Central University

of South Bihar

Project WorK

Under the Guidance of- Prof. S.N. Singh

Topic– Eastonial Model of Policy Analysis

Name : TANAY AKASH

Course : B.A. LL.B. (Hons.)
Semester : VI
Enrollment No. : CUSB1513125047
Subject : POL. SCIENCE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

You are most welcome in my project work of “POLITICAL SCIENCE” on the topic

“Eastonian Model of Policy Analysis”. This project is given by our honourable subject

professor “Prof S.N. Singh” and first of all I would like to thank him for providing me such a

nice topic and making me aware as well providing me a lot of ideas regarding the topic and

the methods to complete the project.

I would like to thank all the Library staffs who helped me to find all the desired books

regarding the topic as the whole project revolves around the doctrinal methodology of

research. I would like to thank to my seniors as well as class mates who helped me in the

completion of this project. I would also like to thanks to Google, Wikipedia, Into legal world

as well as other web sites over web which helped me in the completion of this project. Last

but not the least; I would like to thank all who directly or indirectly helped me in completing

of this project.

I have made this project with great care and tried to put each and every necessary

information regarding the topic. So at the beginning I hope that if once you will come inside

this project you will be surely glad.

-Tanay Akash
 CONTENTS

S.NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

01. Abstract………………………………………………………....04

02. Important keywords…………………………………………….04

03. Introduction…………………………………………………….05-06

04. System model for Policy Analysis …………………..……………...07-09

05. Limitations of the model……………………………...…………… 10-11

06. Critical Analysis and Conclusion………………………...………..... 12

07. References…………………………………………………………….. 13
Abstract

The idea of models and frames that structure and provide a discourse of analysis came into

use in the 1970s and 1980s. They were thought of as modes of organising problems, giving

them a form and coherence. A model involves the notion of constructing a boundary around

reality, which is shared or held in common by a group of scholars or a theorist. When we

study public, policy we must be aware of how different models of analysis define and discuss

problems, and how these clash and shift around. In this Unit, we will examine certain models

and theoretical frameworks that analysts employ. A few of these models and approaches will

be discussed in the subsequent 4 sections. This paper describes a systematic process for

examining complex public policy choices that has been developed and refined over the past

50 years and is often called policy analysis. Its purpose is to assist policymakers in choosing

preferred courses of action by clarifying the problem, outlining the alternative solutions and

displaying tradeoffs among their consequences. In most real-world policy situations there are

many possible alternatives, many uncertainties, many stakeholders and many consequences

of interest. This project deals with the system model of policy analysis which was given by

David Easton as a Black Box model.

Important Keywords

Eastonian model, Policy analysis, System model, Black box.

INTRODUCTION

Policy analysis has its roots in operations research. It evolved from operations research (in

the late 1940s and early 1950s) through systems analysis (in the late 1950s and early 1960s)

to policy analysis in problem-oriented work for governments carried out at the RAND

Corporation and other applied research organizations in the 1960s and 1970s. Miser (1980)

and Majone (1985) describe this evolution. In the beginning, operations research techniques

were applied to problems in which there were few parameters and a clearly defined single

objective function to be optimized (e.g. aircraft design and placement of radar installations).

Gradually, the problems being analysed became broader and the contexts more complex.

Public policy analysis is a rational, systematic approach to making policy choices in the

public sector. It is a process that generates information on the consequences that would

follow the adoption of various policies. It uses a variety of tools to develop this information

and to present it to the parties involved in the policymaking process in a manner that helps

them come to a decision. It is more an art than a science since ‘it draws on intuition as much

as on method’ (Bardach, 1996, p. 1). And, as Heineman et al. (1990) state: ‘As long as human

dignity and meaning exist as important values, social science cannot achieve the rigor of the

physical sciences because it is impossible to separate human beliefs from the context and

process of analysis’. Nevertheless, policy analysis uses the scientific method. This means that

the work is open and explicit, the work is objective and empirically based, the work is

consistent with existing knowledge, and the results are verifiable and reproducible. Its

purpose is to assist policymakers in choosing a course of action from among complex

alternatives under uncertain conditions. The word ‘assist’ emphasizes that policy analysis is

used by policymakers as a decision aid, just as check lists, advisors and horoscopes can be

used as decision aids. Policy analysis is not meant to replace the judgment of the

policymakers (any more than an X-ray or a blood test is meant to replace the judgment of
medical doctors). Rather, the goal is to provide a better basis for the exercise of that judgment

by helping to clarify the problem, presenting the alternatives and comparing their

consequences in terms of the relevant costs and benefits.

