Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432

www.fuelfirst.com

Development of high volume fly ash cements for use

in concrete construction
M.J. McCarthy*, R.K. Dhir
Concrete Technology Unit, Division of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, Scotland, UK
Received 19 November 2003; received in revised form 24 June 2004; accepted 10 August 2004
Available online 15 December 2004

Abstract

The paper describes a study undertaken to examine the use of high levels of low-lime fly ash (high volume FA) as a cement
component in concrete, beyond the 30% level commonly adopted. The results indicate that FA levels up to 45% by mass can be
combined with Portland cement (PC, C1) to produce the range of practical concrete design strengths, although early strength, which
may be critical in construction, can be reduced compared to PC, and lower level FA concretes. The study progressed to consider the
use of a rapid hardening Portland cement (C2) and low energy clinker (C3) combined with FA at 45%, as a means of overcoming
these early strength shortfalls. Both were found to be effective in matching early strength behaviour of PC concrete. Tests covering
fresh (workability loss, bleeding and moisture loss), engineering (strength development, modulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage and
creep) and durability (absorption, permeability, carbonation rates and chloride diffusion) properties of these concretes were then
carried out. The results indicate that in almost all cases, either similar or enhanced performance was achieved with the high volume
FA concrete, compared to that of PC and these findings offer a route to extending FA use. The practical implications of the study are
also examined.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fly ash element; Concrete construction; Cement

1. Introduction the achievement of a required 28 day compressive strength

The use of low-lime fly ash (FA) in combination with
Portland cement (PC) to produce structural concrete has
found increased application in construction over the last 20
years, or so. Indeed, FA when used as a component of
cement, has been shown to offer several technical benefits to
concrete, ranging from fresh properties, through to ultimate
strength development and long-term durability performance
[1–4]. Moreover, environmental and economic benefits are
also achievable with the material.
In line with this, many National codes of practice allow
the use of FA as a component of cement in the majority of
concrete construction situations. For example, for concrete
durability in the UK, the main criteria for use is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C44 1 382 344 924; fax: C44 1 382 344
816.
E-mail address: m.j.mccarthy@dundee.ac.uk (M.J. McCarthy).
0016-2361/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2004.08.029
and limits on minimum cement content (i.e. PCCFA),
maximum W/C (i.e. W/PCCFA) ratio, with a maximum FA
level, as a cement component, of 35% by mass [5,6]. In
addition, comparative performance in terms of mechanical
properties, to those of PC concrete, at this FA level, for a
particular design strength can be assumed [7]. As a result,
FA levels of around 30% in cement have become generally
accepted.
Applications with higher levels of FA (high volume FA)
include use in roller compacted dams [8]. However, these
special concretes have low workability and strength
requirements. Another study [9] examining high volume
FA concrete, including use in real structures, gave
encouraging results for many properties, except for
depressions in early strength. Other work [10] has shown
that high FA levels may be used effectively to enhance
specific aspects of concrete durability, e.g. chloride
resistance, but did not consider wider aspects of
performance.
1424 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432

