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Effect of corrosion influencing factors of cast iron pipes in clay soil

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Effect of corrosion influencing factors of cast iron pipes in clay soil

W.G. Wang, D.J. Robert, A. Zhou & C.Q. Li

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering Disciplines, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

ABSTRACT:  Corrosion has been known as the main reason causing material and structural deteriora-
tion. Although the fundamental corrosion mechanism is well known from several short term laboratory
tests and/or field studies, the prediction of corrosion depth for metal pipes is still a challenging task mainly
due to the complexity associated with the heterogeneity of soils. In the current study, the main corrosion
influencing factors and their multi-interactions are investigated on the basis of a comprehensive review of
literature and analyses of the reported data from field studies for cast iron pipes buried in unsaturated clay
medium, along with the preliminary result from a long term in-house lab test program. The effect of pH,
resistivity and saturation and their coupling effects on corrosion of metal pipe buried in fine texture soil
are quantitatively investigated, in support of developing a new stochastic corrosion model incorporating
soil parameters. The current research provides useful knowledge for engineers and asset managers to make
maintenance strategies for corroded cast iron pipelines.

1  InTroduction (Kreysa & Schütze 2008), high level of soluble salts

Soil is identified as one of the key factors affect-
ing corrosion of buried pipes. Recently reported
data showed that soil is in responsible for 65% of
corrosion of buried iron (Kreysa & Schütze 2008).
Soils, due to the prevalence of mineral salts and
water content, are generally assumed to be ‘good’
electrolytes for corrosion (Pritchard et  al. 2013).
Although the corrosion in soil essentially follows
the electrochemical theory and appears simple, the
analysis in realistic cases is often complicated by
the various chemical agents and the complexity
associated with the heterogeneity of soils. Hence,
it is difficult to correlate the basic electrochemi-
cal theory with actual corrosion of buried iron.
Moreover, most of soils parameters (e.g. moisture,
temperature and resistivity etc.) changes spatially
and temporally. As a result, soil corrosivity is nor-
mally more difficult to categorize with respect to
both surrounding soil parameters and pipe specific
properties compared with the corrosivity of atmos-
phere or seawater (Ferreira et al. 2007).
A comprehensive field research (Logan et  al.
1937) showed that the corrosion rate of ferrous met-
als varies from an almost unchanged rate in some
soils to nearly stopped (virtual cessation) in other
soils. Also, the corrosion mechanisms and processes
are identified soil-dependent due to various hetero-
geneities (Norin & Vinka 2003), and the corrosion
of buried iron is expected to exclusively depend
on soil types (Kreysa & Schütze 2008), which is
proved by earlier field tests (Romanoff 1957,
1964). In general terms, soils with poor aeration,
high electrical conductivity and moisture content
(Romanoff 1964) are recognized as corrosive soils
and hence clay soil, as normally available in field, is
expected to be more corrosive than other types of
soils (Cole & Marney 2012). Hence, investigation
of pipe corrosion in clay soil is of great significance
to the integrity assessment of underground infra-
structure, such as buried pipelines.
In addition, review of literatures (Denison &
Romanoff 1952; Moore & Hallmark 1987; Norin &
Vinka 2003; Romanoff 1945, 1957, 1964) shows that
corrosion rate of buried pipes is function of many
soil properties, not just one single parameter and
the prediction of corrosion rate is often subjected to
errors due to the number of influencing factors and
processes involved. In other words, although previous
researchers provided meaningful insight into the soil
corrosion, most of such work had mix success (Doyle
et al. 2003), and even produced some contradictory
conclusions with regard to the dependence of soil
properties on corrosion. This may be caused either
by not distinguishing the soil types or without con-
sidering the interaction of soil properties in specific
soil type. In light of this, the corrosion mechanism
and process in each type of soil under the influence
of each soil property as well as the multi-interactions
among influencing factors need to be investigated at
case by case basis on a fundamental level.
The aim of current work is to investigate the cor-
rosion influencing factors and their multi-interac-
tion in corrosive clay soil in support of developing
a new stochastic corrosion model incorporating
soil parameters. Based on the investigation of
each parameter influence and their interactions,
a comprehensive and conceptual relationship

