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Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION: ........................................................................................................................................ 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................. 3
3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION:............................................................................................................................. 5
3.1. Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 5
3.2. Working principle: .............................................................................................................................. 6
3.3. Circuit: ................................................................................................................................................ 7
3.4. Components Required: ...................................................................................................................... 7
4. Specifications: ......................................................................................................................................... 10
5. Testing: .................................................................................................................................................... 10
6. Benefits: .................................................................................................................................................. 11
7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 11
8. References .............................................................................................................................................. 12

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1. INTRODUCTION:
Most of the electronic devices work on dc voltage. The electricity that reach our houses is AC.
This AC is converted into DC normally using rectifiers. Now this dc voltage also needs to be
regulated and for this purpose various converters can employed. Step down converters uses
diodes, capacitors, switch and inductors to transfer small packets of energy. Usually, buck
converters can be used for this DC to DC conversion. Buck converters are DC to DC converters.
Buck converts can be considered as power converters that convert high voltage to low voltage.
Their usual range is between 8V-25V. Though considerably larger and noisier than their linear-
regulator counterparts, buck converters offer higher efficiency in most cases
Conventionally analog controlled converters were used in industry to get the desired results but
it had some drawbacks. Like it could perform a single task at a time and it required passive
electronic devices. To removes these issues digitally controlled converters are now employed.
Digital controllers are becoming more and more popular with every passing day and most of the
industries have already employed these controllers for their use [1]. Digitally controlled
converters have various advantages mainly cost increased flexibility, complete control of the
system and reduced components. [2]
A very important problem in power electronics that has been posing quite huge hurdles is to
design controllers for different kind of switched based controllers [3]. The normal process for
regulation is normally achieved through controlling Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) at a
particular frequency. In case of buck converters the controlling efficiency varies dramatically with
respect to frequency. Which means that the efficiency of buck converter is reduced as the
frequency is increased. MOSFETS are normally employed for switching purposes.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
There are four ways of for DC to DC conversion from high voltage to low voltage [4].

 DC-DC converter
 Voltage divider
 Linear voltage regulator
The major difference creator between all these methods is the efficiency obtained from each of
this process.
Consider an application that requires an output current of 100milli amperes and voltage of 5V
having an input of 12V. Using Voltage divider the max output load that can applied is

R = 5V /100mA
R= 50Ω

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So finding the efficiency the output comes out to be

Which is quite small. Hence, better technique is required. [5]

Now the second method that can employed is using linear voltage regulators. One of the voltage
regulator is LM 317.

The efficiency using this this techniques comes out to be.

This clearly shows that the efficiency is increased but it still require more improvement and for
this purpose DC-DC buck converter is employed [6]. The maximum efficiency that can be obtained
from this 92%.

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3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION:
3.1. Theory
Alright, so we have the following circuit. So as to examine how it functions, we will isolate it in
two phases. The ON and OFF stages. In the ON part, the switch is shut as should be obvious in
the following figure where the diode is open because the cathode voltage is higher than the
anode. At the point when the switch is first shut (on-express), the present will start to increment,
and the inductor will create a contradicting voltage over its terminals because of the evolving
current. This voltage drop checks the voltage of the source and accordingly decreases the net
voltage over the heap. After some time, the rate of progress of current reductions, and the
voltage over the inductor likewise then abatements, expanding the voltage at the heap. Amid
this time, the inductor stores vitality as an attractive field. In the event that the switch is opened
while the current is as yet changing, at that point there will dependably be a voltage drop over
the inductor, so the net voltage at the heap will dependably be not exactly the info voltage
source. At the point when the switch is ON the inductor will energize and the voltage on the
inductor will be the distinction between the yield and the information. However, we likewise
realize that the inductor voltage is the inductance L increased by the inductor current derivate.
As should be obvious in the following figure we acquire the ON current through the inductor.

Figure 4: Buck circuit with closed switch

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At the point when the switch is opened once more (off-express), the voltage source will be
expelled from the circuit, and the present will diminish. The diminishing current will create a
voltage drop over the inductor (inverse to the drop at on-state), and now the inductor turns into
a Current Source. The put away vitality in the inductor's attractive field bolsters the present move
through the heap. This current, streaming while the information voltage source is disengaged,
when connected with the present streaming amid on-state, sums to current more noteworthy
than the normal information current (being zero amid off-state). The "increment" in normal
current compensates for the decrease in voltage, and in a perfect world jam the power gave to
the heap. Amid the off-express, the inductor is releasing its put away vitality into the remainder
of the circuit. On the off chance that the switch is shut again before the inductor completely
releases (on-express), the voltage at the heap will dependably be more prominent than zero.

Figure 5: Buck circuit with open switch

3.2. Working principle:

Basic function of the buck converter is to step down the DC voltage from input to output. The
circuit operation is based on MOSFET conduction states.
On-state: Current crosses through inductor is increased and diode blocks the current.
Off-State: Since the current through the inductor can not unexpectedly change the diode must
convey the current so it commutates and starts directing. Vitality is exchanged from the inductor
to the capacitor bringing about a diminishing inductor current. Amid unfaltering state the circuit
is said to work.