Policy analysis is performed in government, at all levels; in independent policy research

institutions, both for-profit and not-for-profit; and in various consulting firms. It is not a way

of solving a specific problem, but is a general approach to problem solving. It is not a specific

methodology, but it makes use of a variety of methodologies (including multicriteria decision

analysis) in the context of a generic framework. Most important, it is a process, each step of

which is critical to the success of a study and must be linked to the policymakers, to other

stakeholders and to the policymaking process. For each policy goal, criteria are used to

measure the degree to which policy actions can help to reach the goal. These criteria are

directly related to the outcomes produced by the system. Those system outcomes that are

related to the policy goals and objectives are called outcomes of interest.

Eastonian model also known by black box model is a concept of policy analysis which is

further described in the project.

SYSTEMS MODEL FOR POLICY ANALYSIS

The policy-making process has been regarded by David Easton as a 'black box', which

converts the demands of the society into policies. While analysing political systems David

Easton argues that the political system is that part of the society, which is engaged in the

authoritative allocation of '' values. The systems approach to political analysis is shown in

figure. 3.1.
Above figure gives an idea of what Easton describes as apolitical system. Inputs are seen as

the physical, social, economic and political products of the environment. They are received

into the political system in the form of both demands and supports.

Demands are the claims made on the political system by individuals and groups to alter some

aspect of the environment. Demands occur when individuals or groups, in response to

environmental conditions, act to effect public-policy. The environment is any condition or

event defined as external to the boundaries of the political system. The supports of apolitical

system consist of the rules, laws and customs that provide a basis for the existence of

apolitical community and the authorities. The support is rendered when individuals or groups

accept the decisions or laws. Supports are the symbolic or material inputs of - a system (such

as, obeying laws, paying taxes, or even respecting the national flag) that constitute the

psychological and material resources of the system.

AL the heart of the political system are the institutions and personnel for policy-making.

These include the chief executive, legislators, judges and bureaucrats. In the system's version

they translate inputs into .outputs. Outputs, then, are the authoritative value allocations of the

political system, ~und these allocations constitute public policy or policies. The systems

theory portrays pubic policy as an output of the political system.

The intra-societal environment:

 Ecological system

 Biological system

 Personality system

 Social system
The extra-societal environment:

 International political systems

 International ecological systems

 International social systems

The concept of feedback indicates that public policies may have a modifying effect on the

environment, and the demands generated therein, and may also have an effect upon the

character of the political system. Policy outputs may generate new demands and new

supports, or withdrawal of the old, supports for the system. Feedback plays an important role

in generating suitable environment for future policy.

Black box denotes the processes, whereby the processing of inputs takes place to produce

outputs/outcomes. It applies the logic of cybernatics, propounded by Norbert Weiner to

understand political processes and behaviour. The cybematics is the science of control

systems theory - via feedback relationship. Positivist assumes and believes that there is a

definable cause and effect relationship between supports, demands, and outputs. However,

critics argue that it is too mechanical and rigid.

Limits of Systems Approach to Policy Analysis

The systems theory is a useful aid in understanding the policy-making process. Thomas Dye

(Understanding Public Policy) says that the value of the systems model to policy analysis lies

in the questions that it poses. They are noted below:

 What are the significant dimensions of the environment that generate demands upon

the political system?

 What are the significant characteristics of the political system that enable it to

transform demands in to public policy and to preserve itself over time?

 How do environmental inputs affect the character of the political system?

 How do characteristics of the political system affect the content of public policy?

 How do environmental inputs affect the content of public policy?

 How does public policy affect, through feedback, the environment and the character

of the political system?