357
between corrosion behavior and soil properties is
proposed, which is supported by a survey study of
reported field database for cast iron pipes buried in
clay soils and by the initial result from a systematic
in-house long term lab test program.
2  CORROSION INFLUENCING FACTORS
IN CLAY SOIL
2.1  Soil pH
The pH of soil is determined by the content of car-
bon dioxide, organic acid, minerals as well as con-
tamination by industry wastes (Kreysa & Schütze
2008). A number of reported studies (Kreysa &
Schütze 2008; Nesic et al. 1996; Petersen & Melch-
ers 2012) showed that the corrosion rate of iron in
both unsaturated soils and solution will experience
marked increase when the acidity changes from pH
3 to pH 4, while the corrosion rate does not depend
on hydrogen ion in certain pH range (5 to 9) for iron
buried in saturated soil. With the pH of soil below
5, corrosion occurs by the liberation of hydro-
gen (Rossum 1969). Furthermore, several studies
claimed that (Kreysa & Schütze 2008; Petersen &
Melchers 2012), when the pH of soils is in the range
of 5 to 8, the influence of pH will be less important
than other factors for corrosion. Soils with a higher
pH, however, may have an indirect enhancement on
water main deterioration. For example, if the pH is
between 5.5–8.5, the soi1 is suitable for the growth
of sulfate reducing bacteria, which may greatly
cause corrosion (Doyle et al. 2003).
In order to understand the role of pH in the
underlying iron corrosion, it is important to scru-
tinize potential energy equilibrium framework
(Marcus 2011). Based on potential-pH diagram
of iron (Fe) (Marcus 2011), the iron is expected
to be damaged in acidic electrolyte through the
oxidation process by hydrogen ions. In acidic soil,
corrosion of iron can be simply represented as the
following reaction:
a(Fe2+); a(Fe2+)  =  activity of ferrous ion and
a(H+) = hydrogen ion.
On the basis of the relation between equilibrium
potential and the change of the free enthalpy (∆rG)
(Marcus 2011), ∆rG of corrosion reaction (reaction
(1)) is:
∆ rG = − nFEeq
= − nF (0.440 − 0.059 log[ a( Fe 2 + )] − 0.059 pH)
 (3)
Based on the theory of chemical equilibrium
thermodynamics that corrosion reaction take place
when ∆rG < 0 and with the change of Gibbs free
energy |∆rG| increases, the magnitude of reaction will
be improved. From equation (3), for the decrease of
pH, |∆rG| increase and thus the corrosion increases.
Hence, as it can be seen from the change of Gibbs
free energy ∆rG, pH is expected to directly influence
the corrosion equilibrium potential, which together
with the electrode kinetics, determine the corrosion
cell potential (shown in Fig. 1).
2.2  Water content
Water content is expected to have more influence
on corrosion of iron than other factors such as con-
centration of salt, organic acid or inorganic acid
(Kreysa & Schütze 2008). In general, corrosion rates
of metal buried in soils under some moisture are
larger than that under water content at extremely
dry or fully saturated (Gupta & Gupta 1979;
Markovic 1955), as conceptually shown in Figure 1.

Fe + 2H3O + + 2e − → Fe 2 + + H2 + 2H2 O (1)

The reaction is pH-dependent as the electrode

process involves the reduction of H+. One obtains
the equilibrium potential Eeq through Nernst equa-
tion (Marcus 2011).

RT  a( H + ) 
Eeq = E 0 + ln
nF  a( Fe 2 + )  (2)
= 0.440 − 0.059 log[ a( Fe 2 + )] − 0.0059 pH

where R = gas universal constant (8.314 Jmol−1 K−1;

T = the absolute temperature (K); F = Faraday con-
stant; n = the number of electrons; E 0 = the standard Figure 1.  Schematic diagram of corrosion dependence
electrode potential (0.440V for Fe → Fe 2 + + 2e − ); on soil parameters.

