitted by attached
pipes or supporting lugs. The reduction in the collapse pressure brought
about by this loading can be estimated by taking for the out-of-roundness
the sum of the manufacturing tolerances and the deviation from circular
shape in service. In this respect, it is interesting to note that the manufacturing
tolerances considered by most manufacturers to be representative of good
workshop practice are very frequently considerably smaller than those
specified by most design Codes.
15·1·3 Stiffening Rings

It is generally accepted that stiffening rings serve the same purpose as end
supports, provided that their rigidity in their own plane is considerably
greater than that of the shell and that they extend over the whole circum-
ference. 1-beams, U-channels or angles bolted, riveted, or welded to the shell
may be used. T-beams or flat-plate rings welded with a continuous or inter-
mittent seam are usually preferred as being simple, light and effective. The
stiffening rings may be attached to the inside or the outside surface of the
shell.
According to the German Code, the required moment of inertia of the
stiffening ring about its neutral axis parallel to the axis of the shell is given
by the expression
(15·9)
At the same time, the cross-sectional area required is
F = 3t 2 (15·10)
where F is the cross-sectional area of the ring.
The method of design specified by the A.S.M.E. Codes, on the other hand,
is based on the assumption that the stiffening rings should be strong enough
to resist collapse, even after the shell between them has buckled. The critical
buckling pressure of the stiffening rings is
24EI
p = --
c D3L
taking Pc as the critical buckling pressure of a fictitious shell of the same
diameter as the actual one, and of thickness
, F
t = t+-
L
The required moment of inertia becomes
3 LP
J = D
___ c
24E
In computing the moment of inertia, following the A.S.M.E. method, it is
assumed that a part of the shell contributes to the stiffness of the ring, so
that the effective moment inertia becomes 1· 3 times that of the bare ring.
Introducing at the same time a safety factor of 1·1, the required moment of
inertia of the ring is given by the following expression:
D 3 LPC 1·1 D 3 LPC
I= 24E x1·3 ~ 28E
BUCKLING 525
which is basically the same formula specified by the A.S.M.E. (Section VIII)
paragraph UG-29.
It is apparent that of these two methods of design the first one is con-
siderably simpler to apply, and is by no means less rational than the second.
15·1·4 Design Procedure

The preceding paragraphs will now be summarized in the form of a sug-
gested design procedure.
It is assumed that the cylindrical vessel to be designed is subjected to
uniform or almost uniform external pressure. For a selected value oft/ D and
L/ D compute the critical buckling pressure, Pc, from Eqn. 15·2 for open-
ended vessels or Eqn. 15·4 for close-ended vessels. The safety factor
PC
S.F. = - - . - - ' - - -
workmg pressure
should be at least equal to 3; usually it will be taken at least equal to 4. In

vessels without stiffeners, Lis determined as shown in Fig. 15·2. The use of
stiffeners increases the strength of the vessel, increasing at the same time its
cost: it may be found cheaper in some cases to increase the shell thickness.
When stiffeners are used, the required moment of inertia and cross-sectional
area are found from Eqns. 15·9 and 15·10.
The number of lobes in buckling are now obtained from Fig. 15·1 for
close-ended vessels, and the out-of-roundness may be specified to be A = t.
Tighter tolerances must be specified in critical designs or whenever large
deformations are set up by external loads in service. Equation 15·6 can be
used for the evaluation of the reduction in the critical buckling pressure due
to out-of-roundness, P~. The safety factor (S.F.)' should be
P'
(S.F.)' = . c ~ 3
workmg pressure
Finally, it must be checked that the maximum nominal stress does not exceed
a certain fraction of the yield stress, or the U.T.S., say,
U.T.S.
nominal stress < or
6
y
nominal stress <
3
Lower limits may be considered advisable.

15·2 SPHERICAL VESSELS UNDER UNIFORM EXTERNAL

PRESSURE: DISHED ENDS
The more commonly accepted method of design of spherical shells under

external pressure is based on the Karman-Tsien formula (8). This formula
gives the minimum pressure, Pk, required to cause the shell to snap into a
rotationally symmetrical dimple as
pk = 0·365 E GY (15·11)
where t = shell thickness and r = shell radius.

The pressure Pk is approximately equal to one-quarter of the critical buckling
pressure required to produce general buckling of the shell. It is often referred
to as the lower buckling pressure and it is entirely independent of any
imperfections in the actual shape of the shell.
The nominal stress corresponding to the lower buckling pressure is
= Pkr
t
rrk -2t = 0·1825 E -
r
(15.12)
This lower buckling stress is also independent of the deviations of the actual
shell from the perfectly spherical shape and of the load distribution.
It has been shown (Ref. 4) that the calculation of the lower buckling
pressure from Eqn. 15·11 could yield an error of a factor of two. Conse-
quently a generous s;tfety factor is necessary in design, six being generally
considered to be sufficient. The design stress is then
([design =
also (15·13)
U.T.S. Y
([design = -6- o r -
3
The design procedure is therefore to select a value of tfr and to obtain the
nominal stress by means of the formula
Pr
(f nominal = 2t
when only uniform pressure exists. Otherwise, rrnominal will be equal to the
maximum membrane stress. The design stress is then calculated from Eqn.
15·13 and checked to be higher than the nominal stress.
Hemispherical and torispherical heads (Figs. 15·5(a) and (b)) are designed
as complete spherical shells, taking the radius r to be equal to the radius at
BUCKLING 527
the crown. In ellipsoidal heads the maximum radius of curvature may be

taken instead (Fig. 15·5(c)). Large spherical vessels subjected to external
pressure and to their own weight tend to deform into an ovoid shape, as
shown in Fig. 15·5(d). The maximum radius of curvature will again be taken
in the design. In this case the maximum nominal stress is the sum of the
pressure stress and the membrane stress due to weight.
(a) (b)
Deformed
shell
Sphere
r
(c) (d)
FIG. 15·5 Spherical shells: determination of design radius.
15·3 EFFECT OF END SUPPORTS AND STRUCTURAL

DISCONTINUITIES
It is seldom possible to take into account the effect of rigid end supports
or of discontinuities such as manholes and nozzles in design. Intuitively, it
would appear that any rotationally symmetrical connection between two
shells, or a shell and a bulkhead, should provide additional reinforcement
against buckling. This would not be the case when the additional stresses set
up by the structural discontinuity are of such a nature as to assist in the
deformation of the shell during buckling. More often than not pressure
vessel designers are content to ignore this possibility, and to assume that the
high safety factor selected will result in a safe design.
REFERENCES
1. TIMOSHENKO S. & GERE J. M. Theory of Elastic Stability (McGraw-Hill,

1961).
2. FLUGGE W. Stresses in Shells (Springer, 1960).
3. Cox H. L. The Buckling of Plates and Shells (Pergamon, 1963).
4. THOMPSON J. M. T. Paper in Nuclear Reactor Containment Buildings and
Pressure Vessels (Butterworth, 1960).
5. WINDENBURG D. F. & TRILLING C. Paper in Pressure Vessel and Piping
6. A.D.-MERKBLATTER, B 6, 'Vereinung der Technischen Uberwachungs-
Vereine', Essen, 1960.
7. HoLT M. Paper loc. cit. Ref. 5.
8. KARMAN TH. VON & TSIEN H. Paper loc. cit. Ref. 5.
16 Special Components
16·0 INTRODUCTION
T components
chapter will deal with the stress analysis and design of some special
HIS
used in piping systems, heat exchangers and pressure vessels
in general. These components are pipe bends, cascade corners, bolted flanged
connections and tube plates.
Two types of pipe bends are in general use: smooth bends, formed by a
pipe curved to the desired radius, or for very large-bore ducts fabricated from
a series of pressed plates, and lobster-back bends as shown in Fig. 16·1(a).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
FIG. 16·1 Typical pipe bends and corners.
Smooth bends, or welding elbows Fig. 16·1(b) are available in a variety of

standard sizes, listed in Britain in specific~tions such as B.S. 1640, 'Steel
Butt Welding Pipe Fittings for the Petroleum Industry'. When the use of
a non-standard pipe bend is necessary as is the case in large-bore ducts, in
light gauge conduits and in piping for very high pressures, the designer may
529
choose a fabricated lobster-back bend or a smooth bend, as in Fig. 16·l{c).

The selection is based partly on the availability of fabrication facilities and
partly on economic considerations, including the cost of dies for the lobster-
back and smooth bends, the effect on the plant performance of the higher
pressure drop in the former, etc. It is also important to note that the behaviour
of a smooth bend is far more predictable than that of a lobster-back bend.
Cascade corners are sometimes used in large-bore ducts, in preference to
conventional bends, when the room available is very restricted or when their
use results in a saving in cost. Intermediate between the cascade corners and
the lobster-back bends are the mitre bends. (Fig. 16·l(d) and (e)).
In general, the design of these components follows the lines set up by the
A.S.A.-B31 Code, mentioned in Chapter 3. The formulae on which this
Code is based are, however, of an empirical nature and their application is
only justified in those regions adequately covered by experimental informa-
tion. It has therefore been thought advisable to present in this chapter a
method based on the work of Gross and Ford, Pardue and Vigness, etc., as
being of more general application.
The use of bolted flanged connections and of tube plates and their respec-
tive conventional design methods has already been discussed in Chapter 3.
Most tube plates are designed to the TEMA rules, although these rules are
often inadequate and an alternative method of design will be given in this
chapter. A detailed stress analysis, following § 7·4, may be required in some
heavy-duty heat exchangers.
16·1 SMOOTH BENDS
The phenomenon of ovalization of the cross-section of a circular, smooth

pipe bent to a radius R and subjected to a bending moment was observed
and studied for the first time by Bantlin in 1910 (1). This ovalization accounts
for the relatively larger flexibility and for the more complex stress distribu-
tion in the pipe bend than in a straight run of pipe of equal length.
16·1·1 Flexibility Factor of Smooth Bends

The flexibility factor is defined as the ratio between the deflection of a pipe
bend and that of the straight run of pipe when they are both subjected to the
same bending moment. Depending on the bending moment, in-plane bending
or out-of-plane bending may occur.
In the case of in-plane bending, the following assumptions have been shown
to be acceptable (Refs. 2, 3) :
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 531
(a) Plane sections remain plane during deformation and these deforma-
tions are small.
(b) The hoop strains vanish at the middle surface of the pipe wall and
longitudinal strains are constant throughout the thickness.
(c) The deformed cross-section is symmetrical with respect to the centre
line of the pipe-bend.
Original middle section
(c)
II
FIG. 16·2 Pipe bend under in-plane bending.

(d) With the notation of Fig. 16·2, R+r sin ();::;;,R.

In Fig. 16·2(b)
12 = 1'2'
and projecting over the tangent to the undeformed section at 1
dv
u = - d() (16·1)
The slope of the deformed section at point 1' is

du du
r'dO+dv ;::;;, r'd()
since from Eqn. 16·1, dv = - ud() and u may be neglected with respect tor.
The slope at 2' will be
and the total change in slope is
du d2u du ( d2u )
dO+ r'd0-r'd0 2 dO- r'dO = dO 1 - r'd0 2
the change in curvature of the cross-section is then
dO ( 1 - ,.~;;2) 1 1 ( d2u)
(16·2)
X = (r' +u) dO -~ ;::;;, -;J u+ d0 2
The hoop strain may then be written as
(16·3)
where z is the distance to the middle surface.

The undeformed length of the fibre 1-1 is
l = (R+rsinO) dcf>
while its length after deformation is,
l' = (R'+rsinO+usinO+vcosO)dcf>'
and, from Fig. 16·2(c),
dcf>' R dA..
R' 'I'
The longitudinal strain is therefore
l'-l = eq, ~ ( ;,-i_) sinO+R,(usinO+vcosO)

1 ~
1
~ crsin O+R (u sin 0+ vcos 0) (16·4)
where c is the change of curvature of the pipe bend.