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The circuit has two points of confinement of activity. For a PWM obligation cycle D ➝ 0 the yield
voltage rises to zero, and for D ➝ 1 the yield voltage rises to Vin. In the middle of those limits the
yield voltage in persistent conduction mode is given by: Vout = D · Vin.
Note that the parallel mix of inductor and capacitor as appeared above goes about as a second
request low pass channel decreasing the voltage swell at the yield.

3.3. Circuit:
The connections for making buck converter are shown in the figure 6.

Figure 6: Circuit Diagram

As you can see in the schematic above we have a potentiometer connected to the analog input
A0. With this potentiometer we will choose the output value between 1 and 12 volts since the
maximum input voltage in this case is 12V. With the Arduino's ADC we will read a value between
0 and 1024, next, in the code we map that value from 1 to 244 which are the values used with
the analogWrite function of the arduino. With this we will apply a PWM signal on pin D3 where
1 is the lowest duty cycle and 244 the maximum. Since the arduino digital value is 5V we add a
small BJT driver using one S8050 NPN and two resitors of 10k and 1k. The output of this driver is
connected to the gate of the IRF4905 P-MOSFET.

3.4. Components Required:

 Arduino
 Potentiometer
 S8050 NPN transistor
 Resistors
 IRF9540 P-MOSFET

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 Inductor
 Capacitor

Arduino
Arduino is used to give the PWM to the gate and change the duty cycle as required.

Figure 7: Arduino

Potentiometer
We use potentiometer to regulate the Duty Cycle at any instant.

Figure 8: Potentiometer

S8050 npn Transistor

Since Arduino outout is 5 volt we need to add BJT to send the value to gate by driver.

Figure 8: NPN Transistor

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P-MOSFET
As we know circuit operations are based on switching states which is provided by MOSFET.

Figure 8: P-MOSFET

Figure 10: Capacitor Figure 11: Resistor

Figure 9: Inductor

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4. Specifications:
Buck is a step down DC-DC convertor which helps to reduce the supply voltage in usable range.
The high frequency MOSFET is used for switching in the circuit along with capacitor and inductor
for the drop.

Input Output Specifications:

Input voltage (Vin) 8.0-12 V

Output voltage (Vout) 3.0-5.0 V
Iout (max output current) 500mA
Iripple 50mA
Fsw (switching frequency) 1-2Mhz
Lout (Inductor) 2.2 µH
Cout (capacitance) 2.2 µF

Inductor:
*idhr equations copy paste kr di

Capacitor:
*idhr equations copy paste kr di

5. Testing:
In testing of the buck circuit a 8-12 V is applied at the source end (the source of the MOSFET).
For the switching frequency we are using Arduino and the variable resistor to change the
frequency and duty cycle to get out put at different frequency levels. Our circuit step down the
12V source voltage in a range of 3.0V-5.0V as per changing frequencies

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6. Benefits:
There are many devices which operate at very low voltage range and batteries are designed to
give specific constant output voltage so buck converter are very useful as they provide a range of
dc output and can operate many devices. As the inductor is placed in the load side the ripple in
the output current i.e. load current is reduced there by giving fruitful operation of the load since
there is a capacitor to limit the ripples in the output voltage. It is the most straightforward setup
have least number of elements like source, load, inductor, capacitor, diode, MOSFET and a BJT.
It is the fundamental unit for other isolated convertor like forward, push-pull, half bridge and full
bridge and so forth. It has such a significant number of utilizations like sun oriented photograph
voltaic cell, Electrical and crossover vehicles, mechanical technology. In future there is a huge
demand of buck converters as we are moving towards sustainable power sources which have
yield as dc just and dc is having more points of interest then AC framework.

7. Conclusion
In the end our project was able to power the lowest level devices and produced variable output.
The converter can be utilized for low power application. What we didn’t accomplish was to design
and implement device protection. Despite not fully accomplishing all of our goals, we met many
of them and designed a working buck converter. Its output voltage can be changed by using
potentiometer so it provide a range of dc output voltage between 0 to 12 volts. It can be used to
power many low voltage rating devices.

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8. References
[1] Dusan Gleich, Mira Milanovic, Suzana Uran, Franic Mihalic.“Digitally controlled buck
converter” IEEE power electronics society ISCAS-2004, pp-V944-V947.
[2] Tarun Gupta, R.R. Boudreaux, R.M. Nelms and John Y Hung, “Implementation of a fuzzy
controller for DC-DC converters using an inexpensive 8-bit Microcontroller”, IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, Vol. 44, No.5, October 1997.
[3] Trip, N. D., & Dale, S. (2010). Digital Control for Switched Mode DC-DC Buck Converters, 99–
102.
[4] Gupta, T., Boudreaux, R. R., Member, S., Nelms, R. M., & Member, S. (1997). Implementation
of a Fuzzy Controller for DC – DC Converters Using an Inexpensive 8-bit Microcontroller, 44(5),
661–669
[5] R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd ed., Norwell:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.
[6] Ned Mohan, Tore M. Undeland and Willian P. Robbins, Power Electronics, 3nd ed., New York:
John Willey & Sons, 2003.

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