358
At low water content, iron will be rapidly oxidized
by oxygen into protective film which would pro-
hibit the diffusion process, resulting in over-voltage
(polarization) in the corrosion electrode. While a
relatively higher level of water content can prompt
the diffusion of ferrous ions (de-polarization proc-
ess) (Gupta & Gupta 1979; Romanoff 1957). In
addition, high level of water content will facilitate
the transport of ferrous irons through the graphi-
tised layer on cast iron pipes surface after initiation
of corrosion (Petersen & Melchers 2012). In fully
saturated soils, corrosion process could be ceased
as the water barrier covering soils (except for soil
with high acidity or microorganisms) can prohibits
the diffusion of oxygen (Kreysa & Schütze 2008).
Typically, water content in soil can be identified as a
function of soil type, climate and geometric condi-
tions (Pritchard et al. 2013).
2.3  Resistivity
Since corrosion is an electrochemical reaction, soil
resistivity plays a major role in determining the
corrosion current (Doyle et al. 2003), as was widely
showed in several of field tests (Doyle et al. 2003;
Romanoff 1957, 1964). For example, statistical
analysis of pipe corrosion and the corresponding
soil properties shows that soil resistivity has the
largest effect on the maximum average pitting rates
of buried metal pipes (Doyle et al. 2003). Highest
corrosion rates of ductile and cast iron pipes were
found in soils with low resistivity (Alamilla et  al.
2009). Typically, soil resistivity is primarily deter-
mined by soil porosity, water content, content of
dissolved salts and temperature (Doyle et al. 2003;
Moore & Hallmark 1987; Nürnberger 2012).
2.4  Clay soil
Clay soil, due to its inherent finely dispersed struc-
ture (Pritchard et al. 2013) and minerals with capac-
ity of ions sorption (Kreysa & Schütze 2008), is able
to retain moisture more readily than other soils (e.g.
sandy soils). Further, clay soil has significantly low
resistivity due to high content of dissolved ions in
the pore water (Doyle et  al. 2003), facilitating the
corrosive action of buried metal. Although the cor-
rosiveness of clay soil would be reduced due to the
difficulty of transporting oxygen through the mass
to continually participate in reduction reaction in
cathode(Pritchard et  al. 2013), corrosion in clay
soils are typically held constant (Romanoff 1957)
because of the presence of either acidity as electron
acceptors or microorganisms (e.g. Sulfate reducing
bacteria). Furthermore, in soils with poor aeration,
the ferrous ions can migrate away from the surface
of corroded metal before being oxidized (Rossum
1969), so that the products are not the control-
ling factor for electrode potential, which indirectly
359
prompts the corrosion reaction. In addition, clay
soil is expected to subsequently shrink and crack
during drought condition, allowing the access of
oxygen to metal substrate and, as a result, increas-
ing corrosion rate (Pritchard et al. 2013).
2.5  Other factors
Temperature is known to accelerate most of cor-
rosion reactions (Nesic et al. 1996). Nie et al. 2009
observed that buried iron experienced greater mag-
nitude of corrosion in summer months as a result
of higher temperature. (Li et al. 2007) showed that
a change of temperature of 1.0°C is associated with
the decrease of electrical resistivity by 0.5% in iron.
In addition, temperature is expected to influence
the semi-conductive property of protective film
on corroded surface and mass transfer-controlled
corrosion process (Nesic et  al. 1996).Variation of
soil temperature, alongside atmospheric pressure,
can also result in differing the concentrations of
soils gases (especially CO2, O2) throughout the soil
substrate (Pritchard et al. 2013), which may create
oxygen cells on the surface of buried pipes, result-
ing in high corrosion potentials.
In addition to aforementioned influencing
factors, other factors such as temperature, stray
current, Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
(MIC), as well as dry-wet cycles of soil plays a
key role in soil corrosion under certain conditions.
A detailed discussion on the influence of those fac-
tors can be found elsewhere (Cole, I & Marney, D
2012; Usher et al. 2014), which deserve separated
discussions and will not be covered by this paper.
2.6  Interaction of influencing factors
As described above, there is a strong influence from
the parameters such as soil moisture content, resis-
tivity, pH, clay soil and temperature to the corro-
sion rates of buried irons. However, most of the
time, these parameters are expected to interact with
each other directly/indirectly in the matrix of soil,
