MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A Chemical Engineer generally does the design requirement for the production of a product by taking
accounts the particular reactions and processes involved. The development and specifications
requirement for the vessel to build is under Mechanical Engineer responsibility. The mechanical design
for packed bed reactor use Richard and Coulson’s Chemical Engineering book as the main references.

1.2 CODES AND STANDARD

There are several standard used in the mechanical engineering design of this reactor. Some of the
standard used are PD 5500 standard: British Standard specification for fusion –welded pressure
vessels, ASME Code Section VIII, Division 1: Pressure Vessel and Standards of the Tubular Exchanger
Manufactures Association (TEMA). The ASME Code Section VIII, Division 1 is used to provide
requirements applicable to the design fabrication, inspection, testing and certification of pressure
vessels.

1.3 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Mechanical Engineering Design will cover the reactor construction on pressure design, temperature
design, construction materials and stress design. The outcomes details of these design will dictate the
proper shapes and dimensions of the reactor.

1.3.1 Design Pressure

The reactor must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure of operations. For safety purpose,
the design pressure should be higher than the operating pressure of at least 10% of difference. The
design pressure for this reactor is as follows:

SIDE Operating Pressure Design Pressure

TUBE 10 bar 11 bar
SHELL 1 bar 1.1 bar

1.3.2 Design Temperature

The temperature of the reactor to be designed will determine the strength of the material of
constructions. Any increment in temperature will results in the reduction of the strength of the
material. The maximum allowable design stress, with an increment of 10% is as follows:

SIDE Operating Temperature Design Temperature

TUBE 200°C 220°C
SHELL 50°C 55°C

1.3.3 Construction Material

The construction material chosen will depends on the operating pressure and operating temperature
by taking accounts the chemicals involved in the reactions.

1.3.3.1 Tube

The chosen material for tube is austenitic stainless steel due to the anti-rust and anti-corrosion
property. The inlet material into the tube might contains traces of water which might leads to the
formation of rust. Carbon steel is not chosen as the presence of hydrogen being the main reactant in
the tube will results in the formation of unwanted methane gas. The decarburization will reduce the
strength of the steel.

1.3.3.2 Shell

The material chosen for shell must be anti-rust and anti-corrosion. This is due to the fact that the
coolant used in this design is water. Carbon steel is the most common material being used for this
purpose but it has limited corrosion and pitting resistance towards water. Corrosion is a huge deal in
this case. Austenitic Stainless Steel 304 is selected as the construction material. Tube sheet is also
constructed with the same material for the same purpose. Utilizing the same material will prevent
issues such as galvanic corrosion from compatibility among different material.

1.3.3.4 Design Stress

Design stress refers to the maximum allowable stress that a material can withstand without failure
under standard test condition. The design stress is evaluated at design temperature and is obtained
from table.

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 165 𝑁/𝑚2

The design pressure, Pt = xxxx is smaller than the design stress. It is safe to use stainless steel as the
construction materials.

1.3.3.5 Corrosion Allowance

Corrosion and scaling are two most common problems encounter any reactor handling corrosive
materials. Corrosion allowance is a parameter to determine the additional thickness of metal to be
added to allow material loss from corrosion or scaling. The allowance is generally based on the design
experience and is within the range of 2.0 mm to 4.0 mm. The recommendation minimum corrosion
allowance for stainless steel is 3.0 mm.

1.3.3.6 Types of Joint

The type of joint applied in this design is welded joint. The strength of the welded joint depends on
the type of joint and the quality of welding. The soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection
and non-destructive testing such as radiography. The possible lower strength of a welded strength of
a welded joint is compared with the virgin plate. Usually the design is multiplied with the allowable
design stress for the material by welded joint factor, J. the factor of 1 is selected for this design
purpose. The factor 1 implies that the joint is equally strong as the virgin plate.

