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ISBN: 978-0-9788780-3-0
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Guidelines for the Translation
of Social Science Texts
P r i n c i p a l I n v e st i g a t o r s
bilingual. Having two native languages. (See also speak of “conceptual” false friends. The standard
native language.) English, French, and Russian translation of
Ch xuanchuan is propaganda/propagande, but in
calque. A literal translation of a word or expression
Chinese the term does not have so uniformly
used to convey the same meaning. Such loan trans-
negative a connotation as in other languages. And
lations often sound awkward at first, but come to be
although the word democracy takes a similar form
accepted with use. The Eng false friend is a loan
in all European languages, its meaning varies not
translation from Fr faux ami; the Eng to kill time a
only from culture to culture but even from speaker
loan translation from Fr tuer le temps; the Fr gratte-
to speaker. (See also loanword, loan translation.)
ciel is a loan translation from Eng skyscraper. The
term calque is a loanword from Fr calque. Also called foreignize. Make a translation read in such a way
loan translation. (See also loanword.) as to indicate or even emphasize its origins in the
source culture. (See also domesticate.)
domesticate. Make a translation read so smoothly
in the target language as to obscure its origins in heritage speaker. A person who speaks a lan-
the source culture. (See also foreignize.) guage at home that differs from the one spoken in
the society at large and who has had no formal
dominant language. The language that speakers
education or no more than a primary-school edu-
of more than one language know best and there-
cation in that language. Heritage speakers’ level of
fore the language into which they will normally
linguistic competency varies considerably.
translate. For most it is the native language, but for
speakers who grow up and receive their education interpreting, interpretation. The oral expression
in a country where the language is other than their of a text originally uttered in another language (as
native language it is the language of their adopted distinct from translation, the written expression
country. (See also native language, native speaker.) of a text originally formulated in another lan-
guage). Interpretation can be either consecutive,
false friend. A word that occurs in the same or
if the interpreter delivers the text in segments
virtually the same form in two languages, but has
after the speaker, or simultaneous, if the inter-
different meanings in each: Eng sympathetic vs.
preter delivers the text at the same time as the
Fr sympathique (= Eng likeable, nice), Eng gift vs.
speaker. Although many of the skills required of
Ger Gift (= Eng poison). They are often loanwords,
interpreters and translators overlap, others are
such as Rus killer (= Eng hit man, hired assassin),
specific to one or the other group.
Fr pick-up (= Eng record-player). One may also
Russia has a long-standing tradition of publishing Goffman, Mannheim, Parsons, Sennett, and
scholarly monographs in series organized accord- Tönnies. Both the steering committee and the
ing to discipline, subject, period, region, etc., translators came from the teaching staff at leading
depending on the profile of the publishing house universities. Translators were chosen on the basis
and expertise of the editorial board. Recently a of a sample of their work, and all translations were
group of scholars led by Irina Savelieva of the edited by specialists with a thorough knowledge
State University Higher School of Economics of the source language and discipline.
(Moscow) published a series devoted entirely
The books came out in a variety of publishing
to the translation of scholarly works in the human-
houses. A distribution service set up by the Mega
ities and social sciences. The goal of the series,
project of the Open Society Institute helped to
called Universitetskaia biblioteka (University
analyze the demand, collect the orders, and ensure
Library), was to familiarize the Russian scholarly
that the volumes reached university libraries. The
community with a number of classic and contem-
overwhelming majority of the books, however,
porary Western monographs that had not been
were sold on the open market. The target audi-
translated during the Soviet period, that is, to fill
ence envisaged by the project organizers consisted
glaring lacunae and provide the basic texts with-
largely of university instructors and students. At
out which mastering a given discipline would be
the time, Russian institutions of higher learning
unthinkable. With the support of the Soros
employed over sixty thousand instructors, barely
Foundation’s Open Society Institute, Univer
ten percent of whom had a working knowledge of
sitetskaia biblioteka released a staggering 120
a foreign language. Moreover, few Russians could
volumes in a period of two years (1998–2000) to
afford to purchase books printed outside Russia.
high critical acclaim.
Strong sales to teachers and students proved that
Professor Savelieva and her seven-member the audience did in fact exist.
steering committee began by making lists of
For more information about the series, the
potential works in six disciplines (philosophy,
Translation Project that spawned it, and a complete
sociology, the theory and history of culture, eco-
bibliography of the works published, see www.hse.
nomic theory, history, and political science).
ru/science/igiti/article_literature_eng.shtml.
Scholars published under the rubric of sociology,
for example, included Adorno, Baudrillard,
Bourdieu, Castells, Dahrendorf, Elias, Giddens,
Working with an Inexperienced Translator scientists not only advanced language training but
also training in translation as such.