which can significantly change the expected corro-
sion rate based on single parameter influencing.
In a soil with given texture, although the
increase water content will reduce the resistivity
and improve the transportation and diffusion of
corrosion species, it will also decrease the percent-
age of air in the porosity of soil, resulting in reduce
of oxygen content. Hence, the increase in water
content can be two way impacts to corrosion rate;
one way to increase the rate due to high water pres-
ence in the medium, while the other is to decrease
the rate as of reducing oxygen content.
Moreover, the increase of water content is
expected to decrease resistivity until a certain
value after which the resistivity will not depend on
water content (Gupta & Gupta 1979). Based on
experimental and field investigations (Bery & Saad
2012), it is found that the resistivity and water con-
tent normally follow an exponential relationship,
as schematically shown in Figure 1.
Meanwhile, temperature is believed to affect soil
moisture and resistivity at the same time but with
converse influences. On one hand, the increase of
temperature is expected to lower the resistivity,
which can prompt corrosion reaction. On the other
hand, the presence of water in the medium can be
decreased by the evaporation due to the increase
of temperature in field case (Nie et al. 2009), which
can restrain corrosion.
Although the decrease of pH is expected to
reduce resistivity due to the increase of hydrogen
ions concentration, it is negligible as shown in
(Betz Laboratories 1980) compared with other fac-
tors such as water content or salt content etc. On
the basis of the effect of pH on corrosion potential
(as seen in section 3.1) and Ohm’s Law, decrease of
both soil pH and resistivity are expected to have
synergistic effect on prompting corrosion.
It can be seen (Fig.  1) that some of corrosion
influencing factors such as water content and tem-
perature play a dual role in corrosion reaction (i.e.
prompting corrosion within certain ranges beyond
which corrosion being restrained) and most of
them (water content, resistivity, temperature, oxy-
gen and salt contents etc.) have correlations and
affect each other.
3  WELL-CONTROLLED LABORATORY
STUDY
A systematic research program, funded by Austral-
ian Research Council (ARC), has been developed
in the current research to investigate the corrosion
influencing factors and deterioration mechanism
of metal pipes buried in soil. The test program is
currently being continued and some selected results
are discussed in this paper.
In order to quantitatively investigate the effects
of soil properties on buried cast iron pipe, corro-
sion tests on full scale pipe sections buried in clay
soil under controlled environmental conditions
were developed (Fig. 2). The controlled conditions
include soil moisture content, pH, dry density, tem-
perature and humidity of environment. Clay soil
excavated from a Melbourne landfilling site was
used in the test series. The acidity of soil ranges
from most accelerated condition (pH 2.5) to rather
less corrosive condition (pH 5.0). The saturation
of soil is maintained at 80% under temperature 23
celsius degree and 50% humidity. More details of
the tests and controlling/monitoring methodology
are discussed elsewhere (Wang W.G. et al. 2016).
4  SUVERY OF LONG TERM FIELD
RESEARCH
Several field studies have been reviewed to investigate
the influence of soil properties on metal pipe corro-
sion in real field conditions as well as to validate the
results from the laboratory tests in current research
program (Wang W.G. et  al. 2016). The re-viewed
test programs include long term corrosion program
by America National Bureau of Standard (NBS)
(Denison & Romanoff 1952; Romanoff 1945, 1957,
1964), measurements of corrosion properties in gas
pipelines in Mexico and recent field investigation in
Australia (Alamilla et al. 2009; Petersen & Melchers
2012). Among the commonly available database,
NBS database is highly effective as it possesses the
measurements of corrosion with same material cor-
responding to similar environments for a maximum
exposure of 17 years. Although the major intention
of NBS corrosion program was to investigate the
corrosion behavior of various alloys in different
locations of USA, it also provides an opportunity
to study the effects of soil properties on corrosion
The information of soil and corrosion data are col-
lected by several publications from NBS program
(Romanoff 1945, 1957, 1964, 1968; Schwerdtfeger
1953) as shown in Table 1.
Table 1.  Summary of soil properties from NBS.
Air-pore
Soil Resistivity space