Under conditions of plane stress
-v
e, = -1 - (eq,+e 0)
-v
and the strain energy per unit area is then found to be
_ Et ( 2 t 2 x2 ) (16·5)
dW - 2(1-vz) eq,+U
If the pipe bend is sub-divided into elements similar to 12-12, of area
dA = Rr (1+jisino) d¢d0 ~ Rrd¢d0
the total strain energy becomes
and substituting in this expression the values of eq, and x as functions of v

(Eqns. 16·1, 16·2 and 16·4)
where A. is the so-called pipe factor

tR
rz
The tangential displacement v of the cross-section may be expressed in the

series from
00
v eRr L ansin2n0 (16·7)

n =1
s
so that Eqn. 16·6 then becomes
Etr3 tP Rc2 [ I2" oo oo

W 2 (1 -v 2 ) (sinO-sinO~ 2nancos2nO+cosO~ansin2n0) 2 d0+
J
=
0
+ ~~ (~2n a,cos2n 6- ~8n' a,cos2n6)' dB]

Performing this integration
nr 3 tEc 2 t/JR [ 9 2 1 ~{ 2 2
W = 2 ( 1 -v 2 ) 1+3a 1 +4a 1 +4f an (2n-1) -
-2 an an+ 1 (2 n-1) (2 n+ 3)+a;+ 1 (2 n + 3) 2 } +~~~a; (8 n 3- 2n) 2 ] (16·8)
The parameters a1 may be determined by using the principle of least work,

which applied to this case states that
(16·9)
It has been shown (Ref. 3) that sufficiently accurate results are achieved by
limiting the expansion of the tangential displacement to the first three terms
of the series (Eqn. 16·7). From Eqns. 16·8 and 16·9
518·75 + 147,150 .A? +4,410,000 .A.4
A
92·5 + 18,375A. 2
(16·10)
A
26·25
where
A = 787 ·5 + 230,975 A.2 + 7,644,300 A.4 + 8,820,000 A.6
and the strain energy becomes
nr 3 tEc 2 cjJR 9·375+ 10,250.A. 2 + 1,029,300.A. 4 +8,820,000.A. 6
W = 2(1-v 2) A
The work done by the external bending moment M, on the other hand, is
W =!MeR¢
therefore the change of curvature of the pipe bend is
(
M ) (1-v 2 )A
c = nr 3 tE 9·375+10,250A.2+1,029,300A. 4 +8,820,000A. 6
Noting that the first factor, in brackets, in this expression is the change of
curvature of the straight run of pipe, the flexibility factor may then be ex-
pressed as
2 A
(1- v ) 2 4 6
9·375+10,250A. +1,029,300...1. +8,820,000A. (16·11)
( -v 2 ) 252+73,912A. +2,446,176A. +2,822,400A.

2 4 6
1 3 + 3280A.2 + 329,376 A.4 + 2,822,400...1.6
In the case of out of plane bending, there is not sufficient experimental
evidence to support the validity of assumptions (c) and (d). Equation 16·4
then becomes
, Rc'rcosO+usinO+vcosO
8
"'
= R+rsinO
where c' is the change in curvature for out-of-plane bending, variable along
the pipe bend.
The area of the element 12-12, must be taken now as
dA = Rr (1+jisino)d¢d0
[I
and the strain energy for the pipe bend, given before by Eqn. 16·6, is now
"' fn((c'r RcosO-~sinO+vcosO y +

w ~ Etr
2(1-•') o R+rsmO
A2 (~+~Y)d¢d0]
+ 12 (R+rsinO)
The tangential displacement v has to be expressed in the form
00 00
v = eRr (La~cos2n0+ l:b~sin2n0)

1 1
The method of solution would be the same as for the case of in-plane bend-
ing, and has been detailed by Pardue and Vigness (4). However, the advantages
to be gained by the exact solution of the problem do seldom justify the time
and effort spent. It is therefore customary to accept that all the assumptions
made to simplify the mathematical treatment of the in-plane bending problem

also apply to the case of out-of-plane bending. The flexibility factor KF
obtained from Eqn. 16·11, is then taken to be the same for both cases.
In addition to the bending moment, pipe bends are also subjected to
internal pressure and it is advisable to determine the effect of this pressure
on the flexibility factor. This problem has been treated by Rodabaugh and
George (5). Following their method, and limiting the series expansion of
the tangential displacement to the first three terms, it is possible to obtain
the flexibility factor of the pressurized pipe bend. The resulting expression,
however, is excessively cumbersome to use, and for convenience it is pre-
sented in graphical form in Fig. 16·3 for several values of the parameter
m (16·12)
with the notation of the figure.
16·1·2 Stress Distribution: Pressure and External Loading

The stress distribution in a pipe bend subjected to internal pressure is
adequately predicted by the theoretical equations for the toroidal shell, i.e.
Pr
u'
"' 2t
(16·13)
2R+rsin0 Pr
(J~ -
2(R+rsin0) t
with the notation of Fig. 16·2.
The maximum hoop stress occurs at the crotch and is given by the expression
, 2R-r Pr
(uo)max = 2(R-r) t
The stresses due to the external bending moment are given by the expressions
where eq, and e8 are the longitudinal and hoop strains, previously derived
(Eqns. 16·3 and 16·4). Substituting for v in these two equations its expression
in series form (Eqn. 16·7), and expressing the change in curvature in function
fl'
~·r-------~------~------~~-------.------~ "d
rrJ
'A =!!i. n
......
r' >
1:"'
PR 2 (1-v 2) n
0
m= rtE a::
"d
0
3'~------~-----4--------------~------------4--------------+------------~ zrrJ
z
>-!
r(mean radius) fl'
r:..::"'
~
~
0
~
,!!!
to;;
0
0 o·J 0'2 o·J 0'4 0'5
A Ul
Flo. 16· 3 Flexibility factors for pressurized and unpressurized smooth bends. w
-...1
of the flexibility factor, the following expressions are obtained:
a,= 1 ~;~:) [sin9+cos9~ansin2n8+sin0~2nancos2n0+
+ v A.f(8n 3 -2n) ancos2n

2 1
o]
aB = l~F~~x +~~ (8n 3 -2n) ancos2n O+v(sin 8+sin 8~2n ancos2n 0+
+cos 8~an sin 2n 8)J

where I is the moment of inertia of the pipe.
Limiting the expansion of the tangential deflection to its first three terms
a, = 1~(~~) [A±3vA.B] (16·14)
where
I
A ( 1+~ a 1 )sin8+ 5 az;a 1 sin3 8+ 7 a 3 ~ 3 a 2 sin 58- 5i sin 7 8
B -(a 1 cos20+ 10a 2 cos48+35 a 3 cos 6 0)
and a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , are as defined in Eqns. 16·10. In all cases, the + sign corre-
sponds to the outside surface and the - sign to the inside surface.
The maximum stress occurs for 8>::!0, and is given by the expressions
Mr ( 3 756+105,888A.2 +1,411,200A.4 )
(a,;)max >::! ±I vA. 3+3280A. 2 +329,376A.4 +2,822,400A. 6
1 (16·15)
(a 8 )max >::! - (a ,;)max
v
In addition to these two bending stresses, Gross noted the existence of a

compressive, direct, stress in the hoop direction. Referring to Fig. 16·4, in
order to maintain equilibrium it is necessary to balance the radial component
of the longitudinal force with a hoop stress and a shear. For an element
such as 12-12, the radial component of the longitudinal force is
KFMr 2
radial pull = (u,trd8)dcf> = J(l-v 2 ) AtdOdl[
SPECIAL COMPONEN TS 539
and the total force over the section MN is equal to
We must also have
and
( r sin (}- u c cos 0) tRd cjJ
Therefore
For (} =0 or (} =n
_Mr (!_) 12 + 7992 A. 2 + 564,576 A. 4 + 2,822,400 A. 6 (16·17)
I R 3+3280A.2 +329,376A. 4 +2,822,400A. 6
The case of out-of-plane bending may be

treated in exactly the same way. Assuming
again that the deformation of the
cross-section is symmetrical with respect
to the plane defined by the pipe bend
centre line, and that it can be represented
by the first three terms of the series
00
v = eRr L an cos 2n(}

1
the following expressions are obtained:

FIG. 16·4 Compressive stress in pipe
bend.
(16·141)
Vl
15
~
acj> = ± Mr vS Stresses at A (in plane bending)
m = 0\ 1 Stresses at B (out of plane bending)
13
I \ 6
a = ± Afr S A B
+ -
11'r---------\------t--------------~t----------------+----------------+-~~--~-------1
\ '--+;{
9
I '\
c;;-
'-
~
'-' 7
~ 1m= o·5 x w-}...- ~
' "'
~ 5; ~~~
m=IO~V ......_~ "C
~
t!l
Cll
I /L..---- -- :::--: ~ Cll
3 c:::
~
t!l
m=3xJO~~~ <
t!l
7 m =5 X w-V Cll
Cll
t!l
t"'
0 o·J 0•2 o·J 0•4 o·5 t::j
t!l
Cll
A ......
FIG. 16·5 Stress concentration factors for pressurized and unpressurized pipe bends under bending. 0
z
where
D a sin 8+ 10a 2 sin48+35 a 3 sin6 0

In addition, a shear stress exists as shown by Vigness (6), but it is usually
neglected. It will be noted that the peak stresses occur for 0 = n/2 and
0 = 3n/2, and that their absolute value is predicted by Eqns. 16·15.
From Fig. 16· 3 it can be seen that the effect of internal pressure on a pipe
bend is to reduce the flexibility factor; the stress concentration factor, defined
ac~ -~
Mr ( Rr) X (stress factor)
~
~ r--
1
0 OJ 02 03 04 05
A
FIG. 16·6 Compressive stress in unpressurized pipe bend under bending.
as the ratio of the actual stress due to the bending moment to the stress which
would exist in the straight run of pipe, is also reduced. Figure 16·5, based on
the work of the Rodabaugh and George (5), shows the stress concentration
factors for various values of the parameter m defined by Eqn. 16·12 and for
the unpressurized bend. The compressive stress uc can be assessed from
Fig. 16·6 (Eqn. 16·17).
16-1-3 Design
Smooth pipe bends usually have the same thickness as the straight run of pipe,
although the maximum membrane stress due to internal pressure is higher
than in the equivalent straight pipe. The first step in the design is the evalua-
tion of the flexibility factor, from Fig. 16·3 or from Eqn. 16·11. The maximum
bending moment acting on the pipe is then obtained following the procedure
s*
detailed in Chapter 9. Finally, the stress system is determined by the applica-

tion of Eqns. 16·13 and 16·15, and its acceptability is assessed. Alternatively,
the maximum stresses can be obtained from Figs. 16·5 and 16·6 as illustrated
in the following example.
Example. Duct bend, 6 ft 6 in mean diameter, 1·25 in thick subjected to
300 lb/in 2 internal pressure. Bend radius R = 9 ft 9 in.
From Eqn. 16·6 A. = 0·096
From Eqn. 16·12 m = 2·64x 10- 3 withE= 29x 106 lb/in 2
From Fig. 16·3 KF = 16·5 (unpressurized bend)
KF = 12·0 (pressurized bend)
Using these values of Kp, for the particular system considered, subjected to
in-plane bending, the following values of the bending moment on the bend
were obtained:
M = 14,000 ton in (pressurized)
M = 10,000 ton in (unpressurized)
The critical stress occurs in the vicinity of point A (Figs. 16·5 and 16·6), where
Pr Mr S
uq, = 2-+-v
t- I
in these equations
S = 8·4 for the unpressurized bend.
S = 4 for the pressurized bend.
uc = - ~r x :i x 2·14 is assumed the same for both cases. Using Tresca's
criterion, the effective stress is found to be equal to the maximum stress,
and equal to 15·6 tonjin 2 in the unpressurized case.
For the pressurized bend, the maximum effective stress is 11·4 ton/in 2 ,
less than for the unpressurized bend.
If the pipe bend had been subjected to out-of-plane bending, the method
would be the same, but now
Pr Mr S
u-. ~ -+-v
oy 2 t- I
Pr 2R+r +Mrs
Uo ~
t 2(R+r)- I
in the neighbourhood of point B (Fig. 16·5), and
Pr 2R-r MrS
Uo ~ t. 2(R-r)±I
in point B'.
When a shear stress due to the presence of a torque component has to be

