Cell membrane

Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (​Plasma​) membrane. The cell membrane separates
the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the cell, intracellular. It
maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. All
materials within a cell must have access to the cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for the
needed exchange.

The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. ​Proteins​ in the cell membrane
provide structural support, form channels for passage of materials, act as receptor sites,
function as carrier molecules, and provide identification markers.

Plasma membrane​- The membrane enclosing a cell is made up of two lipid

layers called a "bilipid" membrane. The lipids that are present in the plasma membrane
are called "phospholipids."

These lipid layers are made up of a number of fatty acid building blocks. The fatty
acid that makes up this membrane has two different parts to it- a small water loving
head- hydrophilic head. Hydro stands for water and philic means liking or loving. The
other part of this fatty acid is a long water-repelling or water hating tail.

This tail is hydrophobic- Hydro stands for water and phobic means fear. The plasma
membrane is arranged in such a way so that the tails face each other on the inside and the
heads face towards the outside of the membrane.

Lipids are naturally occurring organic compounds, commonly known as oils and fats.
Lipids contribute to cell structure, provide stored fuel and also take part in the cell’s biological
processes.

Channels/pores​- A channel in the cell's plasma membrane. This

channel is made up of certain proteins that control the movement of
molecules, including food and water, into the cell.

Nucleus and Nucleolus

The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of
the cell. Threads of ​chromatin​ in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic
material of the cell. The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and
is the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as
the basic structure of that cell.
 Nucleus-​ The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is the largest organelle in
the cell and it contains the DNA of the cell.

DNA and Nucleolus

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)​ contains all the information for cells to live,
perform their functions and reproduce.

Inside the nucleus is another organelle called the nucleolus. The nucleolus is
responsible for making ribosomes.

The circles on the surface of the nucleus are the nuclear pores. These are where
ribosomes, and other materials move in and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reaction. It
provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions
for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the
cytoplasm, materials move by diffusion, a physical process that can work only for short
distances.

Cytoplasmic organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell. Each
type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in the function of the cell. Examples
of cytoplasmic organelles are ​mitochondrion​, ​ribosomes​, ​endoplasmic reticulum​, ​golgi
apparatus​, and ​lysosomes​.

Mitochondrion
Any of various round or long cellular organelles of most eukaryotes that are found outside the nucleus,
produce energy for the cell through cellular respiration, and are rich in fats, proteins, and enzymes.

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells
of organisms to convert ​biochemical energy*​ from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and
then release waste products.

(*​biomolecules made mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The end products are
carbon dioxide, water, and energy.)
MITOCHONDRION

This is the cell’s powerhouse. This organelle packages the energy from the food you eat into ATP (adenosine
triposphate) molecules.
Every type of cell has a different amount of mitochondria (plural). There are more mitochondria in cells that
have to perform lots of work, for example- your leg muscle cells, heart muscle cells etc. Other cells need less
energy to do their work and have less mitochondria.

Ribosome
Any of the RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.
Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, but most are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. While
attached to the ER, ribosomes make proteins that the cell needs and also ones to be exported from the cell
for work elsewhere in the body.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
A system of interconnected vesicular and lamellar cytoplasmic membranes that functions especially in the
transport of materials within the cell and that is studded with ribosomes in some places.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- It is a network of membranes throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. There are
two types of ER.

When ribosomes are attached it is called rough ER and smooth ER when there are no ribosomes attached.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is where most protein synthesis occurs in the cell. The function of the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum is to synthesize lipids in the cell. The smooth ER also helps in the
detoxification of harmful substances in the cell.

Golgi Apparatus
A cytoplasmic organelle that consists of a stack of smooth membranous saccules and associated vesicles
and that is active in the modification and transport of proteins
It is the organelle in the cell that is responsible for sorting and correctly shipping the proteins
produced in the ER.

Lysosome
A saclike cellular organelle that contains various hydrolytic enzymes.
Chloroplast- This is the organelle in which photosynthesis takes place. In this organelle the light energy of the
sun is converted into chemical energy.
Chloroplasts​ are found only in plant cells not animal cells. The chemical energy that is produced by
chloroplasts is finally used to make carbohydrates like starch that get stored in the plant.
Chloroplasts contain tiny pigments called chlorophylls. Chlorophylls are responsible for trapping the light
energy from the sun.