1.4 SHELL AND TUBE WALL THICKNESS

1.4.1 SHELL WALL THICKNESS

For a cylindrical shell, the minimum thickness to resist internal pressure within the reactor is given by
this equation:
𝑃𝑖,𝑠 𝐷𝑖,𝑠
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2𝐽𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑠

Where Di,s is the inner shell diameter. By taking Di,s to be 1.836 m, the resulting minimum shell wall
thickness is:
 (1.0135 𝑏𝑎𝑟)(1.836 𝑚)
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 0.005656 𝑚
𝑁
2(1) (165 2 ) − 1.0135 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑚
The new minimum shell thickness with corrosion allowance is:

𝑒𝑠,𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.005656 𝑚 + 0.003 𝑚 = 0.035656 𝑚

The Outer shell diameter with the calculated minimum shell thickness is:

𝐷0 = 𝐷𝑖,𝑠 + 2(𝑒𝑠,𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) = 1.907 𝑚

1.4.2 TUBE WALL THICKNESS

The calculation of tube wall thickness in this section is to verify the required wall thickness as
calculated in Chemical Engineering design. By applying the same equation as in shell wall thickness,
the minimum tube wall thickness is:
𝑃𝑖,𝑡 𝐷𝑖,𝑡 (10.135 𝑏𝑎𝑟)(0.0275 𝑚)
𝑒𝑡,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.001268 𝑚
2𝐽𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑡 2(1) (115 𝑁 ) − 10.135 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑚2
The wall thickness chosen in Chemical Engineering design is 0.00425 m which is bigger than the
calculated et,min. It is safe to use the tube wall thickness as calculated in Chemical Engineering design.

1.4.3 HEAD AND CLOSURE

The reactor operated in this design is at 10 bar. Sinnot et al. recommended ellipsoidal head to be used.
A common ellipsoidal head has a ration of base radius to depth of 2:1. The shape can be estimated by
a spherical radius of 0.9 D and knuckle radius of 0.17 D (Refer figure)

1.4.3.1 Minimum Head Thickness

The calculation of the minimum head thickness is as follows:

𝑃𝑖,𝑠 𝐷𝑖,𝑠 (1.0135 𝑏𝑎𝑟)(1.836 𝑚)
𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = = = 0.005642 𝑚
2𝐽𝑓 − 0.2𝑃𝑖,𝑠 2(1) (165 𝑁 ) − (0.2)1.0135 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑚2
By taking into account the corrosion allowance, the minimum head thickness is as follows:

𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + (2)𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.005642 𝑚 + 2(0.003) 𝑚 = 0.065642 𝑚

The spherical radius is taken to be 0.9 D according to figure.

𝑅 = 0.9(𝐷) = 1.6524 𝑚
1.4.3.2 Crown Radius

The crown radius, Rc should not exceed the diameter of the cylindrical section. The standard
configuration of the crown radius is taken to be equal to the outer diameter of the reactor: 1.907 m.

𝑅𝑐 = 𝐷𝑜
1.4.3.3 Knuckle Radius

The ratio of knuckle radius, Rk to crown radius should not be less than 0.06 to avoid over buckling. The
knuckle radius is calculated as follows:
 𝑅𝑘 = 0.17(𝐷) = 0.312 𝑚
𝑅𝑘
≥ 0.163
𝑅𝑐
The calculated knuckle radius is valid.

1.4.3.4 Head Height

The head height will determine the height of both the top and the bottom of the cylindrical shell. The
formula used is as follows:
0.5
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
ℎ = 𝑅𝑐 − [(𝑅𝑐 − ) (𝑅𝑐 + − 2𝑅𝑘 )] = 0.3229 𝑚
2 2
1.4.4 TUBE SHEET THICKNESS

The main function of tube sheets is to be the main support for the tubes. There will be a difference in
pressure between shell and tube side. The designed plates must be strong enough to withstand the
pressure difference particularly the maximum pressure difference that might occur. Tube sheets are
normally perforated plate with unperforated rim supported at it periphery. The ligament (λ) is the
material between the holes that holds the tubes together. The ligament efficiency of a perforated
plate is defined as:
𝑃ℎ − 𝑑𝑖
𝜆= = 0.3069
𝑃ℎ
An optimal tube sheet thickness is important in order to resist the bending and shear stresses caused
by the pressure load and expansions that occur in either the shells or the tubes. The minimum plate
thickness, tp to resist such occurrence is given by:

∆𝑃
𝑡𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝑝 √ = 0.0515 𝑚
𝜆𝑓

1.4.5 DESIGN LOAD

A reactor to be designed must be able to resist material deformation and collapsing under any loading
condition. The total load of the reactor structural system must be calculated for worst possible loading
conditions. The two main major load of a reactor is the dead weight load and wind load.

1.4.5.1 Dead Weight Load

The calculation of dead weight load will include the loads of vessel, tubes, catalyst, insulation (if
necessary), feed and coolant.

