BFC 31802 Chapter 6

BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr.
Basil David Daniel
Chapter 6
Highway Drainage
1
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Highway Drainage is a process which

• diverts and removes water from the pavement surface
• controls and directs sub-surface water into proper channels
in order to protect the road from damage.
A well maintained drainage system

• enhances safety to motorists by removing water away from the road and pavement
surface
• prevents highway surface water from flooding neighbouring properties
• reduces the risk of water damage to the highway
Poor drainage can cause water spraying on the windshield, thus reducing visibility, and
reduces the grip between the tyre and the road which can lead to skidding.
Sources of water on highways:

(1) Surface Run-off – eg. from rain, snow and sleet
(2) Subsurface Run-off – eg. from streams and ground water
2
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Also called aquaplaning.

Occurs when a layer of water builds
between the rubber tires of the vehicle
and the road surface.
This leads to the loss of traction and thus
preventing the vehicle from responding to
steering, braking or accelerating.
It becomes, in effect, an unpowered and
unsteered sled.
3
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
EFFECTS OF MOISTURE ON:
HIGHWAY SURFACE
Stagnant pools of water on the road can:
- slow down traffic
- cause accidents due to skidding and low visibility
HIGHWAY STRUCTURE
Surface run-offs and subsoil moisture can reduce the strength of the construction
materials:
- High moisture content in the subgrade will reduce the stability of the soil, leading to
pavement failure.
- Prolonged contact with water can cause stripping of aggregates from the bituminous
pavement, leading to the formation of potholes which slows down traffic and causea
damages to vehicles.
SOIL
Excess moisture content in the underlying soil can increase the weight of the soil and
increase stress conditions. These are the two main reasons for failure of slopes and
embankment foundations.
4
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Flexible Pavements are prone
to waves and corrugations due Rigid Pavements are prone
to poor drainage: to failures caused by mud-pumping:
5
CATEGORIES OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

Highway drainage can be categorized as
1) Surface Drainage – removes surface water

2) Subsurface Drainage – removes subsurface water
3) Cross Drainage – allows flow of water from a stream crossing the path of a road
Surface Drainage
Cross Drainage
Subsurface Drainage 6
SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Surface drainage for rural highways should include adequate transverse and
longitudinal slopes on both pavement and shoulder to ensure positive runoff.
Besides this, it should also include longitudinal channels (ditches), culverts and
bridges to provide for the discharge of surface water.
Storm drains and inlets are also provided on the median.
For urban highways, adequate transverse and longitudinal slopes are needed.
Longitudinal drains are usually underground pipe drains.
Transverse Slope
Curbs and
Surface Drainage Longitudinal Slope
Gutters
Longitudinal
Channels 7

TRANSVERSE SLOPE
To facilitate the removal of surface water from the pavement surface in the shortest
possible time.
Roads have a slightly convex profile – the middle is higher than the edges.
The slopes are known as the camber or cross-slope.
The inclination of the slope depends on the type of pavement and amount of rainfall.
The cross-slope for the pavement is typically 2.0 – 2.5%.
Shoulders should also be sloped, usually 4.0%.

8

LONGITUDINAL SLOPES
To prevent water from accumulating on the surface.
To facilitate the removal of water along the longitudinal channels that run along the
side of the road.
A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction is provided at cut-sections.
Slopes not less than 0.2% are provided for highways in very flat terrain and 0.3% on
suitably crowned pavement. A minimum of 0.5% is recommended for curbed
pavements.
9

LONGITUDINAL CHANNELS
Longitudinal channels or ditches are constructed along the sides of highways to collect
and transport surface water to nearby drainage channels or natural waterways
(streams or rivers).
10

CURBS AND GUTTERS
Curbs help to control drainage by restricting the flow of surface water and transporting
the water into underground channels.
(Curbs are generally built to prevent encroachment of vehicles on adjacent areas and
to delineate pavement edge)
11

GULLY AND SCUPPER DRAIN
12
SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

SUBSURFACE WATER SOURCES
The sources of subsurface water are as follows:
(1) Seepage from higher grounds
(2) Seepage
from road (3) Surface water that permeates through
shoulders cracks and joints in the road pavement
Subgrade
(4) Groundwater that moves up as a result of capillary action
13
Subsurface drainage plays an integral part in the overall highway drainage system.
Subsurface drainage should operate together with surface drainage in order to provide
an efficient drainage system for highways.
Longitudinal drains
Well systems Transverse drains