When all attempts at finding an experienced trans-
lator with the proper technical background came to Coping with an Unusable Translation
naught, our publishing house decided to hire a grad-
An interdisciplinary scholarly work requiring a
uate student in the field. She had worked for several
translator who could handle literary, historical,
years as a journalist in the countries covered by the
political, psychoanalytical, medical, and anthro
study in question and was writing a dissertation on a
pological material from the eighteenth to the
topic closely related to it, but she had never done
twentieth centuries led our publishing house to con-
translations. I had several preliminary meetings with
tract an experienced translator who had successfully
her, during which I explained the general procedures
done literary works for us in the past. After review-
of translation and showed her examples of faulty
ing a sample chapter, however, I realized that the
translations I had reviewed in the past: overly faith-
translator was unable to grasp, let alone reproduce,
ful, that is, overly literal renditions, texts with seem-
the text’s non-literary language and argumentation.
ingly endless complex sentences and paragraphs that
I worked through these issues with the translator
may work in French but not in English, etc. I pointed
and asked for another version. I line-checked the
out the need to find a voice and style that replicates
new version against the original, but the result was
but does not blindly mimic the original source text.
still inadequate. I therefore hired another translator
I also discussed various research resources and work-
to rework it. Reworking a mediocre translation does
ing techniques: using the thesaurus, reading books
not guarantee a stellar outcome, but in this instance
originally written in English on the same subject,
the “co-translator” worked well with us and ulti-
etc. I underscored the importance of establishing
mately provided a competent text, which he and the
and maintaining contact with the author and the
first translator agreed to co-sign.
editor, keeping a list of specific queries for each, cre-
ating a glossary of translation of technical terms, Involving the Author: A Cautionary Tale
locating the standard English translations of cited
The author may act as a useful partner in the trans-
material and identifying instances when those trans-
lation process, answering the translator’s and editor’s
lations needed work, etc. It amounted to a “mini-
queries, providing the originals of reference materi-
workshop” in the techniques of translation. Thanks
als, etc. I recall one instance, however, when the
to this long and arduous process—and to the trans-
author went so far as to choose the translator him-
lator’s commitment, intelligence, and hard work—
self, claiming that she had translated articles for
the result was an excellent translation.
him in the past to his satisfaction. Furthermore, the
Some colleagues to whom I described my experi author claimed to be completely bilingual. Yet
ence responded that, no matter how successful the during the translation process we had to make him
result, the effort required to train the translator in- aware that he was a less than competent judge of
house was too burdensome. I certainly would not style or of translations of technical terms. He finally
agree to undertake a similar mini-workshop each came to accept the validity of our concerns after
time a translation comes up. It would be much reviews of the translation by two respected special-
more preferable if social scientists recognized the ists criticized it for obscuring the theoretical inno-
desirability of giving upcoming generations of social vations in his work.
The most common failing of novice translators Distribution has already severely lost balance,
is to produce texts that are excessively dependent and without adjustment measures of a funda
on the formal elements of the source language mental strategic nature, merely relying on a few
and reproduce them more or less literally. The repairs and patches to the current distribution
passages in roman below represent such literal system will bring no aid to the matter. We must
translations; the passages in italic that follow rep- base ourselves on the principle of distribution
resent more acceptable versions. (N.B. We do not according to essential factors, from the property
give the source-language quotations, because edi- relations of state-owned property to the relations
tors unfamiliar with the source language must of financial distribution, from large-view distribu
work exclusively with the target language.) tion relations to small-view distribution relations,
and do a comprehensive reform and a thorough
* * *
setting-straight, and only then will we be able to
But, speaking on the whole, the economy of solve the problem.
certain areas still has not been able to form
Distribution is already badly out of balance. If
into a beneficial cycle of self-support and self-
we do not adopt some basic strategies of readjustment,
development. Moreover, since the decade of the
if we merely patch and mend at the fringes of the
90s in the twentieth century, accompanying the
present system, no progress will be made. We cannot
establishment and development of the socialist
solve the problem until we adopt the principle of
market economy within the scope of the whole
distribution according to contribution and in every
nation, some of the modes of aid and measures
matter, from ownership rights of state-owned property
of privilege that originally came under the system
to the distribution of financial resources, carry out a
of a planned economy have already changed or
thorough-going reform and put things in order.
been abolished.
*
On the whole, however, the economy in certain
areas has never been able to achieve a stable state of
self-sufficiency and self-development. Moreover, with
the growth of the socialist market economy nationwide
beginning in the 1990s, certain privileges and forms
of aid enjoyed by minorities under the former planned
economy have been modified or abolished.
*
Although in the 1950s, at the dawn of the com- These developments have come in the nick
puting age, proponents of machine translation of time. Governments, NGOs, the media, and
(MT) predicted computers would soon be capable scholars are facing the linguistic consequences of
of producing translations at the push of a button, globalization, and the rate and scope of worldwide
by the 1960s and 1970s they began to have communications are exploding. If Gutenberg’s
doubts. Over the last two decades, however, two printing press removed the obstacle of time, the
significant developments have occurred: comput- Internet has made distance irrelevant. The pau-
ing power has begun to match the task at hand, city of effective translation services has become
and the translation profession has come to a better the last barrier to free communication among the
understanding of what MT can and cannot do. peoples of the world.