1.4.5.1.1 Weight of Vessel

The weight of vessel will include the weight of nozzles, man ways and internal supports in which they
will all be counted as a factor of 1.08. The total weight of vessel is calculated by:

𝑊𝑣 = 240𝐶𝑣 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚 )𝑒𝑠,𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

Cv = a factor of internal mount

Dm = Mean Vessel Diameter

Hv = Length of Cylindrical Section

Therefore, the total weight load is:

𝑊𝑣 = 240(1.08)(1.872 𝑚)(5.645 𝑚 + 0.8(1.872 𝑚))(0.035656 𝑚) = 123.56 𝑘𝑁

1.4.5.1.2 Weight of Tubes

Weight of tubes, Wt is calculated by using this equation:

1
𝑊𝑡 = 𝑁𝜌𝑡 𝑔𝐿𝜋(𝑑𝑜 2 − 𝑑𝑖 2 )
4
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑊𝑡 = (1664) (5000 3 ) (9.81 2 ) (5 𝑚)𝜋(0.031752 − 0.02752 ) = 53797.74 𝑘𝑁
4 𝑚 𝑠
1.4.5.1.3 Weight of Catalyst

The weight of catalyst will be the total catalyst required for the reaction to achieve 85% conversion as
determined in Chemical Engineering Design.
𝑚
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑚𝑔 = (12000 𝑘𝑔) (9.81 ) = 117720 𝑘𝑁
𝑠2
1.4.5.1.5 Weight of Feed

The weight of feed is calculated when the column is fully filled with reactants.

𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚
𝑊𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 (1 − 𝜀𝑝 )𝑉𝑔 = 0.7329 3
(1 − 0.3) (5.03 ) (9.81 2 ) = 25532.7 𝑘𝑁
𝑚 𝑠 𝑠

1.4.5.1.6 Weight of Coolant

The weight of coolant is calculated when the column is fully filled with coolant.

𝐷𝑠 2 − 𝑑𝑜 2
𝑊𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 𝜋 ( ) 𝐿𝑔
4

𝑘𝑔 1.8362 − 0.031752 𝑚
𝑊𝑤 = (1000 3
) 𝜋 ( ) (5 𝑚) (9.81 2 ) = 129837.7 𝑘𝑁
𝑚 4 𝑠

1.4.5.1.7 Total Dead Weight Load

The total dead weight load is the summation of all the calculated loads.

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑣 + 𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑐 + 𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑓 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟏𝟏. 𝟕 𝒌𝑵

1.4.5.2 Wind Load

A tall vessel installed in an open area will experience loading caused by wind movement on its body.
Wind loading is important and it depends on the vessel shape and wind speed. A wind speed of 20
km/h is used for the preliminary design.

1.4.5.2.1 Dynamic Wind Pressure

Dynamic wind pressure is calculated as follows:

𝑚 2
𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0.05(𝑢𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 )2 = 0.05(5.55 ) = 0.2775 𝑃𝑎
𝑠
1.4.5.2.2 Mean Diameter

𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑜 + 2(𝑒𝑠,𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ) = 1.907 𝑚 + 2(0.035656 𝑚 + 0.005642 𝑚) = 1.989 𝑚

1.4.5.2.3 Wind Loading

Wind loading is the pressure applied on the body of the vessel.

𝑁
𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑚 = 0.522
𝑚
1.4.5.2.4 Bending Moment

The bending moment at the bottom tangential line of the vessel is calculated as follows:
𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 2 0.522 𝑁/𝑚
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐻 = (5.646 𝑚)2 = 9.228 𝑁𝑚
𝐷𝑜 𝑣 1.907 𝑚
1.4.6 VESSEL SUPPORT

The size, shape, weight of vessel, design temperature and pressure will play a very important role in
determining the vessel support. The vessel location and arrangement as well as the internal and
external fitting/attachments are essential in the type of support to be built. Skirt support is chosen as
the support for this reactor due to the shape of the vessel as a tall vertical column.

1.4.6.1 Skirt Support

Skirt support are usually used for tall and vertical vessels because they do not impose concentrated
loads on the vessel shell. A skirt support consist of a cylindrical/conical support welded at the base of
the vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. The recommended
skirt support height and thickness is about 10% of the reactor height and not less than 6 mm of
thickness.

𝐻𝑠 = 0.1 × 𝐻𝑣 = 0.5646 𝑚
The thickness of the skirt support is taken to be ts = 10 mm.