considered, von Mises' criterion may be used and the critical stress defined as
where
torque
In general, it will be found that the critical condition corresponds to the

unpressurized bend.
The theoretical values of the flexibility factor and the predicted stress
distribution, using the relevant expressions or diagrams, are generally in
good agreement with the published experimental results. It is interesting to
note that in Gross and Ford's experiments, the manufacturing tolerances of
40~--------------------------------------~
30
Kp 20
ends
10
g.~04~--~o~-o~6~--~o~-o~s----~o·'j----~o~-J~2~--o~-~I4~--~o·J6,
A
FIG. 16·7 Effect of end restraints on the flexibility factor of pipe bends.
some of the bends were + 1·38% to -1·43% in outside diameter and + 12·6%
to -14% in thickness. The theoretical value of KF, predicted from Fig. 16·3,
was 17·3. The maximum theoretical stress was 10·2 x Mr/1. The correspond-
ing experimental values were 19·4 and 9·2 x Mr/1. It will be appreciated that,
whilst no conclusion can be drawn from this single example as to the sign of
the difference, or its relationship with the manufacturing tolerances, it is
quite obvious that the order of magnitude of these differences is such as to
have a negligible effect on the assessment of the design.
In some applications, pipe bends terminated in heavy flanges or in other
types of end restraints may be present. The effect of end restraints has been
treated experimentally by Pardue and Vigness (4). Of special interest are the
tests they made using 90° bends of R/r = 3·0 and A. ranging from 0·04 to
0·14, terminated by:
(a) Straight sections of the same diameter and thickness as the bend.
(b) A straight section at one end and a rigid flange at the other.
(c) Rigid flanges at both ends.
For type (a) the results are in good agreement with the theory, while for
types (b) and (c) the measured flexibility factor was considerably reduced.
Figure 16·7 reproduces some of the experimental results and facilitates their
comparison with the corresponding theoretical values. The change in the
overall flexibility factor due to the end restraints is obviously greater for
values of the bend angle lower than 90°, and vice versa. At the same time, the
addition of end restraints causes a reduction in the value of maximum stress.
The net result is an increase in the load to which the pipe bend is subjected,
accompanied by a decrease in the stress per unit load, that balances, at least
in part, the effect of the higher load. For example, for the pipe bend that has
been discussed, with a rigid flange welded at one end, the decrease in KF is
of the order of 25% while the maximum stress per unit load is reduced by
about 30%.
In general, the use of rigid end restraints is to be avoided, since they reduce
unnecessarily the overall flexibility of the system and cause an unpredictable
perturbation of the stress distribution.
16·2 MITRED BENDS AND LOBSTER-BACK BENDS
Empirical expressions for the flexibility and stress concentration factors of

mitred bends and of lobster-back bends may be found in most piping design
Codes. Such expressions are based solely on experimental results and do not
attempt to predict the actual stresses in the bend when this is subjected to
a given load, their purpose being to correlate the fatigue behaviour of the
bend to that of a straight run of pipe of similar dimensions. Theoretical
methods for the stress analysis of mitred bends have been proposed by Green
and Emmerson (7) and by Owen and Emmerson (8), while a quasi-
theoretical method for the stress analysis of reinforced mitred bends may be
found in Ref. 9. Very frequently, mitred bends have reinforced joints as shown
in Fig. 16·1((), in which case it is assumed that the flexibility factor is unity.
The stress concentration factor can then be roughly assessed following
Ref. 9 or 10.
Lobster-back bends, of the type shown in Fig. 16·l(a), are usually designed
using the smooth bend theory. The experimental information available
(Refs. 11, 12) indicates that there is little difference between the flexibility
of a lobster-back bend and that of a smooth bend of similar dimensions,
provided that the angle is sufficiently small-say less than 15°. On the other
hand, higher stresses can be expected near the junctions of the rings. These
Box Type
Floating Head Type
Hairpin Type
Fm. 16·8 Different types of heat exchangers.
peak stresses may well have a negligible effect on the bursting pressure of the
bend but they are likely to cause a reduction in its fatigue life. A detailed
analysis of the stresses in these components will be found in Refs. 32 and 33.
16·3 TUBE PLATES
The tube plates that will be considered here are those used in cylindrical
heat exchangers of the types shown in Fig. 16·8. They are flat, circular plates
with a perforated central part and a solid rim, bolted down to a flange or
welded to the heat-exchanger shell. The tubes are expanded, welded, or

expanded and welded to the tube plates.
All the proposed methods of analysis and design of type plates are based
upon the substitution, for the actual perforated plate, of an equivalent
unperforated plate of equal flexural rigidity, thickness and diameter. In
some cases, the elastic constants of this equivalent plate are taken to be the
same as those of the actual plate, E and v. The flexural rigidity of the equi-
valent plate, D*, is then defined by the expression
D* = (deflexion efficiency factor) x D
where D = Et 3/12(1- v2) is the flexural rigidity of an unperforated plate

of the same thickness t as the actual plate.
The deflexion efficiency factor is determined empirically.
A more rational method is to assume that the elastic constants of the equi-
valent plate are E* and v*, and then
E* t 3
D* =
12(1-v* 2 )
defines the effective flexural rigidity D* of the tube plate, in terms of the
effective elastic constants E* and v*. This method will be followed here.
16·3·1 Effective Elastic Constants

The determination of the flexural rigidity and the effective elastic constants
of tube plates has been studied by Horvay (13), Duncan (14), Salerno and
Mahoney (15) and O'Donnell and Langer (16), among others. The methods
used are fundamentally empirical and it has been found that it is possible
to differentiate between the effective elastic constants determined under
conditions of direct stress and under bending. This distinction, however,
does not hold for thick plates when their thickness is larger than about four
times the minimum pitch between holes. Since most heavy duty plates likely
to require a detailed analysis are in this category, it is possible to assume
that the effective elastic constants are equal for both direct and bending
stresses. Figure 16·9 (from Ref. 16) shows the variation of these elastic
constants, in function of the ligament efficiency factor, as defined in the
diagram. The elastic constants thus determined have been found to be in good
agreement with experimental results of Sampson (16) and of Duncan (14).
It will be noted that in computing the ligament efficiency the tube-wall
thickness has been taken into account. It is apparent that the presence of the
tube increases the rigidity of the perforated plate and it is generally accepted
that some credit should be taken for this stiffening effect (Ref. 17).
Once the effective elastic constants have been obtained, the next step is the
calculation of the stress distribution in the equivalent plate. A detailed
analysis has been given in § 7·4, for a typical box-type heat exchanger.
For other cases, the analysis would have to take into account the relative
1"0.---------,----------,--~--,----,--~
Plate thickness= t
{f-d)/f
FIG. 16·9 Effective elastic constants for perforated plates (Ref. 16).
flexibilities of the central, perforated, part of the plate, its rim, its connection
to the heat-exchanger shell and the shell itself. The same procedure would
be followed.
16·3·2 Stress Distribution in the Equivalent Plate

The problem is simplified considerably by neglecting the stiffening effect of
the unperforated rim and treating the plate as (a) simply supported and
(b) rigidly clamped. In this way, upper and lower bounds are obtained for the
load distribution throughout the plate. This approach is followed by Miller
(18) and constitutes the basis of the B.S. 1500 method of design. A similar
approach has also been followed by Gardner (19}. A more refined method of
analysis, taking into account the stiffening effect of the rim, has been used
by Duncan (14), including experimental information on the stiffening effect
of the unperforated section in two and four-pass tube plates. The problem
has been treated recently by Boon and Walsh (20). Following Ref. 18, it
can be shown that the stress distribution in the equivalent plate is as follows:
(a) Box-type heat exchanger. Simply-supported tube plate
With the notation:
P 1 = shell side pressure
P 2 = tube , ,
n = number of tubes
a = cross-sectional area (metal) of one tube
R = inside radius of shell
A = cross-sectional area of bore of shell
B = , , , (metal) of shell plate
C = , , , perforated part of tube plate
t = thickness of tube plate
2! = length of tubes
E1 = modulus of elasticity of tube material
E. = , , , , shell ,
r = radial position in tube plate
the following functions are then defined:
Q = E 1nafE.B
y = (E1naf l AD*) 114
1-v*
f 1 (yr) ber(yr)--- bei'(yr)
yr
1-v*
!2 (y r) = bei (y r ) + - her' (y r)
yr
1-v*
ft'(y r) v*ber(yr)+-- bei' (yr)
yr
1-v*
i2'(yr) v*bei(yr)- - - ber'(yr)
yr
y R [bei' (y R)f1 (y R)- her' (y R)f2 (y R)]
3 [!1 (y r)f2 (y R)-! 1 (y R)f2 (y r)]
y2 R 2 [her (y R)f1 (y R) + bei (y R)f2 (y R)]
6 [!1 (y r)f2 (y R)-! 1 (y R)f2 (y r)]
y R [bei' (y R)/1 (y R)- her' (y R)/2 (y R)]

G~
3 [f~ (y r)f2 (y R)-/1 (y R)f~ (y r)]
y2 R 2 [her (y R)/1 (y R) + bei (y R)f2 (y R)]
G; =
6[/1 (y r)/2 (y R)-ft (y R)f~ (y r)]
The radial stress (bending) at the plate surface is given by
cr* = + (P 1 -P 2 )(A-C)-P2 (na+AQ) (~) 2 (16•18)

' - A(QG1+G2) t
and the hoop stress
+ (Pt-P 2 )(A-C)-P2 (na+AQ) (~) 2
(16·19)
- A(QG~ +G;) t
at the radial position r in the equivalent plate.

For v* = 0·3, D* = A~ CD, E* = E, Ref. 18 gives diagrams showing the
variation of G1 , G2 against (yR) and the position of maximum radial stress.
Usually the maximum stress occurs near the centre of the plate, for r~O.
(b) Box-type heat exchanger. Clamped tube plate. The maximum radial stress
occurs at the edge and is given by the same expression as Eqn. 16·18, sub-
stituting for G1 and G2 , G~' and G'{ respectively:
G~' = y R {[her' (y R)] 2 + [bei' (y R)] 2 }
3 [bei (y R) bei' (y R) +her (y R) her' (y R)]
(16·20)
G'{ = y 2 R 2 [ber(yR)bei'(yR)-bei(yR)ber'(yR)]
6 [bei (y R) bei' (y R) +her (y R) her' (y R)
and cr: = v*cr:' at the edge. The maximum stress occurs at the edge.
(c) Floating-head heat exchanger. Simply-supported tube plate
cr*
r
+ P 1 -P 2
- Gl
(!!:.)
t
2
P (R)
(16·21)
1 -P 2 2
+
-
-
G~
- -t
(d) Floating-head heat exchanger. Clamped tube plate
cr*r + Pt-Pz (~)2

G~' t
(16·22)
at the edge
(e) Hair-pin heat exchanger. Simply-supported tube plate
a: = a: = ±(P 1 -P2 )
3 (3 + v*)
8
(R)t 2
at the centre (16·23)
(f) Hair-pin heat exchanger. Clamped plate
v,
,.* a 8* -_ ± (P 1 - p) 3(1+v*)
2 8
(R)t 2
at t h e centre (16·24)
a:= ±i(P 1 -P2 )(7Y· a:= v*a: at the edge (16·25)
In the case of box-type and floating-head type heat exchangers the stresses
in the tubes can be obtained with sufficient accuracy from the expressions
of Ref. 18. Thermal stresses, due to differential expansion of tubes and
shells in box-type heat exchangers, can be taken into account by taking an
effective pressure difference, in Eqns. 16·18 and 16·19
Pe = (ext Tr -ex. 1:)Et
where ext, ex. are respectively the coefficients of linear thermal expansion of
tubes and shell, and Tt and r. are the temperatures of tubes and shell.
Equation 16·18 then becomes
a* = + (Pt-P2)(A-C)-P 2(na+AQ)+Pena (~) 2 (16·26)
' - A(QG1+G2) t
a similar expression being obtained for a:.
In addition to the radial and tangential bending stresses, a shear stress
will also act in a perpendicular direction to the plate. In general this stress
is considerably lower than the bending stresses, and it is sufficient to assume
that it is given by the expression
(P 1 -P 2 )(A-C)r
-.*n = 2At
(in box-type heat exchangers) (16·27)
and
*
'<n = (P 1 -2 p
t 2) r c·m fl oatmg-
· h ead an d h a1r-pm
· · type h eat exch angers) (16 ·28)
16·3·3 Stress Analysis

Once the stress distribution in the equivalent undrilled plate has been
obtained, the next step is to calculate the average stresses in the ligaments
of the drilled plate from equilibrium considerations.
Referring to Fig. 16·10(a), where M and N are the centres of two adjacent
holes, the stress normal to MN is
u: = u: sin <P + u: cos <P
2 2
and the shear stress acting along MN is
(a)
General Stresses
jn Equivalent
Plate
(b)
.Average Stresses
ina
Ligament
I
(c)
Mohr Circle
for the Stresses
in the Ligament
00 (T,.)_,
(d)
Direct Shear
in the Ligament
Fla. 16·10 Stress distribution in perforated tube plates.

r* = (u:-un sin;¢
The average stresses on the ligament are then (Fig. 16·10(b))
= (Jn
* J-d
f
* f
't" f-d
<71 =<7: or <7: whichever is

greater in absolute value
<72 = <7: or <7; whichever is
smaller in absolute value
i"OI----+---1--_:::::~----~
o·s~-'-"""-'-*~
·J·O -0·5
............~..+-~....~...~r-~-...~..-.&...~.-!
0
FIG. 16·11 Maximum combined stress in ligaments of perforated plates.
The maximum shear stress in the ligament-assuming that the normal stress
component in an element perpendicular to MN is zero (Ref. 16)-is
from the Mohr circle shown in Fig. 16·10(c).