No. Type pH ohm-cm percent

60 Rifle peat[2][3] 2.6 218 33.2

43 Tidal marsh[1][3] 3.1 60 —
62 Susquehanna clay[3] 4.1 6922 14.9
C Clay[4] 4.0 300 —
51 Acadia clay[2][3] 6.2 190 1.4
61 Sharkey clay[2][3] 6.8 943 2.3
56 Lake Charles clay[1][3] 7.1 406 5.0
15 Houston black clay[3] 7.5 489 5.7
215 Docas clay[3] 8.3 62 3.8

*[1] (Denison et  al. 1953); [2] (Romanoff 1968); [3]

Figure 2.  Environmental chamber (a); soil chamber (b). (Romanoff 1957, 1964); [4] (Schwerdtfeger 1953).

360
5  RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Results of the reported field tests and current test-
ing program are showed and discussed herein. The
results are analyzed in terms of the effect of pH
(Fig.  3) and resistivity (Fig.  4) on the corrosion
rates (i.e. mass loss).
It can be seen from Figure 3 that there is positive
relationship between corrosion magnitude and soil
acidity when the pH of clay soil falls below 6.2 similar
to what was observed by several other research studies
(Kreysa & Schütze 2008; Petersen & Melchers 2012).
However, there is no clear relation observed when
pH holds neutral (or alkaline). Interestingly, it is to
be noted that pipes buried in Docas clay (pH 8.3) and
Houston black clay (pH 7.5) were corroded severely
than that in high acidic soils, implying that other fac-
tors over acidity can impact corrosion. Further inves-
tigation of soil properties shows that Docas clay has
lowest resistivity (62  ohm-cm) compared with that
of others. Hence, resistivity may dominate corrosion
compared with pH in this Docas clay. More likely,
since clay soils having pH of 5.5–8.5 were showed its
suitability to grow anaerobes such as Sulfate-Reduc-
ing Bacteria (SRB), which can play a significant role
in the corrosion of underground pipelines (Usher
Figure  3.  Mass loss of cast iron pipes buried in clay
soils with different pH.
Figure 4.  Relationship between corrosion and resistiv-
ity under different years.
361
et al. 2014; Valencia-Cantero et al. 2003), the effect
of bacteria could cause higher corrosion rates in this
regard even though the soil medium was non-acidic.
Such behavior of pH effect on corrosion has been
schematically identified in Figure 1 by analyzing the
underlying electrode reaction. For soils having pH of
∼7 (i.e. less hydrogen ions), the corrosion is expected
to highly rely on oxygen. Hence, the magnitude of
corrosion can increase with initial increase of water
content as well as increase of conductivity, while it
decreases greatly due to shortage of oxygen as of
less air pore space present in the medium. However,
when hydrogen ions concentration increases (i.e. pH
decreases), the available oxidants to accept the elec-
trons also follow increasing trend. As a result, the
dependence of corrosion on oxygen decreases with
the increase in pH as showed in Figure 1.
The results analyzed on soil resistivity showed
that the corrosion damage has more direct depend-
ence on the resistivity in clay soils than on soil pH
(Fig.  4). The increasing soil resistivity depicts a
clear reduction of corrosion rates for all the soils.
Further, it is found that the alkaline soil (pH 8.3)
showed the most corrosive behavior with holding
the lowest resistivity (60  ohm-cm), implying that
resistivity can impact corrosion over the soil acid-
ity. Interestingly, it is found that the effect of low
resistivity on corrosion can be severe (Fig. 4), but
decreases until 940 ohm-cm after which the depend-
ence of corrosion on resistivity is vague anymore.
This may explain why an implicit or statistical
relationship between resistivity and corrosion was
not found in several previous studies (Murray &
Moran 1989) (Petersen & Melchers 2012) where
the resistivity of soils exceed 1700 ohm.
This behavior can be explained by the conceptual
relationship proposed in the current study (Fig. 1)
showing that the resistivity has impact on corro-
sion in certain range, beyond which other factors
dominate the corrosion potential of buried metals.
Even though the water content of the medium is
one of the key factor determining the corrosion rates
of buried metals, the water content or saturation in
field are often not available due to the high spatial
and temporal variability in natural fields. Hence,
the large scale tests which are currently being con-
ducted under controlled laboratory conditions will
provide useful information to study the corrosion
mechanism comprehensively and quantitatively.
The results of the current large scale tests are also
plotted in Figure 3 for comparison. It can be seen
that the mass loss of pipe section buried in test soil
with pH 3.5 after 7 months (0.104 g/cm2) exposure
locate close to the six months result (0.102 g/cm2)
from Tidal Marsh soil (pH  =  3.1), indicating the
effectiveness of the current program to duplicate
the real field exposure environment and its capabil-
ity of quantitatively predicting the influences of soil
conditions on corrosion rate. More results of syn-
ergistic effects of soil properties on corrosion from
the current test program will be presented later.
6  CONCLUSION
The corrosion influencing factors (pH, resistivity,
moisture, oxygen and temperature etc.) of cast iron
pipes in corrosive clay soil and their multi-interac-
tions are analyzed. The effect of soil pH and resis-
tivity are specially investigated based on survey of
history field database with a comparison to cur-
rent results from large scale testing program.
The results analyzed from the current/previous
studies revealed that corrosion of buried pipe show
significant increase when pH decreases below 5,
above which there is no implicit dependence of pH
on corrosion can be noted. Moreover, the general
behavior of corrosion can be changed under differ-
ent pH based on analysis of the underlying corro-
sion mechanisms.
The results also showed that there is clear relation
between resistivity of soil and corrosion behavior
especially in a relatively low resistivity range. The
results analyzed in the current study also facilitate
in the clarification of contradictory conclusions
by other researchers on whether there exist the
dependence of corrosion on soil resistivity.
The result of 7 months corrosion test based on
in-house lab test program compared well with col-
lected data, indicating the effectiveness of the cur-
rent program to duplicate the real field exposure
environment and its capability of quantitatively
predicting the influences of soil conditions on cor-
rosion rate. More results from the in-house test
program will be presented in later publications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support from Australian Research Coun-
cil under DP140101547 and LP150100413 is grate-
fully acknowledged.
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