1.4.6.1.2 Maximum Dead Weight

The maximum dead weight is calculated when the column is fully filled with water
𝜋 2 𝜋 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( (𝐷𝑖,𝑠 ) 𝐻𝑣 ) 𝜌𝑤 𝑔 = ( (1.836 𝑚)2 × 5.646 𝑚) (1000 3 ) (9.81 2 ) = 146652.7 𝑘𝑁
4 4 𝑚 𝑠
1.4.6.1.3 Weight of Column Full of Liquid

𝑊𝑙 = 𝑊 + 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 473664.4 𝑘𝑁
1.4.6.1.4 Bending Moment at the Base of Skirt

𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝐻𝑣 + 𝐻𝑠 )2
𝑀𝑠 = = 10.6491 𝑁𝑚
2
1.4.6.1.5 Bending Stress in Skirt
4𝑀𝑠 𝑁
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = = 4.00 × 10−7
𝜋(𝐷𝑖,𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝐷𝑖,𝑠 𝑚𝑚2
1.4.6.1.6 Dead Weight Stress in Skirt
𝑊 𝑁
𝜎𝑤𝑠,𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 5.638
𝜋(𝐷𝑖,𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑚2

1.4.6.1.7 Maximum Dead Weight Stress in Skirt

𝑊𝑡 𝑁
𝜎𝑤𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 8.166
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑚2
1.4.6.1.8 Compressive Stress
𝑁
𝜎𝑠,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8.166
𝑚𝑚2
1.4.6.1.9 Tensile Stress
𝑁
𝜎𝑠,𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠,𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 5.638
𝑚𝑚2
The skirt thickness is designed with the worst combination of dead weight and wind loads. The design
stress criteria as follows must not be exceeded:
𝑁
𝜎𝑠,𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 135
𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑠 𝑁
𝜎𝑠,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ≤ 0.125𝐸 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 80.10
𝐷𝑖,𝑠 𝑚𝑚2

Fs = The maximum allowable design stress for skirt material at 20°

J = Welded Joint Factor

θs = Base angle (80° – 90°)

The selected height and thickness of skirt fulfilled both criteria. The value is valid.

1.4.7 COMPENSATION FOR OPENING

Any process vessels will have openings for connections, manhole and instrument fittings. The
presence of these element weakens the shell and will give rise to stress concerns. In order to
compensate for the effect of opening, sufficient reinforcement must be provided without significantly
altering the general dilation pattern of the vessel at the opening. This can be done by increasing the
wall thickness at the region adjacent to the opening. The principle used to calculate reinforcement
needed is based on equal area method: A1 = A2 method.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑑ℎ × (𝑂𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷) × 2.542

𝑂𝐷
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 0.5𝑑ℎ × 2.54
2
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2.54 × (𝑂𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷)
1.4.7.1 Compensate of Operating for Feed

The optimum diameter in mm for the feed opening is calculated by:

𝑑𝑓,𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 226 × 𝑚𝑡 0.5 × 𝜌𝑓 −0.35 = 484 𝑚𝑚 = 19.051 𝑖𝑛

 Nominal Pipe Size, in OD, in Schedule Number ID, in
20 20 40 18.81

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2.54 × (𝑂𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷) = 1.506 𝑖𝑛 = 38.25𝑚 𝑚

The inlet and outlet of the reactor is the same. Both openings will have the same ID and compensate
thickness.

1.4.7.2 Compensate of Operating for Coolant

The optimum diameter of feed for coolant opening is calculated by:

𝑑𝑤,𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 226 × 𝑚𝑤 0.5 × 𝜌𝑤 −0.35 = 55.34 𝑚𝑚 = 2.18 𝑖𝑛

Nominal Pipe Size, in OD, in Schedule Number ID, in

2.50 2.875 40 2.469

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2.54 × (𝑂𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷) = 0.516 𝑖𝑛 = 13.1 𝑚𝑚

The inlet and outlet of the coolant in the reactor are the same. Both openings will have the same ID
and compensate thickness.

1.4.8 MANHOLE DESIGN

Manhole is important for inspections of reactor, loading and unloading of the catalysts. The manhole
design will permit an access to the internal part of the reactor for maintenance and inspections. The
manhole is designed at the top of the column and at the bottom of the column. Both manhole will
have similar dimension according to British Standard of diameter of 575 mm and the length of 500
mm.