Vesicles-​ This term literally means "small vessel". This organelle helps store and transport products
produced by the cell.
The vesicles are the transport and delivery vehicles like our mail and Federal Express trucks. Some vesicles
deliver materials to parts of the cell and others transport materials outside the cell in a process called
exocytosis.

Vacuole​- Plant cells have what looks like a very large empty space in the middle. This space is called the
vacuole.
Don't be fooled, the vacuole contains large amounts of water and stores other important materials such as
sugars, ions and pigments.

Cytoplasm-​ A term for all the contents of a cell other than the nucleus. Even though the cartoon drawings do
not look like it, the cytoplasm contains mostly water.
Some fun facts about water and the human body:
Adult bodies are about 50 to 65 percent water.
A child’s body has a little more water at 75 percent.
The human brain is about 75 percent water.

Cell wall and Plasmodesmata​- In addition to cell membranes, plants have cell walls. Cell walls provide
protection and support for plants. In land plants, the cell wall is mostly made of cellulose.
Unlike cell membranes, materials cannot get through cell walls. This would be a problem for plant cells if not
for special openings called plasmodesmata.
These openings are used to communicate and transport materials between plant cells because the cell
membranes are able to touch and therefore exchange needed materials.

Peroxisomes- These collect and safely break down chemicals that are toxic to the cell.
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centrioles
Centrioles- These are found only in animal cells and come into action when the cells divide, helping with the
organization of chromosomes.
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lysosomes
Lysosomes- Created by the Golgi apparatus, these help break down large molecules into smaller pieces that
the cell can use.
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cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton- Made up of filaments and tubules, it helps shape and support the cell. It also helps things move
around in the cell. For artistic purposes, the cytoskeleton is shown in just one place when in reality it is found
throughout the entire cell.
 ● Centrosomes​ and ​lysosomes​ are found in animal ​cells​, but do not exist within
plant cells.
● The lysosomes are the animal cell's "garbage disposal", while in plant cells the
same function takes place in ​vacuoles​.
● Plant cells have a cell wall, ​chloroplasts​ and other specialized ​plastids​, and a
large central vacuole, which are not found within animal cells.
● The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural
support, and gives shape to the cell.
● The chloroplasts, found in plant cells, contain a green pigment called
chlorophyll​, which captures the light ​energy​ that drives the ​reactions​ of plant
photosynthesis​.
● The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating a plant cell's concentration of
water in changing environmental conditions.

.The prokaryotic cell

Cells with genetic material and cell chemicals all enclosed within a cell wall, and having no defined organelles
or nucleus, are called prokaryotes. Organisms in this group are small in size and are mainly bacteria.

Ribosomes in these small cells are also small and ‘free floating’.

DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the form of a circular strand and not as a chromosome. Sometimes small rings
of DNA called plasmids are present but none of the DNA is supported on histone protein.

Extracellular matrix material is not associated with these cells.

Prokaryotic cells have a fairly rigid cell wall but this is not made of cellulose as it is in plants.
The eukaryotic Cell
This type of cell is found in all higher animal and plant cells and contains membrane bound organelles and a
well defined nucleus. The cell contents contained within the outermost membrane in this type of cell are
divided into two main parts, the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nucleus contains the genetic material and the
operating instructions. The cytoplasm contains the ‘machinery’ to carry out the instructions to communicate
and make products. This is carried out by organelles.

About 20 organelles are known but they are not divided evenly across, for example, the 200 specialist cells
found in humans. For details of cell organelles, click on ‘cells unpacked’.

Specialist cells nearly always depend on the exaggeration of a property common to all cells to create their
own specialist role.
Cells in eukaryotes are generally larger than those found in prokaryotes and their ribosomes, many of which
are membrane bound on the endoplasmic reticulum, are also larger.

DNA in the nucleus is in linear form, is supported on histone protein and is in the form of chromosomes.

Extracellular matrix covers the plasma membrane in most eukaryotic cells to some degree. In plants this
takes the form of a cell wall made mainly of cellulose and which can be hard and rigid or soft and flexible.
Animal cells do not have a cell wall. The boundary of the cell is the plasma membrane. Extracellular matrix
and cell adhesion molecules are often attached to the outer side of this.
There are four main structures shared by all prokaryotic cells, bacterial or archaean:

The plasma membrane

Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Genetic material (DNA and RNA)
Some prokaryotic cells also have other structures like the cell wall, pili (singular "pillus"), and flagella (singular
"flagellum"). Each of these structures and cellular components plays a critical role in the growth, survival, and
reproduction of prokaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic Plasma Membrane

Prokaryotic cells can have multiple plasma membranes. Prokaryotes known as "gram-negative bacteria," for
example, often have two plasma membranes with a space between them known as the periplasm. As in all
cells, the plasma membrane in prokaryotic cells is responsible for controlling what gets into and out of the
cell.