The combined stress is
aavg =2-r max =_l_[(u*sin

J_ d r 2 '+'A..+u*cos
9
2 A..) 2 +(u*-u*) 2 sin 2 2A..] 1 12 (16·29)
'+' r 9 '+'
In general, only the maximum value of the combined stress is required.

The procedure then is to obtain the maximum values of <J: and <J: from Eqns.
16·18-16·26; with
<T 1 <T: or <T: whichever is greater in absolute value
, smaller ,
" "
\
30
\
25
\ 1\r,
20
cr, = -1
I.<;
0 15
v5
\ ~,\1\
""- "
I0
~~ 1
~ ~ !'-...
""" r-- r-
~
5 r-.:. t- r-
1--.r-- - r-
r-- 1-.. ~
0
0 02 03 04 05 06 08 10
(f-dJ/!
FIG. 16·12 Maximum peak stresses in perforated plates (Ref. 16).
the corresponding maximum value of the combined stress can be obtained

from Fig. 16·11.
The shear stress through the ligament (Fig. 16·10(d)) is
(rn)avg = r: f~d (l6·30)
where r: is obtained from Eqns. 16·27 or 16·28.

16·3·4 Peak Stresses

In addition to the average stresses previously obtained, high stress peaks
exist around the holes. Stress intensification factors that take into account
this effect have been derived by O'Donnell and Langer (16) on the basis of
photoelastic experiments by Sampson (21). The maximum stress in the
proximity of the holes is given by the expression
O"max = {S.C.F.) X 0"1 (16·31)
(b)
(a)
(c)
FIG. 16·13 Tube-to-plate connections.
where S.C.F. is the stress concentration factor, from Fig. 16·12 (Ref. 16) and
u 1 and u 2 have the same meaning as in the previous section.
Due to the temperature drop between shell and tube sides and, in the case
of hair-pin heat exchangers, between the tube inlet and tube outlet sides,
thermal stresses also are set up. Their order of magnitude is
Ur = Erx/1 T {16·32)
where 11T is the temperature drop across tube plate or between hot and cold
sides in hair-pin heat exchangers. In critical cases, a more refined analysis,

along the lines given in § 7·4 may have to be performed. See also Ref. 16.
16·3·5 Stress Limits: Design

It is suggested that the following stress limits should be adopted:
CTavg :::;; Y
(rn)avg :::;; j-Y
the average combined stress and average shear being obtained from Eqns.
16·29 (or Fig. 16·11) and Eqn. 16·30, respectively.
In order to prevent large deformations, that would cause leakage in the
tube-to-tube plate connections, the value of CTmax+ CT T (from Eqns. 16· 31 and
16· 32) should be maintained below 2 Y. Alternatively, these stresses may be
evaluated in accordance with the limited life criteria of Chapter 12.
An important consideration is the design of the joints between tubes and
tube plate to ensure that there is no leakage. In general, the tubes are simply
expanded on to the tube plates as illustrated in Fig. 16·13(a). In the sketch,
the three tapered rollers, rotating in the clockwise direction, are forced
against the tube by the progressive withdrawal of the central tapered needle.
After withdrawal of the expanding tool, the elastic springback ofthe assembly
sets up a positive contact pressure between tube and tube plate. For the
calculation of this contact pressure, it is generally assumed that the expansion
takes place under constant pressure, no credit being taken for the localized
plastic deformations under the rollers, the hammering effect due to vibrations,
etc., during rolling, and the possible bonding between the contact surfaces
of tube and tube plates (Ref. 22). Given these simplifying assumptions, it is
not surprising to find that the correlation between predicted and measured
values is poor. However, the theoretical contact pressure can still be used as
a figure of merit that will enable the designer:
(a) To predict the behaviour of a proposed design on the basis of experi-
mental information available for a different joint.
(b) To assess the effect of differential expansion during service (due to
pressure and temperature).
(c) To investigate the effect of creep.
In most conventional joints, a reduction in the tube wall thickness of
6-10% is specified as giving the best seal. Grooves, as shown in Fig. 16·13(b),
are usually cut in the tube plate, and the tube expanded until the grooves are
at least partly filled with tube material. Although the main purpose of this
construction is to increase the axial load that can be taken by the joint with-
out separation, it also improves the sealing. The problems involved in
designing such joints, together with information on service experience, are

covered in Ref. 23.
Expanded and seal welded joints as shown in Fig. 16·13(c) are also fre-
quently used (see for instance Ref. 24). In these joints, it is essential to provide
adequate flexibility in order to avoid cracking in service, and so that the
residual stress system produced during welding does not cause any significant
reduction in the contact pressure.
Leakage may occur after some time in service for several reasons. First of
all, the high localized stresses in the vicinity of the tube-to-tube plate interface,
and the possible different cathodic potential of the two materials in contact,
will increase the corrosion rate. Another cause of leakage is the sudden
contraction of the tube during a fast cooling down transient to which the
plant may be subjected. The main cause for leakage in high temperature
plant is the creep relaxation of the residual stresses and hence of the contact
pressure. An approximate treatment of this problem, following Davis (25),
could be applied to critical designs but, in general, it is accepted that a
conservative estimation of the time required for a specified stress relaxation
may be obtained directly from a tensile relaxation test.
The use of plates reinforced with radial ribs is most attractive for heavy
duty service, when the thickness required to withstand the pressure difference
between shell and tube sides becomes excessive. Several types of rib reinforced
plates have been studied by Duncan (26)
16·4 BOLTED FLANGED CONNECTIONS
It has been mentioned that the design of bolted flanged connections following
the A.S.M.E. method is usually satisfactory for most conventional applica-
tions. In exceptional cases, such as full width flanges in large vessels or very
high pressure connections, a structural analysis following Chapters 4-8 and
a safety assessment in accordance with criteria given in Chapters 10-14 is
essential. Such an analysis, however, cannot be integrated into a compact
design method: its purpose is to assess whether a design is satisfactory or
not. The A.S.M.E. method can still be used in these cases as a reliable guide
for the preparation of a preliminary layout.
Some practical considerations for the design of bolted flanged connections
are given below.
(a) Full face gaskets, extending to the outside diameter of the flange and
with the bolt holes cut out, should only be used for low temperature, low
pressure design. In general, the gasket material is then rubber.
(b) Wide ring gaskets, extending to a point within the inside of the bolt
holes, are used under all temperature conditions, depending on the gaskets
material. The flange faces may be flat or raised. The gaskets most commonly
used are asbestos, flat metal jacketed asbestos filled, and flat metal. For large
diameter flanges and for highly penetrant fluids, spiral wound metal, asbestos
filled gaskets may be used.
~-------------A
Gasket width N= o·J5 D1/;r (D in inches).

Effective gasket width as defined by A.S.M.E. VIII.
G as defined by A.S.M.E. VIII taking the gasket O.D. as
the O.D. over the completed weld.
For mild steel flanges, y = 18,000, m = 5·5.
Design code: A.S.M.E. VIII
FIG. 16·14 Typical seal welded flange.
(c) For high pressure application, ring joint gaskets are preferred.
(d) For connections subjected to alternate loading, tapered hubs and studs
with reduced diameter shank should be used. Lap joint flanges are known
to behave unsatisfactorily under cyclic conditions.
(e) In piping systems, bolted flanged connections should be located in
such a way as to minimize the external loading acting on them.
(f) The bolt spacing should be between 2f and 3! times the bolt diameter.
Bolts smaller than i in should only be used when considerable care is taken
during tightening up to prevent yielding. In any case, it is advisable to specify
the maximum torque to be applied.
(g) For critical applications, and when studs of a very large diameter are
used, it is customary to use heaters to obtain the required bolting load. In
Lens Ring Gasket

Bridgman Closure
Delta Gasket Double Cone Joint

FIG. 16·15 Special bolted connections (high pressure).
that case, the studs are hollow for the insertion of the heating element. The
elongation is measured with a clock gauge, a feeler gauge or a micrometer.
An alternative to bolt heating is the use of hydraulic tensioners which are
seated on the upper face of the flange and which exert a tensile load on the
studs.
(h) The bolting load in non-critical connection with very large bolts is
generally achieved by 'flogging' the bolts with an impact wrench, or with an

outsize spanner, or simply by hammering. It is obvious that the load obtained
is totally unpredictable, and that it will depend on the severity of the method
and the friction coefficient between the surfaces in contact.
Recessed
nut
R !!! 2 x bolt diameter
Fro. 16·16 Bolt design to minimize stress concentrations.
When it is necessary to avoid any leakage whatsoever in a bolted flanged

connection, the seal welded flange design shown in Fig. 16·14 is recom-
mended. In some cases, the two flanges are connected by a semitoroidal
membrane, to provide more flexibility in the seal than is provided by the
lips shown in the figure. Fracture of the seal under cyclic loading conditions
is then prevented.
Some designs suitable for high pressure service are shown in Fig. 16·15.
In all cases the seal is achieved by the internal pressure itself, which com-
presses the gasket against the flange. Rules for the design of some of these
'pressure energized' connections, following the A.S.M.E. method, are con-
tained in Ref. 27.
The correct design of the bolts to minimize stress concentrations is often
as important as their overall dimensioning. Whitworth threads, accurately
machined to ensure an even engagement between nut and bolt, are recom-
mended, as well as the use of recessed nuts or shanks to avoid the tendency to
overload the first few threads. Tapered shanks and elliptical transitions
between bolt head and shank should also be used, as shown in Fig. 16·16.
The washers should always be of a material harder and more creep resistant
than the bolts. Whenever large relative rotations are expected between the
mating flanges, a spherical bearing surface (machined and ground) may be
used. The use of these spherical washers is standard in large diameter,
relatively high pressure closure heads for nuclear reactor vessels.
16·4·1 Steady Creep of Bolted Flanged Connections
Bolted flanged connections would seem to lend themselves particularly well

to the general methods of analysis previously described, due to their symmetry.
Actually their analysis is fairly complex and is complicated by several factors.
First of all, the various elements-bolts, nuts, gaskets and flanges-often
have entirely different creep properties; they may be subjected during assembly
to large plastic deformations and do not operate at the same temperature.
An additional difficulty stems from the notch effect of the threads in the bolts
and nuts, which may affect the creep behaviour as predicted from unnotched
tests (see Chapter 14). As a result, the accuracy of an analysis based on,
say, the strain hardening theory, would be lost due to the simplifying assump-
tions required. A steady creep analysis has then the advantage of providing
some qualitative information as to the adequacy of the design without
involving an excessive computational effort.
A detailed analysis of bolted flanged connections in the presence of steady
creep was first undertaken by Bailey (28). Marin (29) proposed an expression
for the steady creep deformation of a ring and Robinson (30) discussed, on
general lines, the design of these components. A recent discussion of the
problem has been published by Downey and Draper (31). In this chapter
only the outline of the problem will be presented.
The behaviour of the bolted flanged connection can be approximated to
that of the simple model illustrated in Fig. 16·17. Initially, the bolt is tightened
up to a stress u 1 and elongates by
01 bolt = 0"1 (~)