Where translation has to be of publishable The sheer volume of potential material is such
quality, both human translation (HT) and that not every text can undergo a comprehensive
MT have their roles. MT is demonstrably transformation from one language into another.
cost-effective for large scale and/or rapid The comprehensive translation, until recently the
translation of (boring) technical documen- standard, lies at one end of a spectrum of possi
tation, (highly repetitive) software localiza- bilities. It is still standard for treaties and inter
tion manuals, and many other situations governmental agreements, for polls and surveys,
where the costs of MT plus essential human for grant applications, etc., in which each version
preparation and revision or the costs of using in a new language must be designated as “official,”
computerized translation tools (workstations, and for scholarly works. Here the values tradition-
etc.) are significantly less than those of tra- ally used in assessing a translation—accuracy (the
ditional HT with no computer aids. By reproduction of content) and fidelity (the repro-
contrast, the human translator is (and will duction of form)—are still very much relevant.
remain) unrivaled for non-repetitive linguis- At the other end of the spectrum lie various piece-
tically sophisticated texts (e.g., in literature meal translations, the goal of which is to identify
and law), and even for one-off texts in specific
highly specialized technical subjects.
2
John Hutchins. “Computer based translation in Europe
and North America, and its future prospects.” JAPIO
20th anniversary. (Tokyo: Japan Patent Information
Organization, 2005), 156–160. http://ourworld.compuserve.
com/homepages/WJHutchins.
Excerpts from Immanuel Wallerstein, “Concepts This is a tall order, and there are virtually
in the Social Sciences: Problems of Translation.” no reference volumes which can offer such
Translation Spectrum: Essays in Theory and Practice. information. A dictionary, even the best, is
Ed. Marilyn Gaddis Rose (Albany: State Uni by and large of very little assistance.
versity of New York Press, 1981), 88-98. Encyclopedias occasionally are more useful.
But essentially the only way to acquire
A social science text utilizes concepts as this knowledge is to have read widely in
the central mode of communication. The the subfield and to have done this reading in
concepts are more or less clearly defined and both languages.
applied by the author. On the one hand, they
are shared references of meaning, shared Ideally, therefore, the translator must be
summations of data or classifications of someone not merely skilled in translation as
reality. Were they not shared with some a generalized technique but familiar with the
others, the text would be gibberish. On the literature of the subfield over a long period of
other hand, these concepts are not univer- time, and preferably someone with a direct
sally shared and are quite often the subject of interest in the material under discussion in
open and violent conflict. In order to trans- the text. This ideal will never be realized
late a concept well, the translator must know until we move towards the creation of a body
(a) the degree to which any concept is in fact of translators specialized in the social sci-
shared (and by whom), both at the time of ences and trained in both translation tech-
writing and at the time of translation, and niques and social science. I shall not discuss
(b) the variations of sharing-communities in here the organizational prerequisites for cre-
each of the two languages. The translator ating such a cadre of persons. Suffice it to say
should also be able to infer the author’s per- they do not now exist. Most translation in
ception of the degree of sharing—that is, the social sciences is done either by social sci-
whether or not he is aware of or willing to entists who are not very good as translators,
acknowledge the legitimacy of debate over or by translators with a primary background
the concept itself. in literature rather than in social science. The
results are by and large appalling (with some
notable—but rare—exceptions, to be sure).
English is increasingly becoming the language The growing hegemony of a single language
of international social science discourse. Far has had several deleterious effects. First, authors
more texts are translated from English than into writing in a second language, no matter how well
English. What is more, social scientists in non- they have learned it, are less likely to express their
English-speaking linguistic communities the ideas with precision and sophisticated nuance than
world over have taken to writing in English. authors writing in their own language. Secondly,
We believe this practice poses problems for the the lack of a thriving social science literature in
field of social science as such, and we appeal to a given natural language undercuts the basis
social scientists not to abandon writing in their for communication about disciplinary issues in
own languages. that linguistic community. Thirdly, the forms
of thought and argumentation in the Anglo-
Social science concepts and the terms used to
American social science community have become
convey them are shaped by the characteristics of
a Procrustean bed to whose dimensions all
the language in which they are originally produced
conceptualizations must fit. The result is an
and, consequently, by the cultural and historical
increasing homogenization and impoverishment
experience of the users of that language. As
of social science discourse.
Humboldt put it in his Fragments of a Monograph
on the Basques: “The diversity of languages cannot It follows from these observations, and from
be reduced to the diversity of designations for an our guidelines as a whole, that sensitive trans
object; they are different perspectives on that lations of studies written from the diverse per-
object. . . . The bounty of the world and of what spectives offered by diverse languages and cultures
we perceive therein increases in direct propor can help to promote a deeper, cross-cultural
tion with the diversity of languages, which like- dialogue and to reinvigorate social science as such.
wise expands the bounds of human existence, Scholars therefore need to pay greater attention to
presenting us with new ways of thinking and the role translations play in their specific disci-
feeling” (Gesammelte Schriften, VII: 602). The plines. They must take concrete steps to encour-
tendency for English to become the lingua franca age their colleagues, both senior and junior, to
of the social sciences (a fait accompli in the natural undertake the translations of significant works
sciences) constrains their ability to generate written in other languages and to make fellow-
Humboldt’s “different perspectives.” ship-granting bodies and tenure and promotion
committees aware of the scholarly character and
import of such translations.