Subsurface
Drainage
Drainage blanket Drainage layer
14

LONGITUDINAL DRAINS
Consists of pipes laid in trenches within the pavement structure parallel to the
centreline of the highway.
The function of these pipes is to lower the water table below the pavement structure by
removing any water that is seeping through.
The water table should be 1.2 m below the subgrade.
If the soil is permeable, construction of longitudinal drainage trenches with filter sand is
advisable.
15

TRANVERSE DRAINS
Transverse drains are placed transversely below the pavement, usually in a direction
perpendicular to the centreline of the highway.
The function is to remove the groundwater that has infiltrated through the joints of the
pavements.
16

DRAINAGE LAYERS
Drainage layers consist of coarse material which allows water to flow from fine grain
material of subgrade soil to the coarse drainage layer, and finally to permeable pipes
laid within the layer.
The size and spacing of this subsurface drainage depends on the quantity of water
discharge, type of soil and type of drains used.
However, one disadvantage is that the fine soil may be transmitted to the coarse soil
and eventually clogging the voids of the coarse soil.
17

DRAINAGE BLANKET
A drainage blanket is a layer of material that is highly

permeable.
The blanket can be used to facilitate the flow of sub-

surface water away from the pavement.
It also facilitates the removal of water that has

permeated through cracks in the pavement, as well as
subsurface water originating from artesian sources.
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CROSS DRAINAGE SYSTEM

CROSS DRAINAGE CULVERT
Cross drainage culverts allow water from a stream to move from one side of the road
to the other without crossing the road surface.
These culverts should be placed at regular intervals along grades, below banked
seepages, and where water will run directly onto log landings or forest roads and trails.
The advantage of culvert installation is that it can move

water from one side of the road to the other without
eroding the surface.
Culverts are expensive to install and require frequent

maintenance.
Culverts need to be kept free of debris at all times. Otherwise, they will clog up and
become innefective.
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CROSS DRAINAGE SYSTEM

CROSS DRAINAGE CULVERT
Types of culverts:
Pipe culvert Box culvert
Arched culvert Beam culvert

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DRAINAGE DETERIORATION
There are no specific drainage deterioration types in highways.
Damages to the drainage system is usually due to:

(1) Improper maintenance
Crushed pipe
(2) Low quality of material used
Damages can be triggered by heavy loads imposed, for example, heavy machinery
in construction works may impose load pressure to a subsurface drainage, causing the
drain pipes to be crushed or slightly damaged.
Common drainage maintenance problems include: Gully blocked by

debris and vegetative
- Vegetative growth around pipe outlets growth
- Mowing clippings
- Rodents’ nests
- Sediment collecting on rodent screens
Damaged gully
21
DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE
One of the many tasks in Highway Maintenance is maintaining and repairing
drainage systems.
DRAINAGE INSPECTION
The objectives of drainage inspection are:
a) To ensure that all drainage channels and structures are unobstructed.
b) To check culverts and drainage lines for structural damage.
c) To inspect check dams for debris and excessive erosion.
d) To investigate water ponding on or adjacent to surfaced areas.
e) To inspect the drainage system during or after every storm.
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Defective or inadequate drainage causes most pavement failures and deterioration.
Pending or delayed runoff of surface water allows seepage into the pavement structure
unless the surface is tightly sealed.
Typical maintenance activities include:
a) Annual inspection (minimum maintenance)
b) Minor to major structural repairs
c) Replacement of materials or structures when needed
d) Erosion control
e) Logjam or obstruction removal
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Surface Drainage Maintenance
Surface drainage maintenance works include:
1) Mark and correct areas where pending (delayed runoff) occurs on surfaced
areas.
2) Correct water-logging problems by filling or raising depressions, and by

providing outlets for water blocked by high shoulders.
3) Control entry of storm water through pavement by sealing joints and cracks.
4) Keep unpaved roads crowned (provide camber/cross-slope) to prevent water

from remaining on the road.
5) Maintain crowns and superelevations with graders or drags.
6) Sweep and clean roads to prevent collection of debris in gutters and inlets,
which could cause delay in the removal of surface water
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Shoulder Maintenance
Shoulders should be smooth and graded to ensure the water drains from the surfaced
areas towards the ditch.
Eroded shoulder material should be replaced with new material.
It is important to keep shoulders bladed flush to the edge of the pavement (or slightly
below).
Slope away from the pavement to prevent water seepage into the
subgrade.
25
Drainage Ditch Maintenance
To maintain the drainage ditch, it is important to keep it clear of weeds,