E bolt
while the flexible tube contracts by

0" 1 Abott ( [ )
01 tube = A E
tube tube
[tube
FIG. 16·17 Illustration of the effect of creep in a bolted flanged connection.
The nut advances then by the amount
.6. = Otbolt+ottube = 0"1 (~) bolt

[t+(AzE) bolt
x(~E) tube
J
which can also be expressed in the form
.6. = 0"1 (~)

E bolt
(1+17)
where
load to produce unit elongation in bolt
11 = load to produce unit contraction in tube
In the case of the actual connection, the same concept holds, taking the
contraction in the tube to correspond to the reduction of distance between
the nut seats in the mating flanges. This displacement is partly due to the
compression of the flanges themselves, to the compression of the gasket and
to the rotation of the flanges.
During operation, .6. remains constant. After a certain time(), the stress in
the bolt relaxes to the value a due to creep; the elastic elongation of the
bolt is then
and that of the tube

At the same time, assuming the creep strain rate in the bolt to be given by
Eqn. 14·12, the bolt elongation due to creep is
6
((\holt = c 3 [bolt Ju" d ()

0
taking the total bolt length to remain nearly constant. If the creep rate of the
tube is assumed to be proportional to that of the bolt, we can write
6
(c) c)tube = C 3Jl[bolt J cf' d ()

0
where Jl is a factor of proportionality. We shall then have

A = (c5e+c5Jbolt+(c5e+c5c)tube
therefore
6
u(1+17)+C3(1+J1)Ebolt J u"d()
0
or
so that the time required to relax the bolting-up stress from u 1 to u is
() = 1+11
(1+Jl)EC 3 (n-1)
[-1- __ u"- 1
1_]
u~- 1
If u corresponds to the minimum bolting load required to prevent leakage,

after the time interval () it becomes necessary to retighten all the nuts. The
term (1 +'7)/(1 + Jl) is known as the time factor. It is obviously of interest
that it should be as high as possible. To this end, the following measures may
be taken:
(a) Use of collars of equal cross-sectional area to that of the bolts. For
example, taking the flanges to be completely rigid and the length of the
collars to be one-third that of the bolt,
(AE/l)bou 2
-
(3 AE/2l)bolt 3
while without collars, 11 would be zero.

Collars are also included to improve the
thermal shock resistance of the connection
(see Fig. 16·18).
(b) The use of hard, creep resistant
materials for the gasket, in order to
maintain Jl as low as possible.
(c) For a similar reason, thick flanges
operating at low stress levels should be
used. Creep in the bolts may be minimized
by maintaining their temperature below
the fluid temperature-uninsulated flanges
-and by keeping the threaded portion
down to a minimum.
In bolts made of a hard, creep-resistant
material, creep fracture may take place
without any appreciable deformation.
FIG. 16·18 Design of bolted flanged
This type of failure is precipitated by the connection to minimize the effect of
notch effect of the threads. The design of creep.
Fig. 16·16 should then be used.
REFERENCES
1. BANTLIN A. Z. V.D.l. 54 (1910) 43.

2. GROSS N . Proc. I. Mech. E. 1B (1952) 465.
3. GRoss N. & FoRD H. loc. cit. Ref. 2.
4. PARDUE T. E. & VIGNESS I. Trans. A.S.M.E., 73 (1951) 77.
5. RoDABAUGH E. C. & GEORGE H. H. Paper in Pressure Vessel and Piping
6. VIGNESS I. Trans. A.S.M.E. 65 (1943) 105.
7. GREEN A. E. & EMMERSON W. C. J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 9 (1961) 91.
8. OWEN B. S. & EMMERSON W. C. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 5 (1963) 303.
9. MACKENZIE A. C. & BEATTIE I. M. Paper in Symposium on Pressure
Vessel Research towards Better Design (I.Mech.E., 1962).
10. OWEN B. S., HOLLAND M. & EMMERSON W. C., Applied Mechanics
Convention, Newcastle-upon-Tyne (I.Mech.E., 1964).
11. LANE P.R. H. & RosER. T., B.W.R.A. Rept. D3/12/60.
12. MACFARLANE D. S. Brit. Welding J. 9 (1962) 659.
13. HORVAY G. J. App. Mech. 19 (1952) 355.
14. DUNCAN J. P. Proc. I. Mech. E. 169 (1955) 789.

15. SALERNO V. L. & MAHONEY J. B., Welding Research Council Bulletin,
No. 53, 1959.
16. O'DONNELL W. J. & LANGER B. F. 'Design of Perforated Plates', A.S.M.E.
Paper No. 61-WA-115.
17. Loc. cit. Ref. 9. Discussion to Paper 11.
18. MILLER K. A. G. Proc. I. Mech. E. lB (1952) 215.
19. GARDNER K. A. J. App. Mech. 19 (1952) 159.
20. BooN G. B. & WALSH R. A. 'Fixed Tube-Sheet Heat Exchangers',
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 63-WA-174.
21. SAMPSON R. C. 'Photoelastic Frozen Stress Study of the Effective Elastic
Constants of Perforated Materials. A Progress Report', Westinghouse
Atomic Power Division DLE-319, 1959.
22. NADAl A. Trans. A.S.M.E. 65 (1943) 865.
23. SHANNON W. B., PRATT C. W., WEBB T. B. & CARLSON W. B. Proc.
I. Mech. E. 154 (1946) 52.
24. DUBOIS L. Brit. Welding J. 10 (1963) 200.
25. DAVIS E. A. Trans. A.S.M.E. 74 (1952) 381.
26. HARVEY J. & DUNCAN J. P. 'The Rigidity of Rib-reinforced Cover
Plates', Applied Mechanics Group, I.Mech.E., Paper No. P5j63.
27. EICHENGER R. 'Design of High-Pressure Integral and Welding Neck
Flanges with Pressure-energized Ring Joint Gaskets', A.S.M.E. Paper
No. 63-Pet-3.
28. BAILEY R. W. Engineering 144 (1937) 364.
29. MARIN J. Discussion of paper by Waters E. 0., WESSTROM, D. B.,
ROSSHEIM D. B. & WILLIAMS F. S. G. loc. cit. Ref. 5.
30. ROBINSON E. S. loc. cit. Ref. 5.
31. DowNEY St. C. & DRAPER J. H. M. Paper in Conference on Thermal
Loading and Creep Structures and Components, London 1964
(I.Mech.E.).
32. KITCHING R. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 7 (1965) 551.
33. JONES N. & KITCHING R. J. Strain Analysis 1 (1966) 248, 264.
Note on Recent Bibliography
Since the completion of the manuscript of this book, several publications

have appeared. Some of the most important are listed here.
The application of the high-tensile tough steels recently developed-
quenched and tempered, maraging, etc.-to the construction of pressure
vessels presents many fabrication and welding problems. Some of these
problems have been studied by R. J. KNOTH and W. A. PETERSEN, 'The
welding of 12% Ni maraging steels', Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 1965 (44) 21s.;
G. E. LINNERT, 'Welding procedures for quenched and tempered alloy steels
(100,000 lbfin 2 minimum yield strength) in petrochemical construction'
A.S.M.E. 64-Pet-37; W. D. DoTY, 'Welding of quenched and tempered
steels', Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 1965 (44) 289s.; J. M. UcmDA, 'Welding
evaluation of new high-strength quench and temper steels' Welding J. (Res.
Supp.) 1966 (45) 31s. Some special steels have been reviewed by H. W.
KIRKBY, 'Special steels for high temperature service', Proc. I. Mech. E.
1965-66 (180) Pt. 1; J. GLEN and R. F. JOHNSON have reported on the
'Elevated temperature yield and 0·2 per cent proof stress properties of carbon
steel plates, with particular reference to the values specified in B.S. 1501:
1964',Proc. I. Mech. E.1965-66 (180) Pt. 1.
Some examples on the use of modern welding techniques are discussed by
J. A. LIPTAK, 'Gas tungsten-arc welding heavy aluminium plate', Welding J.
(Res. Supp.) 1965 (44) 276s.; R. W. GoTCH, 'Automatic inert gas-tungsten
arc welding applied to nuclear engineering problems', Brit. Welding J. 1965
(12) 276; J. R. CROSSMAN and H. B. CARY, 'Recent developments in the C02
flux process using fabricated wire', Brit. Welding J. 1966 (13) 277.
A series of articles, published in the Brit. Welding J., on cladding of steel
with corrosion-resistant materials are those by R. D. WYLIE, J. McDoNALD
and A. L. LOWENBERG, 'Weld deposited cladding of pressure vessel', 1965
(12) 378; A. M. HORSFIELD, G. ALMQVIST and C. H. ROSENDAHL, 'Strip clad-
ding of steel with stainless and nickel based alloys', 1966 (13) 315; R. D.
THoMAS, 'Corrosion resistant weld overlays by the dual strip process', 1966
(13) 307.
The radiographic acceptance rules of the A.S.M.E. Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code have been reviewed by H. GREENBERG, 'An engineering basis
T 565
for establishing radiographic acceptance standards for porosity in weldments',

A.S.M.E. 64-WA/Met-3. In this paper, use is made of theoretical consider-
ations based on stress analysis and fracture mechanics to define acceptable
defects in weldments. A study of the stress concentrations caused by multiple
holes or cavities is given by R. E. PETERSON, 'The interaction effect of neigh-
bouring holes or cavities, with particular reference to pressure vessel and
rocket cases', A.S.M.E. 64-WA/Met-10.
The results of research work sponsored by the American Welding Research
Council on the stress analysis of vessels have been reported in several Welding
Research Council Bulletins recently published. Of particular interest are
No. 102, 'State of stress in a circular cylindrical shell with a circular hole' by
A. C. ERINGEN, A. K. NAGHDI and C. C. THIEL; No. 106, 'Stress analysis of a
circular plate containing a rectangular array of holes' and 'Stress distribution
around periodically spaced holes in a spherical membrane shell under
uniform internal pressure' by J. B. MAHONEY and V. L. SALERNo; No. 107,
'Local stresses in spherical and cylindrical shells due to external loadings' by
K. R. WICHMAN, A. G. HOPPER and J. L. MERSHON, which is of special
interest since it summarizes work previously published by Bijlaard in a form
easily applicable to design; No. 108, 'Experimental determination of stress
distribution in thin-walled cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels with
circular nozzles' by W. F. RILEY. The states of stress in the vicinity of various
types of nozzle reinforced openings have also been reported by R. KITCHING
and N. JONES, 'Effect of bending moments on nozzles with forged transition
pieces' presented at the Appd. Mech. Conv., I. Mech. E., 1964; by R.
KITCHING and B. E: OLSEN, 'Further experiments with forged nozzles in
pressure vessels', Proc. I. M ech. E. 1964-65 (179) Pt. 1; by R. T. RosE, 'Stress
analysis of nozzles in thin walled cylindrical pressure vessels', Brit. Welding J.
1965 (12) 965 and by L. M. CASSIDY and C. H. CooGAN. 'Stress concentra-
tions at reinforced openings in ellipsoidal pressure vessel heads', A.S.M.E.
64-Pet-3.
Extensive data on the stress distribution in torispherical heads has been
published by H. FESSLER and P. STANLEY, 'Stresses in torisperical drumheads:
a critical evaluation', J. Strain Analysis, 1966 (1) 89. Cylindrical shells of
different curvature joined along a generator are sometimes used in storage
tanks and a detailed stress analysis has been published by J. C. SHANG, 'Con-
tinuity of cylindrical shells subjected to the uniformly distributed longitudinal
surface loads', A.S.M.E. 64-Pet-9. Data on stress concentration near cracks
in thick cylinders under transient temperature variations may be found in
'Stress intensity factors for thermal stresses in thick hollow cylinders' by
A. F. EMERY, A.S.M.E. 65-WA/Met-7.
One of the major difficulties in the establishment of rational design methods
is the determination of the stress-strain distribution in structural components
NOTE ON RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 567
subjected to partial yielding. A first treatment of this problem, applied to