A series of proteins stuck in the membrane (poor fellas) also aids prokaryotic cells in communicating with the
surrounding environment. Among other things, this communication can include sending and receiving
chemical signals from other bacteria and interacting with the cells of eukaryotic organisms during the process
of infection. Infection, by the way, is the kind of thing that you don't want prokaryotes doing to you.

Keep in mind that the plasma membrane is universal to all cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Because this
cellular component is so important and so common, it is addressed in great detail in its own In Depth
subsection.
Prokaryotic Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells is a gel-like, yet fluid, substance in which all of the other cellular
components are suspended. Think Jell-O for cells. It is very similar to the eukaryotic cytoplasm, except that it
does not contain organelles.

Recently, biologists have discovered that prokaryotic cells have a complex and functional cytoskeleton similar
to that seen in eukaryotic cells2. The cytoskeleton helps a prokaryotic cell to divide and to maintain its plump,
round shape. As is the case in eukaryotic cells, the cytoskeleton is the framework along which particles in the
cell—including proteins, ribosomes, and small rings of DNA called plasmids—move around. It's the cell's
"highway system" suspended in Jell-O.
Prokaryotic Ribosomes

Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller and have a slightly different shape and composition than those found in
eukaryotic cells. Bacterial ribosomes, for instance, have about half of the amount of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
and one-third fewer ribosomal proteins (53 vs. ~83) than eukaryotic ribosomes have3. Despite these
differences, the function of the prokaryotic ribosome is virtually identical to the eukaryotic version. Just like in
eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic ribosomes build proteins by translating messages sent from DNA.
Prokaryotic Genetic Material

All prokaryotic cells contain large quantities of genetic material in the form of DNA and RNA. Because
prokaryotic cells, by definition, do not have a nucleus, a single large circular strand of DNA containing most of
the genes needed for cell growth, survival, and reproduction is found in the cytoplasm.

This chromosomal DNA tends to look like a mess of string in the middle of the cell:

Transmission electron micrograph image (Source)

Usually, the DNA is spread throughout the entire cell, where it is readily accessible to be transcribed into
messenger RNA (mRNA) that is immediately translated by ribosomes into protein. Sometimes, when
biologists prepare prokaryotic cells for viewing under a microscope, the DNA will condense in one part of the
cell to produce a darkened area called a nucleoid.

As in eukaryotic cells, the prokaryotic chromosome is intimately associated with special proteins involved in
maintaining the chromosomal structure and regulating gene expression.

In addition to a single large piece of chromosomal DNA, many prokaryotic cells also contain small pieces of
DNA called plasmids. These circular rings of DNA are replicated independently of the chromosome and can
be transferred from one prokaryotic cell to another through pili, which are small projections of the cell
membrane that can form physical channels with the pili of adjacent cells.

The transfer of plasmids between one cell and another is often referred to as "bacterial sex." Sounds dirty.

The genes for antibiotic resistance, or the gradual ineffectiveness of antibiotics in populations, are often
carried on plasmids. If these plasmids get transferred from resistant cells to nonresistant cells, bacterial
infection in populations can become much harder to control. For example, it was recently learned that the
superbug MRSA, or multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, received some of its drug-resistance genes
on plasmids4.

Prokaryotic cells are often viewed as "simpler" or "less complex" than eukaryotic cells. In some ways, this is
true. Prokaryotic cells usually have fewer visible structures, and the structures they do have are smaller than
those seen in eukaryotic cells.

Do not be fooled. Just because prokaryotic cells seem "simple" does not mean that they are somehow inferior
to or lower than eukaryotic cells and organisms. Making this assumption can get you into some serious
trouble.

underground.Prokaryotic cells are also able to pull off stuff that eukaryotic cells could only dream of, in part
because of their increased simplicity. Being bigger and more complex is not always better.

These cells and organisms are just as adapted to their local conditions as any eukaryote and, in that sense,
are just as “evolved” as any other living organism on earth.