Given current FA production/utilisation levels world- It was decided that, for the high volume FA mixes, a level of
wide and growing pressure for achieving sustainability in 45% by mass FA would be used, such that PC remained the
construction, there is a need to examine the issue of main cement component. In addition, this was considered to
increasing FA levels (as a cement component) in be a reasonable level on which performance could be
concrete. This should build from the strong base that evaluated and from which judgements on higher level use
exists for FA use at 30% in cement, consider the range could be made. The 45% FA mixes were developed by trial
of practical properties and establish how high volume FA mixing, based on extrapolation from the relationships
cement can be used routinely in concrete construction. observed between strength and (total) cement content for
The paper describes the work of a study carried out to the FA mixes of 15 and 30%. The mix proportions used are
address these issues. given in Table 2. As indicated, with increasing FA level, the
water content of the mixes could be reduced (whilst
maintaining workability) and the total aggregate contents
were increased to maintain concrete yield.
2. Portland cement/high volume FA concrete Compressive cube (100 mm) strength tests were carried
out on the concretes (water-cured at 20 8C) at various test
The initial stage of the study involved the development ages to 28 days, using the BS 1881, Part 116 method [15].
of concrete mixes containing high levels of FA. In order to The results from these tests indicate that all mixes achieved
determine suitability for structural concrete, the full range of the required 28 day design strengths, confirming that high
typically used design strength grades (25–70 N/mm2) were FA levels can be used to provide the full range of practical
considered for average workability concrete (75 mm concrete design strength grades typically required. How-
slump). ever, as indicated in Table 3, the early strength of concrete
For this work, a normal Portland cement, referred to as decreased with increasing FA content, as noted previously
C1, Strength Class 42.5 N to BS EN 197-1 [11] was used. [9], reflecting its low early reactivity and high concentration
This was combined with a low-lime FA to BS 3892: Part 1 in the mixes. Between C1 and C1/45FA concretes,
[12]. The main chemical and physical properties of these differences to 14 days of up to 7.5 N/mm2 were noted,
materials are given in Table 1. The aggregates consisted of with the greatest effects tending to be at higher design
single size crushed coarse (20 mm) and crushed sand strength. Tests on air-cured (20 8C and 55% relative
(5 mm) to BS 882 [13] and a filler sand. humidity (RH)) concretes at 7 days, gave corresponding
A series of PC mixes were designed following an differences of up to 5.0 N/mm2. These results, therefore,
established method [14] as a reference. Mixes containing suggest that there may be potential difficulties with high FA
FA in cement at levels of 15% (C1/15FA) and 30% volume concretes in situations where early strength is
(C1/30FA) by mass were also designed to this method. important. These may include, for example, early removal
Table 1 of formwork or applications of load to structural elements,
Main properties of PC (C1) and FA which could have cost implications for the construction
cycle and may prohibit the use of FA at this level.
Property Cement components
C1 FA
Chemical composition (%) 3. Achieving comparable early strength
SiO2 21.2 47.8
Al2O3 4.2 30.7
Fe2O3 2.7 3.8 Given these early findings from the study, the next stage
CaO 64.4 7.1 of the work was concerned with overcoming early strength
MgO 1.5 1.8 depressions at high FA volume. While there are a number of
P2O5 0.1 – different routes that could be used to offset early strength
TiO2 0.2 –
SO3 2.4 0.7
shortfalls, it was decided to take account of these effects, by
K2 O 0.2 0.8 combining the high FA levels (45%) with cements/clinkers,
Na2O 1.3 0.4 which exhibit enhanced early strength characteristics. In
MnO 0.1 – including materials that are available and in current use, this
LOI 1.9 1.3 would represent a straightforward approach to apply in
Mineral composition (%)
practice.
Glass – 83.4
Mullite – 11.0 It was, therefore, decided that a rapid-hardening Portland
Quartz – 2.2 cement (C2), Strength Class 52.5 N to BS EN 197-1 [11]
Magnetite – 1.3 and a low energy (high early strength) clinker (C3) would be
Hematite – 0.7 used. The first of these is a commonly available material
Physical properties from cement suppliers. The latter represents a more recent
SSA (m2/kg) 320 7.0a
development in cement manufacture, which is produced
a
% retained on 45 mm sieve. with the use of mineralisers, e.g. CaF2 and fluxes, to enable
 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432 1425

Table 2
Mix proportions of C1 and C1/FA concretes

Concrete mix Mix proportions (kg/m3) W/C ratio

Cement Design strength Cement FA Water Aggregate Filler
(N/mm2)
C1
25 255 – 190 1745 200 0.75
50 385 – 190 1680 150 0.49
70 510 – 190 1675 50 0.37
C1/15FA
25 215 40 175 1970 – 0.70
50 330 60 175 1850 – 0.45
70 420 75 175 1740 – 0.35
C1/30FA
25 190 80 170 1950 – 0.63
50 290 125 170 1820 – 0.41
70 360 160 170 1700 – 0.33
C1/45FA
25 170 140 165 1925 – 0.53
50 270 220 165 1755 – 0.34
70 350 285 165 1545 – 0.26

reduced temperature clinkering, which can lower fuel
requirements and CO2/NOx emissions, and extend kiln
service life [16]. This clinker exhibits rapid reactivity (with
the addition of water), which precludes using it neat.
However, its combination with high levels of FA, should
bring benefits to both materials. The properties of C2 and C3
are given in Table 4.
The main objective in using these materials was to match
the early age and 28 day strength of the PC (C1) concrete
(under water curing at 20 8C) and to maintain workability
(75 mm nominal slump). Trial mixes were therefore carried
out, initially using the same mix proportions as the C1/45FA
concretes, and then refined to meet the above criteria. In these
cases, a superplasticizing admixture to BS 5075, Part 3 [17]
Table 3
Early cube strengths of C1 and C1/FA concretes (water cured at 20 8C)
was used in some of the higher design strength mixes to
achieve the required workability. The final mix proportions
developed and early strength results are given in Tables 5
and 6, respectively.
In order to achieve the same strength profiles to 28 days
and allowing for the water saving with FA, the cement
contents of the C2/45FA and C3/45FA (i.e. C2C45FA and
C3C45FA) concretes were higher than that of C1 by
between 40 to 100 kg/m3 and 25 to 75 kg/m3, respectively,
over the range of design strengths, see Table 5, with the
greatest increases necessary at higher design strength. The
levels of C2 and C3 in the FA concretes were, however,
significantly lower than those of C1 in the reference
concretes.
The early strengths of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA are
given in Table 6 for the 25, 50 and 70 N/mm2 design