corrugated bellows, was published by P. V. Marcal and C. E. Turner in 1963.
The method used by these authors has recently been extended by P. V.
MARCAL and W. R. PILGRIM in 'A stiffness method for elastic-plastic shells of
revolution', J. Strain Analysis, 1966 (1) 339, where a general computer
programme is described.
The work of Gill, Lind and Hodge on the limit analysis of nozzles and
reinforced openings, reported in Chapter 8, has been extended by K. S.
DINNO and S. S. GILL to protruding nozzles in 'Limit pressure for a protrud-
ing cylindrical nozzle in a spherical vessel', J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 1965 (7) 259.
Improved methods of analysis have also been described by the same authors
in 'The effect of the circumferential bending moment and change of circum-
ferential curvature on the calculation of the limit pressure of symmetrically
loaded shells of revolution', and 'The limit analysis of a pressure vessel
consisting of the junction of a cylindrical and spherical shell', both in Int. J.
Mech. Sci. 1965 (7) 15, 21. Some of their results have also received experi-
mental confirmation. W. J. COTTAM and S. S. GILL have also reported some
experimental work on cylindrical vessels with flush nozzles in 'Experimental
investigation of the behaviour beyond the elastic limit of flush nozzles in
cylindrical pressure vessels', J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 1966 (8) 330. A novel type of
design for the reinforcement of radial branches in spherical vessels has been
described by C. R. CALLADINE in 'Design of nozzles in spherical pressure
vessels', The Engineer, Feb. 26, 1965 and 'On the design of reinforcement for
openings and nozzles in thin spherical pressure vessels', J. Mech. Eng. Sci.
1966 (8) 1. F. A. LECKIE has applied the theorems of elastic shakedown to
the analysis of radial nozzles in spherical vessels in 'Shakedown pressures for
flush cylinder-sphere shell intersections', J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 1965 (7) 367.
In the field of brittle fracture, F. M. BURDEKIN has published a report on
'Brittle fracture strengths of 3 in. thick mild steel plates containing nozzles',
Brit. Welding J. 1965 (12) 310 and, in collaboration with A. A. WELLS, a
report on 'Wide plate tests on a Mn-Cr-Mo-V steel' under various conditions
of heat treatment in Brit. Welding J. 1966 (13) 88. Two other papers of interest
are 'Electroslag welded wide plate tests on 3 in. thick mild steel' by C. C.
WOODLEY, F. M. BURDEKIN, and A. A. WELLS, Brit. Welding J. 1966 (13) 165
and 'Wide plate tests on two electroslag welded steels' by C. C. WooDLEY and
F. M. BURDEKIN, Brit. Welding J. 1966 (13) 387. A recent review on the
effect of welding on the brittle fracture problem has been published by C. F.
TIPPER, 'Material damage attributable to welding: a commentary', Brit.
Welding J. 1966 (13) 461.
The determination of the fracture toughness of various materials using the
rules laid down by the A.S.T.M. in Fracture Toughness Testing and its
applications (A.S.T.M., 1965) has recently been reported-see for example
C. M. CARMAN, D. F. ARMIENTO, and H. MARKUS, 'Plane strain fracture

toughness of high strength aluminium alloys', A.S.M.E. 64-WAJMet-11 and
D. F. MoWBRAY, A. J. BROTHERS, and S. YuKAWA 'Fracture toughness
determinations of A-302B and Ni-Mo-V steels with various size specimens',
A.S.M.E. 66-Met-1. In this paper, the crack opening displacement due to
A. A. Wells was discussed also. Of considerable fundamental interest are the
papers by A. A. WELLS 'Notched bar tests, fracture mechanics and the
brittle strength of welded structures', Brit. Welding J. 1965 (12) 2 and by
F. M. BURDEKIN and D. E. W. STONE, 'The crack opening displacement
approach to fracture mechanics in yielding materials', J. Strain Analysis,
1966 (1) 145.
The states of stress near cracks and the conditions for their propagation
have been studied, for instance, by C. T. YANG, 'A study of the law of crack
propagation', A.S.M.E. 64-WA/Met-6; G. C. SIH 'Stress distribution near
internal crack tips for longitudinal shear problems' A.S.M.E., 64/WA/APM-38
and by W. N. FINDLEY and D. C. DRUCKER, 'An experimental study of plane
plastic straining of notched bars', A.S.M.E. 65-APM-3.
Some creep data on American steels has been published by V. S. ROBINSON,
A. W. PENSE, and R. D. STOUT in 'The creep rupture properties of pressure
vessel steels', Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 1964 (43) 531s. and by J. J. DEBAR-
BADILLO, A. W. PENSE, and R. D. STOUT in 'The creep rupture properties of
pressure vessel steels.-Part II, Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 1966 (45) 357s.; while
M. F. DAY, W. M. CUMMINGS, and G. H. MILLS have studied the 'Effect of
stress relief on creep-resistance of carbon manganese steels', Brit. Welding J.
1965 (12) 531. A paper in Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 1965 (44) 347s, reports in
detail several 'High temperature tests on model pressure vessels' sponsored
by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee.
The question of how to predict the creep behaviour of materials from short-
term tests has been discussed by S. GoLDFEIN, 'Long term rupture strength of
alloys and plastics from tensile strength at elevated temperatures', A.S.M.E.
65-Met-12 and the effect ofload variations on the creep behaviour of Cr-Mo-
V steels by R. M. GoLDHOFF, 'Uniaxial creep-rupture behaviour of low-
alloy steel under variable loading conditions', A.S.M.E-64-WA/Met-4.
E. Z. STOWELL and R. K. GREGORY have described a creep experiment con-
ducted under combined tension and torsion in aluminium-alloy tubes in
'Steady-state biaxial creep', A.S.M.E. 64-WA/APM-19. The steady state
creep of shells has been investigated by A. C. MACKENZIE, 'On the equations
for steady state creep of thin shells', J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 1965 (7) 117; T. P.
BYRNE and A. C. MACKENZIE, 'Secondary creep of a cylindrical thin shell
subject to axisymmetricalloading' J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 1966 (8) 215.
S. S. MANSON has recently published two important contributions to the
study of fatigue and its relationship with other forms of failure. In these, he
NOTE ON RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 569
proposes a general method for the estimation of the fatigue life from tensile
data and a knowledge of the endurance limit. The first is 'Fatigue: a complex
subject-some simple approximations', Experimental Mech. 1965 (5) 193,
and the second 'Interfaces between fatigue, creep and fracture', Inter J.
Fracture Mechanics, 1966 (2) 327. Also of interest are T. D. SCHARTON and
S. H. CRANDALL. 'Fatigue failure under complex stress histories', A.S.M.E.
65-Met-3; A. J. BROTHERS and S. YUKAWA, 'Fatigue crack propagation in
low-alloy, heat-treated steels', A.S.M.E. 66-Met-2; G. R. HALFORD, 'The
energy required for fatigue', J. of Materials, 1966 (1) 3; G. H. RoWE, 'Corre-
lation of high-cycle fatigue strength with true stress-strain behaviour' J. of
Materials, 1966 (1) 689.
Some recent publications on high strain fatigue and incremental collapse
or cyclic growth are K. D. !VES, L. F. KOOISTRA, and J. T. TUCKER, 'Equibi-
axiallow-cycle fatigue properties of typical pressure-vessel steels', A.S.M.E.
65-Met-19; D. J. HARRIS and P. P. BENHAM, 'Effect of high-strain fatigue
cycles on the brittle-ductile transition of two mild steels', J. Mech. Eng. Sci.,
1965 (7) 93; P. P. BENHAM, 'Some observations of cyclic strain-induced creep
in mild steel at room temperature', Int. J. Mech. Sci. 1965 (7) 81; T. YoKo-
BORI, H. Y AMANOUCHI, and S. YAMAMOTO, 'Low cycle fatigue of thin-walled
hollow cylindrical specimens of mild steel in uni-axial and torsional tests at
constant strain amplitude', Int. J. Fracture Mech. 1965 (1) 3; B. R. GAIN and
G. M. SINCLAIR, 'Effect of temperature on cyclic creep', A.S.M.E. 66-Met-7.
D. S. WooD has published some work on 'The effect of creep on the high
strain fatigue behaviour of a pressure vessel steel', Welding J. (Res. Supp.)
1966 {45) 90s. and R. A. DE PAUL, A. W. PENSE, and R. D. STOUT on 'The
elevated temperature fatigue properties of pressure vessel steels'. Welding J.
(Res. Supp.) 1965 (44) 409s.
Fatigue tests on pressure vessel components of various types have been
reported by T. J. ATTERBURY, G. M. MCLURE, and E. C. RODABAUGH,
'Fatigue of welded branch connections subjected to cyclic bending loads',
A.S.M.E. 64-Pet-38; B. M. HANNON, 'Correlation of fatigue tests of thick wall
cylinders subjected to repeated internal pressure', A.S.M.E. 64-W A/Met-7
and B. CROSSLAND and B. A. AUSTIN, 'Low endurance fatigue of thick-
walled cylinders: development of a test machine and preliminary results',
Proc. I. Mech. E. 1965-66, (180) Pt. 1, 44.
Index
ACTIVATION ENERGY, 485 Beer, F. J., 427

A. D. Merkbliitter, 13, 14, 51, 55-59, 64, Bending moments on, cylinders, 119, 152,
320, 327, 335, 508, 520-524 161
Adenis, D., 472 spheres, 218, 220
Allen, N. P., 485, 486 Berggren, R. G., 371
Aluminium alloys, 40-42 Berman, J., 328, 374
application, 40, 41 Bert, C. W., 333
B.S. specifications, 41, 42 Bilodeau, G. G., 327
mechanical properties, 42 Blanchard, P., 472
physical properties, 42 Body force equations, cartesian, 84
Amer. Soc. Metals, 484 cylindrical, 117
Amer. Soc. Testing Matis., 475, 511 shell of revolution, 244
Amer. Welding Soc., 20, 40, 41, 68, 76, 78 spherical, 116
A.N.C.C., 14, 49, 52 Boiler quality steel, 24
Anderson, D., 507 Bolt design, 559
Annular plates, elastic foundation, 280 material, 22, 31-33
Argon, A., 364 stress concentration factor, 437
A.S.A.-B31 Code, 15, 16, 49, 54, 74, 530 Bolted connections, 60-63, 556-563
A.S.M.E. Codes, 13, 15, 16, 54-58, 61-65, creep of, 560-563
19, 318, 319, 437, 445, 446, 475, 476, high pressure, 558
510, 524, 525, 556-560 Boltzman constant, 485
Atterbury, T. J., 328, 333 Boon, G. B., 548
Axial load on, cylinders, 127 Box-type heat exchanger, 548-549
cones, 287, 296 Boyd, G., 29-31, 63
ellipsoids, 300 Boyd, G. M., 365, 368, 447
plates, 272 Bracket support, 5
shells of revolution, 249, 261 Brass, 43-44
spheres, 182 Bressler, M. N., 39
toroids, 307 Bridgman closure, 558
Axisymmetric loading (general) on, Brister, P. M., 39
cylinders, 143 Brittle fracture, 364, 447--478
plates, 277 Brit. Welding Res. Assoc., 59, 60, 452, 454,
shells of revolution, 264, 266, 268 462, 471
spheres, 211 Bronze, 43, 44
Brooks, E. A., 327, 337
BABECKI, A. J., 447 Brown, N. F., 513
Bagser test, 461 Brozzo, P., 489
Bailey, R. W., 497, 507, 560 Bruckner test, 461
Baker, B. H., 82 B.S. Codes, 15, 16, 52, 55, 57, 58, 63, 65,
Band reinforced cylindrical vessels, 411- 476, 548
417, 419 Buckling pressure of cylindrical vessels,
Bantlin, A., 530 516-518
Beattie, J. M., 544 of spherical vessels, 526-527
Becker, S. J., 399 Burdekin, F. M., 476, 477
571
572 INDEX
Bursting discs, 16, 17 Crack arrest temperature, 474, 475