sediment, and other debris that obstruct water flow.
It is essential to maintain ditches as to line and grade, and also correct sags and minor
washout as they occur.
Side ditches can be usually maintained with graders.
26
Culvert Maintenance
Culverts should be clear from debris and sediment to prevent water from undermining
the culverts.
Culvert inspection must be done frequently to determine whether they are functioning
properly.
Cleaning by hand is usually necessary after heavy rains.
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HILL ROAD MAINTENANCE
MAINTENANCE OF HILL ROADS
Hills are subject to intermittent to continuous rains, sometimes

throughout the year, therefore the risk of slips and landslides
is high for hill roads.
Hill road pavements must be constructed of impervious material,

as moisture can undermine the structure and cause failure. Drainage is also an important
consideration for hill roads to safeguard the pavement.
To reduce risks associated with swelling soils under or near hill roads, several
maintenance works should be done as mentioned below:
(1) Slope Maintenance

 Maintain a positive slope in the backfill area next to the road.
 The recommended slope is 1 ft within the first 10 ft of the foundation.
 Plant trees on the slopes to prevent soil erosion caused by rains.
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HILL ROAD MAINTENANCE
(2) Drainage Maintenance

 Catch-water drains, side-drains, catch-pits and culverts should be cleared of blockages
at regular intervals.
(3) Gutters and downspouts Maintenance

 Gutters and downspouts should be inspected regularly.
 Debris should be removed and defects should be repaired.
 Maintain the slope of gutters to prevent debris collection and subsequent rusting of metal
materials.
 Downspouts should be clear of debris.
 Direct the water flowing through the downspouts away from the foundation.
(4) Splashblocks Maintenance

 Splashblocks should be long enough and sloped enough to carry all the water away from
the foundation.
(5) Subsurface Drainage Maintenance

 Avoid covering or obstructing the drain where it discharges.
 Need to be installed correctly in order to function properly and therefore require little
maintenance
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BFC 31802 Chapter 6

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BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr.

Basil David Daniel

Highway Drainage is a process which

A well maintained drainage system

Sources of water on highways:

Also called aquaplaning.

CATEGORIES OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

1) Surface Drainage – removes surface water

SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Storm drains and inlets are also provided on the median.

SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The slopes are known as the camber or cross-slope.

The cross-slope for the pavement is typically 2.0 – 2.5%.

Shoulders should also be sloped, usually 4.0%.

SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

To prevent water from accumulating on the surface.

A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction is provided at cut-sections.

SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The sources of subsurface water are as follows:

(1) Seepage from higher grounds

(4) Groundwater that moves up as a result of capillary action

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Well systems Transverse drains

Drainage blanket Drainage layer

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The water table should be 1.2 m below the subgrade.

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

A drainage blanket is a layer of material that is highly

The blanket can be used to facilitate the flow of sub-

It also facilitates the removal of water that has

CROSS DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The advantage of culvert installation is that it can move

Culverts are expensive to install and require frequent

CROSS DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Pipe culvert Box culvert

Arched culvert Beam culvert

Damages to the drainage system is usually due to:

Common drainage maintenance problems include: Gully blocked by

The objectives of drainage inspection are:

a) To ensure that all drainage channels and structures are unobstructed.

b) To check culverts and drainage lines for structural damage.

c) To inspect check dams for debris and excessive erosion.

d) To investigate water ponding on or adjacent to surfaced areas.

e) To inspect the drainage system during or after every storm.

Defective or inadequate drainage causes most pavement failures and deterioration.

Typical maintenance activities include:

a) Annual inspection (minimum maintenance)

b) Minor to major structural repairs

c) Replacement of materials or structures when needed

e) Logjam or obstruction removal

Surface drainage maintenance works include:

2) Correct water-logging problems by filling or raising depressions, and by

4) Keep unpaved roads crowned (provide camber/cross-slope) to prevent water

5) Maintain crowns and superelevations with graders or drags.

Eroded shoulder material should be replaced with new material.

Drainage Ditch Maintenance

To maintain the drainage ditch, it is important to keep it clear of weeds,

Side ditches can be usually maintained with graders.

Cleaning by hand is usually necessary after heavy rains.