Concrete mix Cube strength (N/mm2) Table 4

Cement Design strength Age at test (days) Main properties of C2 and C3
(N/mm2) 3 7 14 Property Cement/clinker
C1 C2 C3
35 10.5 16.5 20.5 Chemical composition (%)
50 23.5 34.5 41.5 SiO2 21.0 22.1
70 39.0 52.5 62.5 Al2O3 5.0 4.2
C1/15FA Fe2O3 3.1 1.9
35 10.5 16.0 20.0 CaO 64.7 64.4
50 23.0 33.0 40.5 MgO 2.5 1.4
70 38.5 51.0 62.5 P2O5 – 0.1
C1/30FA TiO2 – 0.3
35 10.0 15.0 19.5 SO3 3.0 2.9
50 23.0 32.0 40.0 K2 O 0.8 0.9
70 38.0 48.0 57.5 Na2O 0.3 0.8
C1/45FA MnO – 0.1
35 9.5 14.0 18.5 LOI 1.1 1.4
50 21.5 30.0 39.0 Physical properties
70 33.5 45.0 55.5 SSA (m2/kg) 490 360
1426 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432

Table 5
Mix proportions of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes

Concrete mix Mix proportions (kg/m3) W/C ratio

Code Design strength Cement/clinker FA Water Aggregate Filler
(N/mm2)
C1
25 255 – 190 1745 200 0.75
35 305 – 190 1700 200 0.62
50 385 – 190 1680 150 0.49
60 440 – 190 1685 100 0.43
70 510 – 190 1675 50 0.37
C2/45FA
25 160 135 170 1935 – 0.58
35 195 160 170 1875 – 0.48
50a 245 200 170 1795 – 0.38
60a 290 240 170 1715 – 0.32
70a 335 275 170 1640 – 0.28
C3/45FA
25 150 125 170 1945 – 0.62
35 190 150 170 1880 – 0.51
50 245 200 170 1780 – 0.38
60a 275 225 170 1720 – 0.34
70a 320 265 170 1640 – 0.29
a
Superplasticising admixture used.

strength concretes. As indicated, the combination of C2
and C3 with FA, lead to their being very little difference
between these and the corresponding C1 concretes. This,
therefore, provided a viable route to overcoming problems
associated with early strength development in high volume
FA concretes.
The study therefore progressed to examine the range of
practical properties for these concretes. The mixes given in
Table 5 were used in the subsequent tests, except for
workability loss and bleeding, where minor modifications
were made, as described below. In the majority of cases,
unless noted otherwise, concretes of design strength 25, 50
and 70 N/mm2 were tested. Similarly, for the hardened
property tests, the concretes were cured in water at 20 8C to
the test age or 28 days, unless indicated otherwise. In all
cases, 2–3 duplicate tests/test specimens were used.
4. Fresh concrete properties
The results are given in Fig. 1 and indicate that
workability loss rates increased with design strength for
all concretes. While at 25 N/mm2 design strength, there
was little difference in rate of workability loss between
concretes, at the other design strengths, this was slightly
greater in the C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes, in
particular, at test times beyond 60 minutes. However
such differences at these compacting factors are not
practically significant. Given the greater cement contents
in the FA concretes at equivalent design strength to those
of C1, this seems likely to reflect differences in rheology
and rates of water combination with the cements between
concretes.
Table 6
Early cube strengths of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes (water cured
at 20 8C)
Concrete mix Compressive strength (N/mm2)

4.1. Workability loss and bleeding Cement Design strength Age at test (days)
(N/mm2) 3 7 14
Tests for workability loss were carried out for each C1
cement type (C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA) using the 25 10.5 16.5 20.5
compacting factor method, which involves comparing the 50 23.5 34.5 41.5
70 39.0 52.5 62.5
ratio of weights of a fixed volume of partially and fully
C2/45FA
compacted concrete, as described in BS 1881, Part 103 [18]. 25 11.0 16.0 20.0
The workability was controlled such that a compacting 50 26.0 34.5 41.5
factor of approximately 0.95 was achieved, (i.e. high initial 70 39.0 50.5 60.5
workability) carried out by adjusting both the water and C3/45FA
cement contents of the mixes given in Table 5, while 25 12.0 15.5 20.0
50 26.5 34.0 42.5
maintaining the W/C ratio and modifying the aggregate
70 40.5 51.5 61.0
contents to maintain concrete stability and yield.
 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432 1427

Fig. 1. Workability loss of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes.