The usefulness of the systems model for the study of public policy is, however, limited owing

to several factors. It is argued that this input-output model appears to be too simplistic to

serve as a restful aid to understanding the policy-making process. This model is accused of

employing the value-laden techniques of welfare economics, which is based on the

maximisation of a clearly defined 'social welfare nation'. Another shortcoming of the

traditional input-output model is that it ignores the fragmentary nature of the 'black box'. The

missing ingredients in the systems approach are the "power, personnel, and institutions" of

policy-making. Lineberry observes that in examining these "we will not forget that political

decision-makers are strongly constrained by economic factors in the environment in the

political system."
The Estonian model also ignores an important element of the policy process, namely, that the

policy-analysis (including institutions) have also a considerable potential in influencing the

environment within which they operate. The traditional input-output model would see the

decision-making system as "facilitative" and value-free rather than "causative", i.e., as a

completely neutral structure. In other words, structural variations in the systems are found to

be having no direct causal effect on public policy.

Further, it is argued that both the political and bureaucratic elite fashion mass opinion snore

than masses shape the leadership's views. The concept of 'within puts: as opposed to inputs

has been created to illustrate this point. Thus, policy changes may be attributed more to the

political and administrative elite's redefinition of their own views than as a product of the

demands and support from the environment. Quite often, policy initiation does emerge from

the bureaucracy. Under certain situations, the bureaucracy becomes apowerft.11 institution in

formulating and legitimising policy. In the Western democracies, the bureaucracy's role in the

shaping of policy direction is largely technical and fairly minimal. The policy direction

remains, still largely, in the traditional domain of the political elite. On the other hand, in a

developing country like India where the state% objectives are not fully articulated and clear,

the bureaucracy easily capitalises on the process of policy selection out of alternative policy

strategies. It does participate in the formulation of public policy in addition to performing

pure1y technical tasks. Finally, the extent to which the environment, both internal and

external, is said to have an influence on the policy-making process is influenced by the values

and ideologies held by the decision-makers in the system. It suggests that policy- making

involves not only the policy content, but also the policy-makers perceptions and values. The

values held by the policy-makers are fundamentally assumed to be crucial in understanding

the policy alternatives that are made.

Critical Analysis and Conclusion

This Project deals with the various approaches and models of public policy in which the

Eastonian model is one among them. It emphasised on the public policy as an important area

public management or public policy could be considered a distinct element of public

management. As a separate approach, it is useful in studying the international as well as

internal environment that produces policies, and its people for whom the policies are

intended. There are now two public policy approaches each with its own methods and

emphases. The first is labelled as 'Policy Analysis'; the second, 'Political Public Policy'.

The black box model is completely based upon the input and output mechanism of the

environments depending upon several factors. Here, it is rather more difficult to separate

public policy from the political process and sometimes it becomes difficult to analyse

whether a particular study is one of public policy or politics. Public policy is seen to be

different from the traditional model of public administration. Public policy is, therefore, more

'political ' than 'public administration'. It is an effort to apply the methods of political analysis

to policy areas (for example health, education, and environment), but has concerns with

processes inside the bureaucracy, so it is more related to public administration. The policy

analysts use statistical methods and models of input-output analysis. However, the political

public policy theorists are more interested with the outcomes of public policy. Whatever may

be, both public policy and policy analysis remain useful in bringing attention to what

governments do, in contrast to the public administration concern with how they operate, and

in applying empirical methods to aid policy-making. Public policy-making, as distinct from

its study, now seems to be a mixture of these perspectives, and managerialism or public

management combines them.

 REFERENCES

1. http://www.wikipedia.org/system_model_of_public_policy_analysis.htm.

2. Sapru R.K, “Public Policy- formulation, implementation and evaluation”,

(Sterling Publishers Pvt. Lim., New Delhi 2nd edition, 2004).

3. Easton David, “ An Approach to the Analysis of the Political Systems” , (World

Politics, Vol 9, April 1957).

4. http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/25794/1/Unit-3.pdf

5. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/246850821_Policy_Analysis_A_Systema

tic_Approach_to_Supporting_Policymaking_in_the_Public_Sector