Bursting pressure, see 'Collapse load' Crack extension force, 455
Crack propagation in plates, 365-368
CALLADINE, c. R., 507 Creep, 479-515
Carlson, W. B., 337, 556 Creep curves, 479-484
Caustic embrittlement, 370 damage factor, 493-494
Charpy keyhole test, 458, 461 effect of cyclic loading, 510, 511
Charpy V-notch test, 19, 458, 460-464, extrapolation, 485-490
467-469, 472 of Cr-Mo steel, 481, 483
Chevrons, 366-368 of mild steel, 482, 483
Chipman, R. D., 336 recovery, 491-493
Chromium steels, 35-39 strain hardening, 493
Clad steel, 39-40 stress-strain relations, 495-497
cladding by welding, 39 time hardening, 493
inspection, 40 Creep design stresses, 507-510
Clarke, J. S., 55 Code rules, 508, 509
Closure plates, 57, 318-320 Creep of piping systems, 506
stress concentration factors, 319, 320 of shells of revolution, 507
Cloud, R. L., 340 of thin cylindrical vessels under internal
C0 2 process, 80, see also 'gas shielded pressure and axial loading, 501-503
processes' of thin cylindrical vessels under internal
Coffin, L. F., 431, 437-440, 511 pressure and bending, 504, 505
Collapse load, 382 of thin cylindrical vessels under internal
approximate formulae for cylinders, 395 pressure and torsion, 505-506
effect of anisotropy, 394, 395 of thick-walled vessels, 497-500
effect of strain hardening, 389-394 Crussard, C., 447, 494
of a circular plate, 408-411
of thick-walled cylindrical shell, 388 DALLY, J. W., 324, 328
of thick-walled spherical shell, 388 Davidenkov test, 461
of thin shells and plates, 418-419 Davis, E. A., 556
of thin-walled cylindrical shell, 388 Dechaene, R., 333
of thin-walled spherical shell, 387 Deflexion efficiency factor, 546
'Coltuf 28', 27 De Leiris, H., 447
Compact rim reinforcements, 332, 333 Delta gasket, 558
Complementary strain energy, 507 Design, method, 1
Compound cylindrical vessels, 395-399 Codes, 13-16, 48, 51-54
Conical heads and reducers, 57, 92, 290, conditions, 49
320-322 stresses, 49, 51-54, 375-381, 507-510
applications, 320, 322 Dinno, K. S., 337
Code rules, 57, 322 Dished (or Domed) ends, 57, 324--327
stress concentration factors, 321 under external pressure, 526-527
Connolly, B. J., 29-31 Dislocation theory, 449
Constant load supports, 9, 10 Donnell's equation, 171
Contoured openings, 333, 337 Dorn, J. E., 480, 485, 486, 489, 494
Copleston, F. W., 75 Double cone joint, 558
Copper, 42-44 Downey, St. C., 560
B.S. specifications, 43 Draper, J. H. M., 560
mechanical properties, 43, 44 Drucker, D. C., 404, 405, 408, 467, 473,
physical properties, 43 507
Corrosion, 369-371 Dubois, L., 556
fatigue, 371 'Ducol W 30', 34
wastage, 369 Ductility transition, 462
Cottrell, A. H., 480 Duncan, J. P., 320, 546, 548, 556
Coults, J. A., 336 Durelli, A. J., 328
Couture, J., 447 Duty, 12, 13
Cox, H. L., 517 Dye penetrant testing, 68
INDEX 573
EDGE BENDING FUNCTIONS, cylinders, 132, Flexibility factor, 535-537

158 Flexibility matrix, cylinders, 140, 159
cones, 289 pipes, 348
ellipsoids, 302 plates, 275
plates, 272 shells of revolution, 255, 260
shells of revolution, 257, 258 spheres, 192, 196, 201, 202, 228
spheres, 190, 191, 199, 200, 223, 226 Floating-head heat exchanger, 549
toroids, 311 Florin, B., 334
Edge bending stresses in a semi-infinite Flow rule, 384
shell, cylinders, 137, 159 Fliigge, W., 517
shells of revolution, 261 Ford, H., 530, 534, 543
spheres, 195, 230 Foreman, J. J., 374
Edge loading, axisymmetric, 97 Forray, M., 320
lateral, 108 Forrest, P. G., 421
Edmondson, A. J., 333 Fracture, 364-369
Edmunds, H. G., 427 toughness, 455
Effective stress concentration, 435 transition, 462
Eichinger, R., 560 Free length, vessels under external pressure,
Elastic-plastic material, 383, 384 520
Elastic shakedown, 372, 373, 428 Functional requirements, 3-10
Electroslag welding, 66, 67
Elliott, E., 41 GADD, B. W., 336
Ellipsoidal cavities, stress concentration Galletly, G. D., 57, 447
factor, 436 Gardner, K. A., 548
Ellipsoidal heads, see 'Dished (or Domed) Gas-shielded processes, 67
ends' Gaskets, 62, 556, 557
Emmerson, W. C., 544 Gemmil, M. G., 39
Environment, 11 George, H. H., 536, 541
Equivalent stress range, 441 Gerberich, W. W., 433
Erosion, 369 Gill, S. S., 337, 397
ESSO test, 461 Glen, J., 483, 489, 490, 510
Etherington, H., 371 Goldhoff, R. M., 489
Evans, U. R., 370 Goodman diagram, 434
Exhaustion of ductility, 453 Gorczynski, W., 506
Expanded tube joints, 555 Graham, A., 489
External loading, 11 Green, A. E., 544
Greenberg, H. J., 408
FABRICATION, 66, 67 Greene, T. W., 452
Failure, modes of, 1, 363, 364 Griffith, A. A., 454
Fatigue, 421-446 Griffith's theory of crack propagation,
effect of mean strain, 432-434 454-457
effect of non-uniformity of the material, Gross, N., 530, 534, 538, 543
439
effect of speed of cycling, 439, 440 HAFERD, A. M., 487
effect of temperature, 438, 439 Hahn, G. T., 450
of l Mo steel, 432 Hair-pin heat exchanger, 545, 550
of 347 Type stainless steel, mild steel and Hamilton, I. G., 66, 67
Cr-Mo steel, 431 Handenbergh, D. E., 333
Fatigue life-strain range equation, 433 Hanger supports, 4
Fessler, H., 324, 327, 374 Harlow, J. H., 39
Finite difference methods, 120, 147, 178, Harries, D. R., 371
245,268 Harris, H., 66, 78, 447
Finnie, I., 480, 484 Harvey, J., 556
Flanges, see 'Bolted connections' 'Hastelloy', 45
Flared (or Flued) openings, 337 Heads, Code rules, 57
Flexibility characteristic, 134 ellipsoidal, 304
574 INDEX
Heads, Code rules (cont.) KARMAN,T. VON,56,526

flat, 279 Kaufman, J. G., 41
part-spherical, 206, 233 Kellogg, 49
see also under each type Kenny, B., 320
Heath, D. J., 33 Kerkhof, W. P., 63, 377
Hebrant, F., 333, 477 Khan, B., 493, 497, 500
Heirman, J., 333 Killed steel, 22
Heller, W. R., 480, 484, 494 Kinetically admissible system, 408, 411,
Hemispherical heads, 57, 323, 324 413
Code rules, 57 Kinzel test, 459, 461, 472
stress concentrations, 324 Kitching, R., 545
Hemispherical heads under external pres- Kochendorfer, A., 466
sure, 526, 527 Koenigsberger, F., 69, 78
Henderson, J., 493, 497, 500 Krageloh, E., 63
Hepner, I. L., 20 Kraus, H., 327
Hetenyi, M., 366, 368, 374 Krisch, A., 483, 494
Heywood, R. B., 421 Kuntze tension test, 461
Hicks, R., 334
Higginson, G. R., 417 LAKE, G. F., 63
High alloy steels, 35-39 Lakin, R. W., 397
High strain fatigue, 421-423, 430-446 Lakshminaraya, 324
High strength steels, 33-35 Lambie, J. H., 68
Hill, R., 386 Lame equations, 56
Hinge circles (or joints), 375, 376, 413 Lancaster, J. F., 55
Hirschberg, M. H., 507 Lane, P. H. R., 333, 442, 545
Hodge, P. G., 337, 406, 417 Lang, H. A., 320, 322, 324
Hoff, N. J., 506 Langer, B. F., 327, 437, 445, 546, 554
Hoffman, 0., 386, 388 Larson, F. R., 487
Holland, M., 544 Larson-Miller parameter, 487-489
Holliday, W. C., 75, 76 Latorre, J. V., 433
Holt, M., 41, 521, 523 Lawton, C. W., 374
Hooke's law, 499 Leak test, 18
Hopkins, H. G., 417 Leckie, F. A., 330
Horvay, G., 546 Length characteristics, 137
Hounsfield test, 461 Lens ring gasket, 558
Hydraulic loading on, cylinders, 129, 141, Limit analysis, application to design, 407
156, 160 application to openings, 337, 338
shells of revolution, 249, 264, 266, 268 Limit of uniform strain, 444
spheres, 186, 205, 212, 221, 232 Limitations of elastic method, 374
Hysteresis loop, 421 Limited interaction yield conditions, 405,
IMPERATI, J., 42 406
'Inconel', 45 Lind, N. C., 329, 337
Incremental collapse, 423-429 Linear creep damage, 509
Influence line technique, 93 Linear fatigue damage, 434, 435
Inglis, C. E., 334 Lobster-back bends, 529, 544, 545
Inspection, 39, 40, 67-69, 470, 471 Longitudinal cracks, stress concentration
Inter. Inst. Welding, 72-74, 484 factors, 436
Irwin, G. R., 455-457, 475 Louis, H., 477
Izod test, 458, 461 Low alloy steel, 27-35, 431, 432, 481, 483
Creep, 481, 483
JOHNSON, A. E., 493, 497, 500 Cr-Mo, 29-33, 431
Johnson, H. H., 460, 478 mechanical properties, 28-35
Joint efficiency factor, 55 physical properties, 28
Jones, N., 545 !Mo steel, 29, 432
Jones, T. E. M., 447 Ludley & Drucker, see 'Reversed bend
Jordan, D. E., 33 test'
INDEX 575
Ludvik tension test, 461 Nil-ductility temperature, 474, 475, see also
Lyman, T., 20, 27, 38, 45 'Pellini'
'Nimonic', 46
MACFARLANE, D. S., 545 Northrup, M. S., 55
Mackenzie, A. C., 544 Notch sensitivity factor, 435
Mackenzie, I. M., 27, 34 Notch-tough steel, 25-27
Magnetic crack detection, 68 Notch-type stress raisers, stress concentra-
Mahlmeister, I. E., 336 tion factor, 435-438
Mahoney, J. B., 546 Nozzles, see 'Openings'
Manson, Haferd parameter, 487-489 in spherical shells, 209, 237
Manson, S. S., 487, 507 stress concentration factor in oblique
Mantell, C. L., 20, 38 nozzles, 333-335
Manufacturing tolerances, 64--66, 518-523 stress concentration factor in radial
Marin, J., 395, 484, 490-493, 502, 506, 560 nozzles, 330-333
Markl, A. R. C., 442 typical designs, 329
Marshall, J.D., 447 welded nozzles, 78, 80, 211
Martin, D. E., 422
Materials, selection, 19-47 O'DONNELL, w. J., 546, 554
mechanical properties, 19, 20 Onat E. T., 403, 417, 507
Matrices, rules for operation on, 96 Openings, design of reinforcement, 57-60,
McClintock, F. A., 364 78-80, 329-338
McKean, J. D., 337 balanced reinforcement, 330
McWilliam, J. A., 74, 75 Code rules, 57-60
Membrane solution, definition of, 89 comparison of design rules, 59, 60
Mendelsohn, A., 507 fatigue design, 59, 60, 337
Mershon, J. L., 329, 334, 335, 337 limit analysis design, 337, 338
Michel, R., 23, 37 rim reinforcement, 332, 333
Mig process, 76, 78 welded pads, 332
Mild steel, 22-27, 431, 482, 483 Operating pressure, 11
corrosion resistance, 27 Orowan, E., 450, 455, 482
creep, 482, 483 Orr, R. L., 485, 486
fatigue, 431 Ovality, out-of-roundness, see 'Manufac-
mechanical properties, 24-26 turing tolerances'
physical properties, 23 Owen, B. S., 544
Miller, D. R., 421
Miller, J., 487 PAI, D. H., 328, 374
Miller, K. A. G., 63, 548, 550 Parameters, variation of, 261
Mills, E. J., 502 Pardue, T. E., 530, 535, 544
Miner, M. A., 434 Paris, P. C., 475
Miner's criterion, 434, 435, 509 Parker, E. C., 448
Mitred bends, see 'lobster-back bends' Pellini, W. S., 447, 458, 461-464, 468, 469,
Mohr circle, 552 474, 475, 478
'Monel', 45 Penny, R. K., 330, 507
Moore, G. G., 320 Peterson, R. E., 421, 435
Morgan, L. H., 75 Pipe bends, 63, 529-545
Multiple openings, 335-337 Pipe supports, 9, 10
Munse, W. H., 438 Pipelines, failure of, 447
Murray, R. K., 507 Plastic constraint, 451
Murry, G., 489 Plastifying power, 464
Mylonas, C., 453 454, 462 Point loads on spheres, 202, 231
Prager, W., 403, 408, 417
NADAl, A., 555 Pratt, C. W., 556
Navy tear test, 459, 462 Pressure test, 17
Neutron irradiation, 371 Proctor, E., 336
Nichols, R. W., 26 Proof tests, 18
Nickel, 44-46 Puzak,447,478
576 INDEX
RABOTNOV, Y. M., 489, 493 Sih, G. C. M., 475