Bleeding of concrete was tested using the ASTM C232
method [19] by collecting water from hand compacted
concrete in a 14 l container over a 180 minutes period.
These tests were carried out on the same concrete mixes as
those used for workability loss. The results are given in
Fig. 2 and indicate that the bleeding characteristics were
also dependent on concrete design strength, generally
reducing as this increased. Initial rates of bleeding were
lower in the C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes than in C1.
By the end of the test period, however, at 25 N/mm2 design
strength, there were only minor differences between
concretes. At 50 N/mm2, the C2/45FA and C3/45FA
concretes exhibited bleed levels approximately 50% of C1
at this time, while at 75 N/mm2, the FA concretes gave no
bleed water, compared to 0.45% for C1.
The results suggest that the water retention properties
of FA have an influence on bleeding behaviour, as
reported previously [20]. While the bleeding results
indicate that more water is held in FA concretes than
in PC, this does not cause significant differences in
workability loss, suggesting that the controlling mechan-
isms between the properties are different.
4.2. Moisture loss
The results obtained for the moisture loss tests, carried
out by periodic weighing of specimens stored at 20 8C
and 55% RH, after removal from the moulds at 24 h, are
given in Fig. 3, with respect to the net water content of
the mixes. As indicated, the rate of moisture loss
reduced with increasing concrete design strength. At
equivalent design strength, similar, or slight reductions in
moisture loss at a given time (particularly at early ages)
were noted in the FA concretes (and thus the actual

Fig. 2. Bleeding of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes.

1428 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432

Fig. 3. Moisture loss of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes.

weight loss in the latter was lower in all cases). This 5. Strength development of equivalent concrete mixes
suggests that the water retention effects referred to
earlier in the fresh concrete are not apparent in this test The influence of high volume FA cements on strength
data. development of concrete was tested using concrete cubes

Fig. 4. Strength development of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes under (a) water and (b) air curing.
 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432 1429

(100 mm) [15] cured in both water at 20 8C and air at 20 8C Table 7

and 55% RH. Engineering properties of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes
The water cured results, given in Fig. 4(a) indicate Property Design Cement
that, as noted previously, the early and 28 day strengths of strength C1 C2/ C3/
C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes were similar to those of (N/mm2) 45FA 45FA
C1. At test ages beyond 28 days, significant increases in Modulus of Elasticitya (kN/mm2) 35 25.0 25.5 –
strength were obtained for the high volume FA concretes. 50 28.5 29.0 30.0
For example, by 90 days, increases of around 7 N/mm2 were 70 33.0 35.5 –
noted over the range of design strengths, while at 365 days, Drying shrinkageb, microstrain 35 490 465 –
50 560 545 530
these were about 13 N/mm2. The results indicate that typical 70 600 600 –
long-term strength development behaviour was observed in Creepb, microstrain 50 1200 600 660
FA concrete [2] and that C2 and C3 provide the necessary
– Not tested.
conditions for activation and promotion of pozzolanic a
Test carried out at 28 days.
reactions in FA. b
12 Month result.
The strength development of air-cured concretes,
Fig. 4(b) was, as expected, lower than those of the water- (following 7 days water curing at 20 8C), during storage in
cured specimens, but similar general effects between air at 20 8C and 55% RH, up to 12 months.
concretes were obtained. In this case, early strengths of The 12 month results from the tests are given in Table 7.
C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes were slightly higher than These indicate that drying shrinkage increased with concrete
those of C1 concrete, suggesting that the former were less design strength and therefore with cement content for a given
sensitive to limited moist curing than C1. This may relate to concrete type. A comparison between concretes indicates
the more rapid reaction of the cement/clinker in the FA differences of no more than 30 microstrain by 12 months. The
concretes during the period that moisture is available (prior results, therefore, suggest that the high volumes of FA have
to evaporation under the curing conditions) in the early no effect on drying shrinkage of concrete.
stages. At later ages, higher rates of strength gain were also
obtained in the C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes, which 6.3. Creep
were similar for both concretes, except at high design
strength, where C2/45FA tended to give slightly higher Creep was evaluated by measuring the strain of 100 mm
strengths with time. f!300 mm (50 N/mm2 design strength) wax-sealed cylin-
ders, following continuous loading from 28 days, at 50% of
the (28 day) cube strength, to 12 months. Similar unstressed
specimens were located alongside the loaded test specimens
6. Other engineering properties
to compensate for any volume changes due to drying
shrinkage.
6.1. Modulus of elasticity The creep results for the tests are given in Table 7.
The creep strain unlike modulus of elasticity or
The modulus of elasticity was determined, using drying shrinkage, was influenced by cement type, with both
150 mm f!300 mm cylinders (at 35, 50 and 70 N/mm2 C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes giving reductions in
design strength) by measuring stress/strain, at stress levels 12 month creep strain, which was approximately halved
up to 33% of the (28 day) cube strength, as described in compared to C1. This suggests that the long-term strength
BS 1881: Part 121 [21]. development of these concretes may influence creep
The results obtained for these tests are given in Table 7. behaviour. Indeed, creep depends on seepage of gel water
These indicate that the modulus of elasticity of all to capillary pores [22]. Since specimens were sealed during
concretes increased with design strength and that there testing with paraffin wax, thereby limiting moisture loss, this
was no significant difference between concretes, at a would promote pozzolanic activity in the FA concretes and
particular design strength, with all results between 25.0 and the resulting enhanced microstructure of concrete would be
35.5 kN/mm2 for the range tested. The results suggest that the likely to inhibit water movements and thereby restrict or limit
relationships used in concrete design standards [6] for creep, leading to reduced levels compared to C1 concrete.
determining modulus of elasticity, based on compressive
strength, are also applicable to high volume FA concretes.
7. Permeation and durability
6.2. Drying shrinkage
7.1. Absorption and permeability
Drying shrinkage was tested (at the same design
strengths as the modulus of elasticity) periodically, by Initial surface absorption (ISA) was measured in
measuring length change of 75!75!300 mm prisms accordance with BS 1881: Part 208 [23], on 150 mm
1430 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432

concrete cubes (oven dried at 105 8C to constant weight)

under a 200 mm head of water after 10 min.
The results are given in Fig. 5 and indicate for all
concretes that the ISA-10 value reduced with increasing
design strength, reflecting denses concrete. Between con-
cretes, there was a reduction in ISA-10 of approximately
20% for those with high levels of FA, compared to C1.
These data seem likely to reflect the increased cement
content of these concretes and enhanced microstructure, due
to pozzolanic activity.
Intrinsic (air) permeability was measured using the
method of Dhir et al. [24], on 54 mm f!50 mm concrete
cores (removed from 100 mm cubes, oven dried to constant
weight at 105 8C), by passing air through the specimen
(located in a sealed vessel) at various inlet pressures and
recording flow rates. Intrinsic permeability was calculated
using a solution to D’arcy’s Law [24].
Similar types of results to those from the absorption tests Fig. 6. Intrinsic permeability of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes.
were noted, for intrinsic permeability, see Fig. 6, which
indicate reductions with increasing design strength for
all concretes and values of between 20 and 40% lower for The results are given in Fig. 7 and indicate that there was
C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes, compared to C1. an increase in carbonation depth with time, but at a
decreasing rate and this reduced with increasing design
strength. Between concretes, the C2/45FA and C3/45FA
7.2. Carbonation rates
exhibited marginally higher carbonation depths at low
design strength compared to C1, while at higher design
Carbonation rates were tested (on concrete of 35 and
strength, similar or slightly lower depths were noted.
50 N/mm2 design strength) using prisms (coated on all but
The results seem likely to reflect the fact that the alkali
the test (trowelled) face) of 100!100!500 mm size,
contribution of FA to concrete is low and that the material
exposed to an enriched 4.0% CO2 environment (20 8C
consumes lime, compared to PC. It appears that these effects
and 55% RH) [25]. Measurements were made up to
have a greater influence than enhancements in concrete
30 weeks (equivalent to about 30 years in a natural
microstructure, indicated by the permeation tests, at low
environment, [25]) by spraying phenolphthalein pH
design strength. However, at higher design strength, with
indicator solution on a freshly split surface and recording
higher cement content and denser concrete, the net result is
the colourless region depth in accordance with CEN/TC51/
little or no difference.
WG12/TG5 [26].

7.3. Chloride diffusion

Chloride diffusion was measured using the method of

Fig. 5. Initial surface absorption of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes.
Dhir et al. [27] (on concrete of 35, 50 and 60 N/mm2
design strength). A concrete slice, cut from a cylinder
(avoiding the top surface) of 100 mm f and 25 mm
thickness was located in a two-compartment cell, between
saturated Ca(OH)2 (interior) and 5.0 M NaCl solutions
(exterior) at 20 8C. The chloride concentration in the interior
of the cell was measured weekly to 6 months and the
chloride diffusion coefficient calculated on achievement of a
steady-state (constant increase in chloride content with
time) using a solution to Fick’s Law [27].
The results from the tests are given in Fig. 8 and indicate
that chloride diffusion coefficients reduced with increasing
design strength. The C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes gave
reductions in diffusion of around 90% compared to those of
C1, over the range of design strengths. The improved
performance of the FA concretes appears to be due to
 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432 1431

Fig. 7. Carbonation rates of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes.

the combined enhancement of the microstructure, as chemical admixtures. However, there is likely to be an upper
indicated by the permeation tests, and the relatively high limit, beyond which (i) early strength of high FA concrete
alumina content of FA, providing chloride immobilising cannot reasonably match that of PC concrete and (ii) there is
properties to concrete, which have been reported previously no further benefit (i.e. a ceiling is reached), through reducing
to increase with FA content [10]. lime availability for activation of all FA included. Further
work by the Authors is currently exploring this.
As shown in the results obtained from this study,
8. Practical implications many aspects of concrete performance are enhanced and
the risk of problems normally associated with high
The results have shown that the use of low-lime FA at cement contents, including, heat of hydration, creep and
levels greater than 30% may lead to a reduction in early damaging alkali-silica reaction would be reduced with
strength, of equivalent 28 day design strength concrete, high volumes of FA. Furthermore, this approach is likely
which may be unacceptable in some practical situations and to provide a number of environmental and economic
could be up to 7.5 N/mm2 at 7 days, over the range of design benefits to concrete construction.
strengths commonly used in practice. This may then extend
the period to the striking of formwork by several hours, or
more, depending on the type of construction and the ambient
conditions. Where early strength is not of concern, related
work [28] has shown that the use of high FA levels (45%)
with normal PC (e.g. C1) give similar performance, over the
range of properties, at equivalent design strength, to that
achieved with C2/45FA and C3/45FA concretes reported in
this study.
It has been demonstrated that problems with early
strength can be overcome by utilising active early strength
cement/clinker, with both a conventional rapid
hardening Portand cement and a low energy clinker proving
effective with high levels of FA, in matching early strength
profiles of PC concrete. In using these and taking
advantage of the water reducing properties of FA (for the
fine ash used), small increases in cement content (i.e. C2C
45FA, C3C45FA) were required compared to those of PC
concrete.
It may be possible to further extend FA volumes in
concrete, beyond those used in the study, for example by the Fig. 8. Chloride diffusion coefficients of C1, C2/45FA and C3/45FA
introduction of other cementitious materials or the use of concretes.
1432 M.J. McCarthy, R.K. Dhir / Fuel 84 (2005) 1423–1432
9. Conclusions
1. High FA levels can be used in combination with PC to
produce concrete covering the range of design strengths
typically required in practice. However, this may lead to
problems with early strength, which may be of
significance for some aspects of construction.
2. A means of overcoming early strength shortfall and
matching that of PC concrete, through the use of rapid
hardening Portland cement or low energy clinker, has
been demonstrated. These concretes took advantage of
the water reducing properties of the fine FA used and
required only small increases in total cement content,
compared to those of corresponding PC concrete mixes
to achieve this.
3. Tests measuring the fresh properties, including, work-
ability loss, bleeding and moisture loss and engineering
properties including, strength development, modulus of
elasticity, drying shrinkage and creep of the high volume
FA concrete, indicate that either similar or enhanced
performance was obtained compared to that of PC
concrete.
4. Durability related and durability properties including,
absorption, permeability and chloride diffusion tests
indicate enhanced performance with high FA levels,
while for carbonation rates similar performance to PC
concrete was generally noted, although this may be
slightly poorer at low design strength.
5. The practical implications of the work have been
examined and suggest that with the broadening range
of cement types now permitted in construction, increased
FA levels can be used in combination with appropriate
rapid hardening Portland cement or low energy clinker.
This can lead to a number of environmental, technical
and economic benefits.
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