Radii of curvature, 243 Size of vessels, 3, 4
Radiographic inspection, 68 Skirt supports, 6, 7, 144, 207, 235
Ratchetting, see 'Incremental collapse' Sling supports, 4
'Refractaloy', 46 Smith, A. A., 67
Residual stresses, 471, 472 Smithells, C. J., 20, 45
Reversed bend test, 459, 462, 472, 473 Smooth bends, 529, 535-544
Rigid-plastic material, 383, 384, 421, 422 compressive stress, 541
Rimmed steel, 22, 467 effect of end restraints, 543
Rimrott, F. P. J., 502 flexibility factor, 535-537
Robertson, J. M., 26 stress concentration factor, 536-541
Robertson test, 35, see also, Snell, C., 336
Robertson, T. W., 459, 462, 463, 467, 469, S.O.D. test, 461
474,475 Soete, W., 333, 337, 452, 453, 461
Robinson, E. L., 506, 560 Spherical cavities, stress concentration
Rockey, K. C., 454 factor, 437
Rodabaugh, E. C., 328, 536, 541 Stability, dimensional, 516
Roe, W. L., 74, 75, 545 Statically admissible system, 408, 410, 411,
Rose, R. T., 324, 327, 329, 333, 334, 442 413
Runge Kutta integration, 266 Steady creep, 491-493, 498, 501-506
Rupture test, 484 Steel, 21-40, see also under each type
A.S.M.E. specifications, 24, 25, 28, 34-37
SACHS, G., 386, 388, 433, 461 B.S. specifications, 21-29, 33, 35-38
Saddle support, 4 Stephenson, N., 76
Safety devices, 16 Stiffening rings, 524, 525
Safety factor, 375, 376, 378 Stilts, supports, 8
St. Venant's equations, 384, 496 Storage tanks, failure of, 447
Salerno, V. L., 546 Strain, definition of, 86
Sampson, R. C., 546, 554 vector, 384
Sankaranarayan, R., 417 Stress, concentration factors, 236
Santilhano, P. D., 66 corrosion, 370, 371
Schoessow, G. J., 327, 337 definition of, 84
Scholl, H., 466 distribution at shell edge, 103
Schnadt, H. M., 458, 461, 464, 472 field parameter, 455
Schneider, G. T., 324 in a horizontal tank, 163
Schumann, W., 417 relaxation, 484, 495, 510
Schuster, M. E., 475 resultant relations, 126
Schweiker, J. W., 329 Stress relieving, 78-81
Semi-killed steel, 22, 467 localized, 81
Sessler, J. G., 431 temperature, 80
Shank, M. E., 447 Stress-strain relations, cartesian, 86
Shannon, W. B., 556 cylindrical, 117
Shape of vessels, 4, 5 shells of revolution, 244
Shear force on, cylinders, 152, 161 spherical, 176
spheres, 218, 219 Stresses, pressure in, cylinders, 119, 129,
Shear fracture, 365 142, 160
Shell thickness, nominal, under internal cones, 287, 297
pressure, 55, 58 ellipsoids, 300
under external pressure, 57 plates, 277
Sherby, 0. D., 458, 486 shells of revolution, 250
Shield, R. T., 404 spheres, 178, 184, 205
Shot peening, 371 toroids, 308
Siebel, E., 58, 63, 374 Stresses, thermal in, cylinders, 119, 143,
Significant strain, 386 168
Significant strain rate, 496, 498 cones, 291
Significant stress, 386, 496, 498 plates, 274
INDEX 577
Stresses (cont.) VAN DER VEEN TEST, 459, 461 463

shells of revolution, 264, 266, 268 Vigness, 1., 535, 541, 544 '
spheres, 178, 212, 215 Vinckier, A., 477
Stresses, weight in, cylinders, 130, 141 155 Von Mises', buckling equation, 517
160 ' ' yield criterion, 385, 386, 390--394 496
shells of revolution, 249, 264 266 543 ' ,
268 ' '
spheres, 185, 205, 212, 220, 232 WAHL, A. M., 513
Stresses, wind in, cylinders, 156, 260 Wakefield, B. A., 466, 471, 477
spheres, 221, 234 Walles, K. F., 489
Superposition method, 491-493 Walsh, R. A., 548
Wanderer, E. T., 41
TANK-QUALITY STEEL, 24
Waters, E. 0., 61, 333
Tapered joints, 327, 328 Watts, G. W., 320, 322, 324
Tavernelli, J. F., 431, 511 Weakening factor, 58
Taylor, C. E., 329 Weaver, V. P., 42
Taylor, T. E., 320 Webb, T. B., 66, 556
T.E.M.A., 15,63 Week, R., 448, 452, 454
Thompson, J. M., 329, 517 Weiss, V., 431, 433
Thorneycroft, D. R., 76 Welded joints, 69-78
Threaded members, stress concentration circumferential joints in pipes 74 75
for nickel alloys, 76 ' '
factors, 437
Thrust line, 343 for steel, 69-75
T.I.G. process, 76 head-to-shell connections, 76, 77
Timoshenko, S., 318, 517 plates of unequal thickness 76 77
thick plates, 75 ' '
Tipper, C. F., 365, 448, 462, 467
Tolerances, see 'Manufacturing tolerances' Welded nozzles, 78-80
Torispherical heads, see 'Dished (or Welding processes, 66--69
Domed) ends' Wells, A. A., 333, 447, 452-456 466 471
476 , , '
Toughness tests, 457-462
correlation, 462-469 Wesstrom, D. G., 61
Townley, C. H. A., 336 Westergaard, H. M., 455
Transient conditions, 11, 12 Wide plate tests, 452, 453, 459 462
Transition, regions, 479, 480 Williams, F. S. G., 61 '
range, 448 Windenburg, D. F., 517-519
temperature, 448, 457-462 Winn, L., 58, 333
Tresca's yield criterion and yield condition Woinowsky-Krieger, S., 318
(shells), 385, 386, 390, 398, 401, 404, Wood, D. S., 507
406, 410, 414, 440, 441, 497 Woodley, C. C., 476
Trilling, C., 517-519 Working stresses, 375-381
Truman, R. J., 74, 75 Worm holes, stress concentration factor,
Tsien, H. S., 56, 526 437
Tube plates, 63, 284, 545-555 Wundt, B. M., 466
Code rules, 63 Wyatt, L. M., 39
defiexion efficiency, 546 YAo, J. T. P., 438
effective elastic constants, 547 Yield conditions, for shells, 399-406
effective flexural rigidity, 546, 547 maximum shear criterion for shells 399-
effective pressure difference, 550 404; for sandwich type shells, 4o4
stress distribution, 548-554 simplified conditions, 404--406
stress limits, 555 Yield criteria, 382-386
Tube-to-plate connections, 554--556 Yield loci, 383
Tu-Lung Weng, 395 surface, 399
T.U.V., 17 Yiiksel, H., 507
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION, 69 ZAJD, M., 320
Unrestrained state, definition of, 90 Zamrick, S. Y., 333
578
To the reader
The authors and publisher would welcome suggestions towards future editions of this
book, or the pointing out of any misprint or obscurity. Please write to the Technical
Editor, Macmillan and Co. Ltd., Little Essex Street, W.C.2.

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Pressure Vessel Design and Analysis

MACMILLAN AND COMPANY LIMITED

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LIMITED

ST. MARTIN'S PRESS INC

First Published 1967

9n X 6n, 592 pages

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-20870

ISBN 978-1-349-00131-6 ISBN 978-1-349-00129-3 (eBook)

6 Spherical Shells 174

7 General Shells of Revolution 241

8 Application of the General Analysis to the More Usual Vessel

9 Stress Analysis of Piping Systems 341

10 Adequacy of the Design: General Considerations 363

11 Plastic Collapse 382

12 Fatigue and Incremental Collapse 421

13 Low Stress Brittle Fracture 447

The traditional method for the design of pressure vessels is characterized

We believe there are significant advantages in developing the theory of shells

Most of the information contained in this book was collected or developed

M Bending moment, resultant bending moment

P RESSURE vessels and piping systems, as components of a complete plant,

FIG. 1·1 Design procedure

1·1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

The functional requirements cover the geometrical design parameters, such

1+ 1 Size and Shape

At present, it is within the scope of leading manufacturers to fabricate

Units as large as 12 ft in diameter and 20-30 ft long may be shipped by rail

FrG. 1·2 Saddle supports

FIG. 1·3 Sling supports

FIG. 1·4 Hanger supports

FIG. 1·5 Bracket supports

1·1·3 Method of Support

various connections and on the arrangement of the internal and external

FIG. 1·6 Typical skirt support

FIG. 1·7 Skirt supports: cylindrical vessels

molybdenum compound, are used when it is necessary to provide better

FIG. 1·8 Spherical tank supported on stilts

FIG. 1·10 Pipe supports

1·1·4 Location of Attachments and Penetrations

The penetrations in pressure vessels may be isolated or they may be grouped

FIG. 1·12 Constant load supports

1·2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND LIMITATIONS

1·2·1 Maintained Loading

1·2·2 Transient Conditions

deformations to jeopardize any further operation or they may even cause

1·2·3 Severity of Duty

1·3 PRINCIPAL DESIGN CODES

Australia Standards Association B., Standards Association Yes

TABLE 1-1 (continue([)

Switzerland Regulations of the B., Yes

Britain Lloyd's Rules B., Lloyd's Register No

U.S.A. A.S.M.E. Codes: B., American Society of Yes (in

1·3·1 Safety Devices

The capacity for any gas is then

1·3·2 Pressure Testing

provide complete assurance against the possibility of failure. The correct

(4) Ageing and embrittlement under operating conditions.

The materials generally used in pressure vessel construction may be

B.S. 1633 Land boilers

2·1·1 Carbon Steel

quently added as a grain refiner, to improve the notch toughness of the

Specific weight, 0·29 lb/in 3

Modulus of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion