TO INVESTIGATE AND IMPLEMENT A CLOSED

LOOP CONTROL METHOD FOR DOUBLE FED

INDUCTION GENERATOR USING MATLAB
(22/2006)
B.E (ELECTRICAL) PROJECT REPORT

Prepared by:

Umair Khalid (Group Leader) EE-06084

Muhammad Nasir Khan EE-06083

Muhammad Usman Alam EE-06085

Muhammad Asher Khan EE-06306

Batch: 2006-2007

Project Advisors:

Muhammad Javed Mirza Mohammad Ali Baig

External Advisor Internal Advisor

Assistant Professor Lecturer

N.E.D UET N.E.D UET

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
KARACHI-75270
 ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT:
In recent years, wind energy has become one of the most important and promising sources
of renewable energy, which demands additional transmission capacity and better means of
maintaining system reliability. The evolution of technology related to wind systems
industry leaded to the development of a generation of variable speed wind turbines that
present many advantages compared to the fixed speed wind turbines. These wind energy
conversion systems are connected to the grid through Voltage Source Converters (VSC) to
make variable speed operation possible. The studied system here is a variable speed wind
generation system based on Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The stator of the
generator is directly connected to the grid while the rotor is connected through a back-to-
back converter which is dimensioned to stand only a fraction of the generator rated power.

To harness the wind power efficiently the most reliable system in the present era is
grid connected doubly fed induction generator. The DFIG brings the advantage of utilizing
the turns ratio of the machine, so the converter does not need to be rated for the
machine’s full rated power. The rotor side converter (RSC) usually provides active and
reactive power control of the machine while the grid-side converter (GSC) keeps the
voltage of the DC-link constant. The additional freedom of reactive power generation by
the GSC is usually not used due to the fact that it is more preferable to do so using the RSC.
However, within the available current capacity the GSC can be controlled to participate in
reactive power generation in steady state as well as during low voltage periods. The GSC
can supply the required reactive current very quickly while the RSC passes the current
through the machine resulting in a delay. Both converters can be temporarily overloaded,
so the DFIG is able to provide a considerable contribution to grid voltage support
during short circuit periods. This report deals with the introduction of DFIG, AC/DC/AC
converter control and finally the SIMULINK/MATLAB simulation for isolated
Induction generator as well as for grid connected Doubly Fed Induction Generator and
corresponding results and waveforms are displayed.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all thanks to Almighty Allah who made all things possible.

Apart from our efforts , the success of this project also depends on the
encouragement and guidelines of many others. We take this opportunity to
express our gratitude to the people who have been instrumental in the successful
completion of this project.

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to our Project Internal Advisor,
Mr.Mirza Mohammad Ali Baig who has always been source of motivation and
firm support for carrying out the project.We thank him for his able guidance
and useful suggestions, which helped us in completing the project work, in time.

We would also like to articulate our deep gratitude to our Project External
Advisor Mr.Mohammad Javaid for his valuable suggestions and constant
encouragement throughout the project.

We would like to thank our class advisor Mr.Abdul Ghani Abro,for approving
our project proposal and being very co-operative throughout the project work.

In the end,we would like to thank all the Lab Incharges for helping us in
carrying out the lab work.
 CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………1

1.1 Introduction…………..………………………………………………..2

1.2 Background of the project…………….……………………………….4

1.2. A. Control of rotor voltage and frequency…………….……..5

1.3 Double fed Induction Generator …….………………..…………….…..6

1.3. A. Introduction…………………………………………..…...6
1.3. B. DFIG Overview………….... ….………..……….………..7
1.3. C. Operating Principle of DFIG…………..………………….8

II. WORKING & SIMULATIONS …………………….……………11

2.1 Pulse Width Modulation(PWM) ………………………..……………..12
2.1. A. Duty cycle………………………………….....………….13

2.1. B. How PWM works……………………….……………….13

..

2.2 Simulation # 1(Triangular wave simulation)…………….………...……16

.

2.3 Simulation # 2(PWM block simulation)……………….…..….…...……18

2.4 Single phase half bridge Inverter……………………………….….……19

2.4. A. Simulation # 3(Half bridge Inverter)…………..…….….20

2.5 Single phase Full bridge Inverter…………………………………..……21

2.5. A. Simulation # 4(Full bridge Inverter)………………….….22

2.6 Three phase Inverter……………………………………….……………24

2.6. A. Simulation # 5(Three phase Inverter)…………..……….24

2.7 Simulation # 6(Switching Input Logic Simulation) ……….……………26

 CONTENTS

III. HARDWARE ………………………………………..…………..29

3.1 Selection of devices ………………………………………….....………30

3.2 Inverters …………………….…………………………………..……32

3.2.A Types of Inverters ………………………………..….…32

i). Square wave Inverters...……………………………..………32

ii). Modified Sine Wave Inverters………………………...……..32
iii). Pure Sine Wave Inverters ……………………………….….33

3.2.B Voltage fed Inverters(VFI) ……..…………………….…33

3.2.C Current fed Inverters(VFI) …………………..……….…33

3.2.D Pulse Width Modulated Inverters ………………...….…33

3.3. Types of control signals for the Inverter ……..………………..……34

3.3.A. 180° Conduction ………………………….………...…34

3.3.B. 120° Conduction ………………………….…….….…34

3.4. Gate Driver Circuitry…………………………………..……….35

3.4.A. Introduction …………………………………..……...…35

3.4.B. Gate Driver ………………………………………….…35

3.4.C. MOSFET Gate Driver Circuitry …………………….…35

3.4.D. Why Gate Driver circuitry is needed ……………….…36

3.4.E. Gate Driver design considerations ………………….…37

3.4.F. Gate Drive requirements of high side devices …………37

3.5. IR2110 MOSFET Gate Driver IC……………………………..38

3.6. Effect of blanking time on voltage in PWM Inverters………...40

3.7.Protection of switching devices…………………….………………..41

3.8.Snubber Circuit………………….……….…………………………..42
 CONTENTS

3.8.A. Types of Snubber Circuit …….……….……....…42

3.8.B. RC Snubber for MOSFET’s …….…………....…43

3.9.Switching Signal Input……………….……….………………..44

3.10.Need for Electrical Isolation……………….………..………..44

i). Pulse Transformers...…………..…………………44

ii). Optocouplers………………………………….…..45

3.11.Design of power supply for the op-amps…….……….……....46

3.12. Triggering of MOSFET’s through Parallel Port…..……..…..50

3.13. Voltage follower / Buffer…………………..………………..51

3.13.A. Pin configuration of LM-741 …….……....…51

3.14.Testing of Hardware……………….………….………….…..52

IV. DESIGNING OF CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP ……..56

4.1.Designing of Interfacing Circuit…………….……….……..…..57

4.2.Controlling Methods……………………..……….……….…..58

4.3.PID Controller……………………………..….………………..59

4.3. A. Proportional Term……………………………….…...60

4.3. B. Integral Term…………………..………….…….…...60

4.3. C. Derivative Term……………………………………...62

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A [DATASHEETS]

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
 PART-I
INTRODUCTION
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION :
With increased penetration of wind power into electrical grids, DFIG wind turbines
are largely deployed due to their variable speed feature and hence influencing system
dynamics. This has created an interest in developing suitable models for DFIG to be
integrated into power system studies.The continuous trend of having high penetration
of wind power,in recenr years has made it necessary to introduce new practices.For
example,grid codes are being revised to ensure that wind turbines would contribute to
the control of voltage and frequency and also to stay connected to the host network
following a disturbance.

In response to the new grid code requirements, several DFIG models have been
suggested recently, including the full-model which is a 5th order model. These
models use quadrature and direct components of rotor voltage in an appropriate
reference frame to provide fast regulation of voltage. The 3rd order model of DFIG
which uses a rotor current, not a rotor voltage as control parameter can also be applied
to provide very fast regulation of instantaneous currents with the penalty of losing
accuracy. Apart from that, the 3rd order model can be achieved by neglecting the
rate of change of stator flux linkage (transient stability model), given rotor voltage as
control parameter. Additionally, in order to model back-to back PWM converters, in
the simplest scenario, it is assumed that the converters are ideal and the DC-link
voltage between the converters is constant. Consequently, depending on the converter
control, a controllable voltage (current) source can be implemented to represent the
operation of the rotor-side of the converter in the model. However, in reality DC-link
voltage does not keep constant but starts increasing during fault condition. Therefore,
based on the above assumption it would not be possible to determine whether or not
the DFIG will actually trip following a fault.
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

In a more detailed approach, actual converter representation with PWM-averaged

model has been proposed, where the switch network is replaced by average circuit
model, on which all the switching elements are separated from the remainder of
network and incorporated into a switch network, containing all the switching
elements. However, the proposed model neglects high frequency effects of the PWM
firing scheme and therefore it is not possible to accurately determine DC-link voltage
in the event of fault. A switch-by-switch representation of the back- to-back PWM
converters with their associated modulators for both rotor- and stator-side Converters
has also been proposed. Tolerance-band (hysteresis) control has been deployed.
However, hysteresis controller has two main disadvantages: firstly, the switching
frequency does not remain constant but varies along the AC current waveform
and secondly due to the roughness and randomness of the operation, protection
of the converter is difficult. The latter will be of more significance when assessing
performance of the system under fault condition.

In order to resolve the identified problems, a switch-by-switch model of voltage-fed,

current controlled PWM converters, where triangular carrier-based Sinusoidal PWM
(SPWM) is applied to maintain the switching frequency constant. In order to
achieve constant switching frequency, calculation of the required rotor voltage
that must be supplied to the generator is adopted. Various methods such as
hysteresis controller, stationary PI controller and synchronous PI controller have
been adopted in order to control current-regulated induction machine. Among
which, synchronous PI controller has been acknowledged as being superior.

Power quality is actually an important aspect in integrating wind power plants to

grid.This is even more relevant since grids are now dealing with a continuous
increase of non-linear loads such as switching power supplies and large AC drives
directly connected to the network. By now only very few researchers have addressed
the issue of making use of the built-in converters to compensate harmonics from
non-linear loads and enhance grid power quality. In, the current of a non-linear load
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

connected to the network is measured, and the rotor-side converter is used to cancel
the harmonics injected in the grid. Compensating harmonic currents are injected in
the generator by the rotor-side converter as well as extra reactive power to support
the grid. It is not clear what are the long term consequences of using the DFIG for
harmonic and reactive power compensation. some researchers believe that the DFIG
should be used only for the purpose for which it has been installed, i.e., supplying
active power only.

1.2. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT :

Wind turbines can either operate at fixed speed or variable speed. For a fixed speed
wind turbine the generator is directly connected to the electrical grid. For a variable
speed wind turbine the generator is controlled by power electronic equipment. There
are several reasons for using variable-speed operation of wind turbines among those
are possibilities to reduce stresses of the mechanical structure, acoustic noise
reduction and the possibility to control active and reactive power.These large wind
turbines are all based on variable-speed operation with pitch control using a direct
driven synchronous generator (without gearbox) or a doubly-fed induction generator
(DFIG).

Fixed-speed induction generators with stall control are regarded as unfeasible for
these large wind turbines. Today, doubly-fed induction generators are commonly used
by the wind turbine industry for larger wind turbines.

The major advantage of the doubly-fed induction generator, which has made it
popular, is that the power electronic equipment only has to handle a fraction (20–
30%) of the total system power. This means that the losses in the power electronic
equipment can be reduced in comparison to power electronic equipment that has to
handle the total system power as for a direct-driven synchronous generator, apart from
the cost saving of using a smaller converter.
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

This project is basically a prototype of a wind turbine.In this project wind turbine is
modeled by a D.C motor which is coupled to a DFIG.A DFIG is used whose rotor is
connected to a rotor side converter. 3-F low voltage a.c (20 to 40V,2 Hz) is required
for excitation on the rotor of DFIG and its stator delivers power to the load.

By increasing load the output stator voltage and stator frequency decreases and vice
versa.Similarly when wind increases the output increases.

1.2.A. Control of rotor voltage and frequency:

Since load and wind variations are not in our control so to maintain output voltage
and frequency constant we have to control the excitation parameters(rotor voltage and
rotor frequency).

From observations we conclude that increase in rotor voltage decrease the output
voltage and frequency.Also decrease in rotor frequency decreases the terminal
voltage.

To keep the speed of rotation constant when either load or wind varies is the problem
at this stage.To solve it pitch controlled wing turbine is used whose blades change
their position according to the wind speed.By pitch control method the output
frequency is now maintained constant.Now we just have to control the rotor voltage to
keep terminal voltage of the stator constant.

To keep the rotor voltage constant we employ the speed controlling technique of D.C
motor and the controlling of MOSFETs through PWM block of MATLAB Simulink.
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

1.3. DOUBLE FED INDUCTION GENERATOR :

1.3.A. Introduction :

A doubly-fed induction generator has a three-phase wound stator design, as found on

an ordinary induction generator. However, unlike the common squirrel cage rotor
design of an ordinary induction generator, the DFIG rotor consists of three phase
windings externally accessible through a set of slip rings and brushes. The rotor
connections may be connected to a power electronic voltage-source converter which
can vary the voltage applied to these windings. A control system controls the rotor
currents to manipulate active and reactive power output from the turbine as required.
The main benefit of this scheme when connected to a fixed frequency grid is the
ability to vary rotor speed within a certain range (depending on the rating of the rotor
side converter), and to control the active and reactive power flows into and out of the
generator, indicated with the blue arrows shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

1.3.B. DFIG Overview :

Wind turbines use a doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) consisting of a

wound rotor induction generator and an AC/DC/AC PWM converter. The stator
winding is connected directly to the 50 Hz grid(here grid refers to load) while the
rotor is fed at variable frequency through the AC/DC/AC converter as shown in
figure 1.2. The DFIG technology allows extracting maximum energy from the wind
for low wind speeds by optimizing the turbine speed, while minimizing
mechanical stresses on the turbine during gusts of wind. The optimum turbine speed
producing maximum mechanical energy for a given wind speed is proportional to
the wind speed. Another advantage of the DFIG technology is the ability for power
electronic converters to generate or absorb reactive power, thus eliminating the
need for installing capacitor banks as in the case of squirrel-cage induction
generator.

Figure 1.2
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

Where Vr is the rotor voltage and Vgc is grid side voltage. The AC/DC/AC
converter is basically a PWM converter which uses sinusoidal PWM technique to
reduce the harmonics present in the wind turbine driven DFIG system. Here Crotor is
rotor side converter and Cgrid is grid side converter. To control the speed of wind
turbine gear boxes or electronic control can be used.

1.3.C. Operating Principle of DFIG:

Figure 1.3

The stator is directly connected to the AC mains, while the wound rotor is fed from
the Power Electronics Converter via slip rings to allow DIFG to operate at a variety
of speeds in response to changing wind speed. Indeed, the basic concept is to
interpose a frequency converter between the variable frequency induction
generator and fixed frequency grid. The DC capacitor linking stator- and rotor-
side converters allows the storage of power from induction generator for further
generation as shown in figure 1.3. To achieve full control of grid current, the DC-
link voltage must be boosted to a level higher than the amplitude of grid line-to-line
voltage. The slip power can flow in both directions, i.e. to the rotor from the supply
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

and from supply to the rotor and hence the speed of the machine can be controlled
from either rotor- or stator-side converter in both super and sub-synchronous speed
ranges. As a result, the machine can be controlled as a generator or a motor in both
super and sub-synchronous operating modes realizing four operating modes. Below
the synchronous speed in the motoring mode and above the synchronous speed in
the generating mode, rotor-side converter operates as a rectifier and stator-side
converter as an inverter, where slip power is returned to the stator. Below the
synchronous speed in the generating mode and above the synchronous speed in the
motoring mode, rotor-side converter operates as an inverter and stator- side
converter as a rectifier, where slip power is supplied to the rotor. At the synchronous
speed, slip power is taken from supply to excite the rotor windings and in this case
machine behaves as a synchronous machine.

The mechanical power and the stator electric power output are computed as follows:
Pr = Tm * wr
In steady-state at fixed speed for a loss less generator:

Tm = Tem and Pm = Ps + Pr

And it follows that:

Pr = Pm – Ps = Tm * wr – Tem w2 = -sPs
Where :
s = (ws – wr ) / ws
is defined as the slip of the generator.

Generally the absolute value of slip is much lower than 1 and, consequently, Pr is
only a fraction of Ps. Since Tm is positive for power generation and since ? s is
positive and constant for a constant frequency grid voltage, the sign of Pr is a
function of the slip sign. Pr is positive for negative slip (speed greater than
 PART-I INTRODUCTION

synchronous speed) and it is negative for positive slip (speed lower than
synchronous speed). For supersynchronous speed operation, Pr is transmitted to
DC bus capacitor and tends to rise the DC voltage. For sub-synchronous speed
operation, Pr is taken out of DC bus capacitor and tends to decrease the DC
voltage. Cgrid is used to generate or absorb the power Pgc in order to keep the
DC voltage constant. In steady-state for a lossless AC/DC/AC converter Pgc is
equal to Pr and the speed of the wind turbine is determined by the power Pr
absorbed or generated by Crotor. The phase-sequence of the AC voltage generated
by Crotor is positive for sub-synchronous speed and negative for
supersynchronous speed. The frequency of this voltage is equal to the product of
the grid frequency and the absolute value of the slip. Crotor and Cgrid have the
capability for generating or absorbing reactive power and could be used to control the
reactive power or the voltage at the grid terminals.
 PART-II
WORKING &
SIMULATIONS
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

2.1. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) :

Pulse Width Modulation(PWM) is a way of delivering energy through a succession

of pulses rather than a continuously varying(analog) signal.By increasing or
decreasing pulse width,the controller regulates energy flow.PWM is a very efficient
way of providing intermediate amounts of electrical power between fully on and
fully off. Variation of duty cycle in the PWM signal to provide a DC voltage across
the load in a specific pattern will appear to the load as an AC signal, or can control
the speed of motors that would otherwise run only at full speed or off.

The pattern at which the duty cycle of a PWM signal varies can be created through
simple analog components, a digital microcontroller, or specific PWM integrated
circuits.

In inverter circuit,PWM has prime importance.We want the inverter output to be

sinusoidal with magnitude and frequency controllable.In order to produce a
sinusoidal output voltage waveform at a desired frequency,a sinusoidal control
signal at the desired frequency is compared with a triangular waveform.The
frequency of the triangular waveform establishes the inverter switching frequency.
The triangular waveform Vtri is at a switching frequency ‘fs’,which establishes the
frequency with which the inverter switches are switched (‘fs’ is also called the
carrier frequency).The control signal ‘Vcontrol’ is used to modulate the switch duty
ratio and has a frequency’f1’ ,which is the desired fundamental frequency of the
inverter output voltage(‘f1’ is also called the modulating frequency).The amplitude
modulation ratio ‘ma’ is defined as :

Ma = Vcontol / Vin

Where Vcontrol is the peak amplitude of the control signal.The amplitude Vtri of the
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

triangular signal is generally kept constant.

The frequency modulation ratio ‘mf’ is defined as:

Mf = fs / f1

2.1.A. Duty Cycle :

Another important term related to PWM is the duty cycle.The duty cycle is defined
as the percentage of digital ‘high’ to digital ‘low’ signals present during a PWM
period.

The PWM resolution is defined as the maximum number of pulses that you can pack
into a PWM period.The PWM period is an arbitrarily time period in which PWM
takes place. It is chosen to give best results for your particular use.

2.1.B. How PWM works:

Analog PWM control requires the generation of both reference and carrier signals
that feed into a comparator which createsoutput signals based on the difference
between the signals. The reference signal is sinusoidal and at the frequency of the
desired output signal, while the carrier signal is often either a sawtooth or triangular
wave at a frequency significantly greater than the reference. When the carrier signal
exceeds the reference, the comparator output signal is at one state, and when the
reference is at a higher voltage, the output is at its second state.Figure 2.1 shows the
setup for the PWM generation while the output of this setup is shown in figure 2.2 :
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

The triangular signal is the carrier or switching frequency of the inverter. The
modulation generator produces a sinewave signal that determines the width of the
pulses, and therefore the RMS voltage output of the inverter.

The PWM was designed to reduce the low order harmonics present in the system due
to the switching and also to reduce the switching stress imposes on the power
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

switching devices.

Most PWM is generated by comparing a modulating signal with a triangular

carrier.However the modulating signal may come in various shapes to suit the
converter topology such as sine wave and distorted sine wave.A sinusoidal
modulating signal is used for PWM in dc-ac converter where it is used to shape the
output ac voltage to be close to a sine wave.Distorted sine wave is used for PWM in
ac-dc converter where it is used to shape the input ac current to be close to sinusoidal
with unity power factor.
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

After understanding the PWM technique,the next step was to put this technique into
practice.For this purpose,MATLAB Simulink was used.

The basic idea behind the simulations is to make a gating sequence for MOSFET’s
which will decide the conduction time for each MOSFET.In order to drive MOSFET
we require gate pulse which will be achieved through PWM.

2.2. SIMULATION # 1 :

Triangular wave Simulation:

Since we know that PWM requires a triangular wave and a sine wave so the first step
is to generate a triangular wave.In MATLAB there is no direct block available to
generate triangular wave.

In order to solve this problem a square wave was integrated to generate a triangular
wave.

In order to get a triangular wave starting at zero i.e at the origin,we subtract the DC
offset from it.The simulink model and the resulting triangular wave are attached for
reference in figure 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

2.3. SIMULATION # 2 :

PWM Block Simulation:

Now the next step is to develop a PWM block which will generate the gate pulses.For
this purpose the output of the triangular wave generator was compared with a sine
wave with the help of a Relational Operator function available in MATLAB.As a
result,the gate pulses are generated.Whenever the sine wave is greater in magnitude as
compared to the triangular wave,a logic high is generated.Similarly,when the sine
wave is less in magnitude as compared to triangular wave,a logic low is
generated.Since we require six gate pulses,three for the high side device and three for
the low side device.

We get three output gate pulses from PWM block which are 120° out of phase with
respect to each other.Since we require six gate pulses so a little cleverness at this stage
leads us to the desired result.We simply invert the three gate pulses by the use of a
NOT operator available in MATLAB Simulink.As a result we get six pulses.At the
start,three MOSFET’s will have a high gate pulse at their gate’s and after 180°,the
gate’s receiving high gate pulse are turned off and the remaining three MOSFET’s(
low side devices ) will get a gate pulse whuch is logic invert of the pulse received by
the high side devices.As a result a smooth 3-F gating sequence is achieved.

To understand this concept,the MATLAB model of the PWM Block is attached

below:
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.5

Since the use of PWM block increases the complexity of the simulation,so a better
option was adopted to avoid complexity.The PWM block was embedded into a
subsystem,so that whenever we require the PWM block we will put the subsystem
instead.As a result of this the simulation becomes clear to understand.

The subsystem is shown in figure2.6 below :

Figure 2.6

2.4. SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE INVERTER :

Figure 2.7 shows a single phase half bridge inverter which consists of two choppers
and a three wire DC source.The two transistors Q1 and Q2 are switched on and off
alternately.When transistor Q1 is switched on Vs/2 appears across the load.Similarly
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

when Q2 is switched on -Vs/2 appears across the load.The logic circuit is designed
such that Q1 and Q2 are not switched on at the same time otherwise a short circuit
will occur.

Figure 2.7
The output voltage waveforms of the single phase half bridge inverter for a purely
resistive load is shown in the following figure :

Figure 2.8
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

2.4.A. SIMULATION # 3 :

Half Bridge Inverter :

After going through the operational details of the single phase half bridge inverter,it
was time to put the theory into practice.For this purpose a model of the single phase
half bridge inverter was made on MATLAB Simulink.When connected across a
purely resistive load,the inverter yielded the same output as expected.The MATLAB
model and the resulting output wavefom are attached for reference in figure 2.9 and
2.10 respectively.

Figure 2.9
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.10

2.5. SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE INVERTER :

The single phase full bridge inverter consists of four choppers and a three wire DC
source as shown in figure 2.11.The two transistors Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4 are switched on
and off alternately.When transistor Q1-Q2 is switched on Vs appears across the
load.Similarly when Q3-Q4 is switched on -Vs appears across the load.The logic
circuit should be carefully designed to avoid short circuit.

Since in case of single phase full bridge inverter at any time two transistors are
conducting,so this result in an increase in the average value of the output voltage as
compared to single phase half bridge inverter.
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.11

2.5.A. SIMULATION # 4 :

Full Bridge Inverter :

Next step was to make a simulation for a full bridge inverter.For this purpose a model
of the single phase full bridge inverter was made on MATLAB Simulink.When
connected across a purely resistive load,the inverter yielded the same output as
expected.The MATLAB model and the resulting output wavefom are attached for
reference in figure 2.12 and 2.13 respectively.
PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.12

Figure 2.13
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

2.6. THREE PHASE INVERTER :

Three phase inverters are normally used for high power applications.The gating
signals of single phase inverters should be advanced or delayed by 120° with respect
to each other to obtain three phase balanced voltages.

A three phase output can be obtained from a configuration of six MOSFET’s and six
diodes.The basic topology for the 3-F design is shown in figure 2.14 below :

Figure 2.14

2.6.A. SIMULATION # 5 :

Three Phase Inverter :

At this stage after observing the outputs of half bridge and full bridge inverters,we are
able to make the simulation of a three phase inverter.The six switches (MOSFET’s)
are arranged in three phase legs as shown in figure 2.15.Each line is then connected
from the middle of each phase leg to the DFIG.The waveforms on these lines must be
a balanced three-phase sinusoidal waveform in order to excite the DFIG properly.This
is achieved by carefully controlling the switching waveforms at the gates of the
switches.
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.15

The resulting waveforms generated are shown in figure 2.16 :

Figure 2.16
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

2.7. SIMULATION # 6 :

Switching Input Logic Simulation :

To test the inverter,switching input logic need to be implemented.For this purpose the
date acquisition toolbox available in MATLAB Simulink was used.6 pins namely
4,5,8,9,1 and 16 were used which served as the input to the inverter.

To see how the things work,a model was created on MATLAB Simulink as shown in
figure 2.17 and the results of the simulation were recorded as follows :

Figure 2.17
 PART-II WORKING & SIMULATIONS

Note in figure 2.17 that a NOT block is used for pin number 1 because it is an active
low pin.

Figure 2.18
 PART-III
HARDWARE
 PART-III HARDWARE

3.1. SELECTION OF DEVICES :

The first step in design of inverter was to select the devices which are to be used as
controllable switches. The controllable switch should have the following properties :

1. Block arbitrarily large forward and reverse voltages with zero current flow
when off.
2. Conduct arbitrarily large currents with zero voltage drop when on
3. Switch from on to off or vice versa instantaneously when triggered.
4. Vanishingly small power required from control source to trigger the switch.

There are two kinds of switches that were considered for this design ,Insulated gate
bipolar transistors(IGBT’s) and MOSFET’s.To meet our specifications,the switch
needed ratings of about 20V and 1A.In addition,we wanted a switch which minimized
losses,therefore switches with lower on-state resistance are desirable.The IGBT
considered for this design was the SGH15N60RUFD.The MOSFET investigated was
IRF 540.

MOSFET is a voltage controlled device.It has lower on-state resistanec consequently

the on-state losses are lower,while the IGBT’s have high on-state losses.The
MOSFET also has a body drain diode,which is particularly
useful in dealing with limited free-wheeling currents.On the other hand the IGBT has
no body drain diode.But MOSFET losses increase faster with current as compared to
IGBT’s but this factor is not important for oue design since we are dealing with small
magnitude of current.
 PART-III HARDWARE

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 suggests that IGBT is certainly the device of choice for breakdown
voltages above 1000V while the MOSFET is certainly the device of choice for
breakdown voltages less than 250V.

Choosing between 250V to 1000V is very application specific and cost,size,speed and
thermal requirements should all be considered.

Generally IGBT’s are preferred for :

Low duty cycle.
Low frequency(less than 20khz)
Narrow or small line or load variations.
High voltage applications(greater than 1000V)

Where as MOSFET’s are preferred for :

Long duty cycle.
High frequency(greater than 200khz)
 PART-III HARDWARE

Wide line or load variations.

Low voltage applications(less than 250V)

So on the basis of switching speed, working voltage levels and cost,MOSFET seems
to be the device most suitable for our design.

3.2. INVERTERS :

Inverters are basically dc-ac converters.The function of an inverter is to change a DC

input voltage to a symmetric AC output voltage whose magnitude and frequency can
both be controlled.

The method in which the low voltage DC power is inverted,is completed in two
steps.In the first step the 220V ac is stepped down to 110V ac via a 2:1 transformer.In
the second step 110Va.c is converted to 110Vd.c with the help of a bridge rectifier
and this d.c

3.2.A. Types of Inverters :

There are three basic types of inverters available in the market these days depending
on their output waveform :

I. Square wave Inverters :

Square wave inverters simply reverse the polarity of the DC voltage 120 times per
second(each cycle consists of two polarity reversals)Square wave inverters are the
cheapest inverters available in the market today.Square wave inverters produce a lot
of humming in equipment connected to them so they are rarely used nowadays.
 PART-III HARDWARE

II. Modified Sine wave Inverters :

Modified sine wave inverters are the most popular inverters and have output
waveform which resembles a step wave.This type of inverter will work fine with most
equipment but the overall efficiency is reduced.

III. Pure Sine wave Inverters :

Pure sine wave inverters are the most expensive inverters available in the market
today.Their output is a pure sine wave.There are some equipments which require only
sine wave to operate so for these equipments pure sine wave inverters are used.These
type of inverters have the maximum efficiency.

Pure sine wave inverters can be further divided into two types as follows :

3.2.B. Voltage Fed Inverter (VFI) :

An inverter is called a voltage fed inverter if the input voltage remains constant.

3.2.C. Current Fed Inverter (CFI) :

An inverter is called a current fed inverter if the input current is maintained constant.
For the excitation of the DFIG we will use a special type of VFI called the PWM
inverter.

3.2.D. Pulse-Width-Modulated Inverter :

The gain of the inverter may be defined as :

Inverter Gain = V(out)ac / V(in)dc

 PART-III HARDWARE

By looking at above equation it is clear that a variable output voltage can be achieved
by varying the input DC voltage fed to the inverter and maintaining the gain of the
inverter constant.On the other hand,if the input DC voltage is fixed then the output
voltage can be changed by varying the gain of the inverter,which is normally
accomplished by pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control within the inverter.So such
type of inverters which make use of PWM to give variable output voltage are referred
to as PWM inverters.

3.3. TYPES OF CONTROL SIGNALS FOR INVERTER :

Next step was to decide the type of control signal to be used.For this purpose, two
types of control signals were studied.A brief overview of them is given below :

3.3.A. 180° Conduction :

Each MOSFET conducts for 180°.

Three MOSFET’s remain on at any instant of time.
There are six modes of operation in a cycle and the duration of each mode is
60°.

3.3.B. 120° Conduction :

Each MOSFET conducts for 120°.

Two MOSFET’s remain on at any instant of time.
There are three modes of operation in one half cycle and the duration of each
mode is 120°.
 PART-III HARDWARE

3.4. GATE DRIVER CIRCUITRY :

3.4.A. Introduction :

The gating circuit is an integral part of an inverter that consists of power

semiconductor switches.The output of an inverter that depends on how the gating
circuit drives the switching devices is a direct function of the switching.Therefore,the
characteristics of the gating circuit are key elements in achieving the desired output
and the control requirements of any inverter.The design of a gating circuit requires the
knowledge of gate characteristics and need of switching devices such as MOSFET’s
and IGBT’s etc.

3.4.B. Gate Driver :

The primary function of a drive circuit is to switch a power semiconductor device

from the off state to the on state and vice versa.From designing point of view,a low
cost circuit is desirable that minimizes the turn-on and turn-off times so that the power
device spends little time in traversing the active region where the instantaneous power
dissipation is large.In the on state the drive circuit must provide adequate drive power
( i.e. gate-source voltage to a MOSFET ),to keep the power switch in the on state
where the conduction losses are low.Very often the drive circuit must provide reverse
bias to the power switch control terminals to minimize turn-off times and to ensure
that the device remains in the off-state and is not triggered on by stray transient
signals generated by the switching of other power devices.

3.4.C. MOSFET Gate Driver Circuitry :

The drive circuit is the interface between the control circuit and the power switch.The
drive circuit amplifies the control signals to levels required to drive the power switch
 PART-III HARDWARE

and provides electrical isolation when required between the power switch and the
logic-level signal processing/control circuit.

MOSFET drive circuits need only an initial large current as the device turns-on and
for the rest of the on-state time interval merely provide a large gate-source voltage at
low current levels.

Provisions may be included in the drive circuit design for protection of the power
switch from overcurrents.Then communication between the drive circuit and the
control circuit is needed.In bridge circuits,the drive circuit must often provide
blanking times for the power switch.Incorporation of these types of functionality
requires design inputs to both the drive circuit and the logic-level control circuit.

The specific details of component values to be used in a drive circuit will vary
depending upon the characteristics of the power switch being driven.

3.4.D. Why Gate Driver Circuitry is needed :

To turn a power MOSFET on, the gate terminal must be set to a voltage at least 10
volts greater than the source terminal. This is comfortably above the Vgs(th) parameter.

One feature of power MOSFETs is that they have a large stray capacitance between
the gate and the other terminals. The effect of this is that when the pulse to the gate
terminal arrives, it must first charge this capacitance up before the gate voltage can
reach the 10V required. The gate terminal then effectively does take current.
Therefore the circuit that drives the gate terminal should be capable of supplying a
reasonable current so the stray capacitance can be charged up as quickly as possible.
The best way to do this is to use a dedicated MOSFET gate driver chip.
 PART-III HARDWARE

3.4.E. Gate Driver Design Considerations :

The basic topology of the drive circuit is dictated by three functional considerations :
Whether the output signal provided by the drive circuit is unipolar or bipolar.
Can the drive signals be directly coupled to the power switch.
Is the output of the drive circuit connected in parallel with the power switch
( the usual situation ) or in series with the switch ( cascade connection )

3.4.F. Gate Drive Requirements Of High Side Devices :

To use MOSFET as a high side switch i.e the drain is connected to the high voltage
rail, the following conditions must be kept in mind :

1. Gate voltage must be 10V to 15V higher than the source voltage.Being a high
side switch,such gate voltage would have to be higher than the rail
voltage,which is frequently the highest voltage available in the system.
2. The gate voltage must be controllable from the logic,which is normally
referenced to ground.Thus,the control signals have to be level-shifted to the
source of the high side power device,which,in most applications,swings
between the two rails.
3. The power absorbed by the gate drive circuitry should not significantly affect
the overall efficiency.
 PART-III HARDWARE

Figure 3.2

3.5. IR2110 MOSFET GATE DRIVER IC :

For the design of the gate driver circuitry,different IC’s were searched out.Finally,the
IR2110 MOSFET gate driver IC was found to be best suited for the design.It is
capable of 500V and a current rating of 2A at fast switching speeds.This device is
required to drive the high side MOSFET’s in the circuit designated HO,due to the fact
that the gate to source voltage must be higher than the drain to source voltage,which is
the highest voltage in the system.

A typical connection diagram of the IR2110 is shown in figure 3.3 :

 PART-III HARDWARE

Figure 3.3

Where :
VDD = Logic supply( 15V )
HIN = Logic input for high side gate driver output(HO)
LIN = Logic input for low side gate driver output(LO)
SD = Logic input for shutdown.
VSS = Logic ground
VB = High side floating supply
HO = High side gate driver output
LO = Low side gate driver output
VS = High side floating supply return
VCC = Low side supply
COM = Low side return
 PART-III HARDWARE

For a three phase inverter 3 gate driver IC’s will be required.A typical connection
diagram of the IR2110 for a three phase inverter is shown in figure 3.4 below :

Figure 3.4

3.6. EFFECT OF BLANKING TIME ON VOLTAGE IN PWM

INVERTERS :

In practice,the inverter switches does not change their state simultaneously from on to
off and vice versa.This may result in a situation where the two switches of the same
leg of the inverter may be in ON state simultaneously which will ultimately result in a
short circuit.

To avoid this condition usually a blanking time is provided while giving gate pulses to
the inverter.But the use of the gate driver IC simplifies this problem since it has built-
in time delay.
 PART-III HARDWARE

3.7. PROTECTION OF SWITCHING DEVICES :

Figure 3.5 shows the gate drive and drain waveforms for the three phase inverter for
15V DC supply.In this type of arrangement when the complementary MOSFET is
turned on,the drain voltage increases to about twice of the DC supply voltage( approx.
30V in this case ).As a result voltage spikes appear on the drain of the n-channel
power MOSFET when the gate of the MOSFET is turned off and also when the gate
of the complimentary MOSFET is turned on.

Figure 3.5

So in order to protect the switching devices,the following circuits are used,namely the
snubber circuits.
 PART-III HARDWARE

3.8. SNUBBER CIRCUIT :

Snubbers are circuits which are placed across semiconductor devices for protection
and to improve performance.

Snubber circuits perform specific for the protection of switching devices.These

functions include :

Reduce or eliminate voltage or current spikes.

Limit dV/dt and di/dt.
Transfer power dissipation from a switch to a resistor or useful load.
Reduce total losses due to switching.
Reduce EMI by damping voltage and current ringing.

3.8.A. Types of Snubber Circuits :

Depending upon the type of protection required for a particular circuit.Snubber

circuits may have the following types :

I. Diode Snubbers :

Diode snubbers are used in diode circuits to minimize overvoltages.

Overvoltages usually occur during the turn-off process.

II. BJT Snubbers :

BJT Snubbers experience stresses at turn-on and also at turn-off when both its current
and voltage are high simultaneously,thus causing an instantaneous power
dissipation.So a BJT circuit will require three snubbers namely turn-on snubber,turn-
off snubber and overvoltage snubber.
 PART-III HARDWARE

III. RC Snubbers :

An RC snubber circuit is used to reduce the peak voltage at turn-off and to damp the
ringing.Suitable values for the snubber circuit components ( R and C ) will result in a
desired protection circuit for the devices.

3.8.B. RC Snubber for MOSFET’s :

An RC turn-off snubber circuit as shown in figure 3.6 can be used to prevent voltage
spikes and voltage oscillations across a MOSFET during turn-off.The large peak
current handling capability of the MOSFET and the fact that its switching speed can
be easily controlled by controlling the gate current eliminates the need for a turn-on
snubber.

Figure 3.6

The resistance and capacitance values were calculated keeping in mind the frequency
and working voltage.So finally a 0.1µF/200V capacitor and a 100k O resistor were
used.
 PART-III HARDWARE

3.9. SWITCHING SIGNAL INPUT :

To test the inverter,control signals need to be implemented.For this

purpose,simulation 6 was used as described in part 2.

3.10. NEED FOR ELECTRICAL ISOLATION :

When the inverter circuit was tested in the laboratory,a little carelessness resulted in a
big problem.It so happened that due to a mistake made in the simulation two same
inputs were given to the gate driver IC which resulted in a short circuit.Since we
know that the short circuit current travels towards the source so the short circuit
current resulted in a damage to the respective parallel port pins of the laptop.

During the testing we faced this situation twice which resulted in failure of 4 pins of
the parallel port.So finally it was decided that there is need for some electrical
isolation to protect the parallel port pins.

There are usually two methods applies to achieve electrical isolation.These are :

I. Pulse Transformers :

Pulse transformers have one primary winding and can have one or more secondary
windings.Multiple secondary windings allow simultaneous gating signals to multiple
devices.

A disadvantage of this method is that at relatively long pulse and low switching
frequency,the transformer would saturate and its output will get distorted.Another
problem associated with the transformer is that it will produce harmonics which will
distort the input signal.
 PART-III HARDWARE

II. Optocouplers :

A better option was to use optocoupler.An optocoupler combines an infra-red LED, a

silicon phototransistor and a Schmitt trigger.The input signal is applied to the LED
and the output is taken from the Schmitt trigger.

When the signal reaches the LED it glows and the light is focused on the optically
sensitive base of the phototransistor.The light falling on the base region generates a
significant number of electron-hole pairs in the base region that causes the
phototransistor to turn-on.The resulting drop in voltage at the phototransistor collector
causes the Schmitt trigger to change state.The output of the Schmitt trigger is the
optocoupler output and can be used as the control input to the isolated drive circuit.

So finally it was decided that optocoupler is a better solution to our problem.The

optocoupler used for the circuit is ILQ74.The circuit of the optocoupler is attached for
reference in figure 3.7 :
 PART-III HARDWARE

Figure 3.7

3.11. POWER SUPPLY FOR THE OP-AMPS :

For the operation of the inverter,the gate driver IC and the buffer IC’s a DC voltage
was required for biasing,so for this purpose a 15V power supply was made.

The main components used for the power supply were the 4 diodes in bridge
configuration and the regulator IC LM317 along with a combination of resistors and
capacitors.
 PART-III HARDWARE

The circuit shown in figure 3.8 was used for the power supply :

Figure 3.8

After the designing of the inverter,optocoupler and the power supply circuits,the
inverter design is complete.The complete circuit of the inverter showing each sub
circuit is attached for reference in figure 3.9 :
PART-III HARDWARE

Figure 3.9
 PART-III HARDWARE

The physical circuit of the inverter is shown in figure 3.10 below :

Figure 3.10

In the inverter circuit some sort of cooling for the devices was felt necessary so for
this purpose a cooling fan was mounted on one half of the inverter.The cooling fan is
shown in figure 3.11 below :

Figure 3.11
 PART-III HARDWARE

3.12. TRIGGERING OF MOSFET’S THROUGH PARALLEL

PORT :

For the triggering of the MOSFET’s,the parallel port of the PC was used. The parallel
port consists of eight data lines, four control lines, five status lines, and eight ground
lines.The signals from the parallel port were connected to the hardware with the help
of a DB-25 female connector.

The pin outs of DB25 connector is shown in the picture below :

Figure 3.12

The lines in DB25 connector are divided in to three groups, they are :

1. Data Lines.
2. Control Lines.
3. Status Lines.

As the name refers , data is transferred over data lines.Pins 2 through 9 form the 8-bit
data port. This port is purely a write-only port. This means it can be used only to
output some data through it.
 PART-III HARDWARE

Control lines are used to control the peripheral and the peripheral returns status
signals back to computer through Status lines. Pins 1, 14, 16, and 17 form the control
port, which is capable of reading/writing. Pins 10 through 13 and pin 15 together form
the status port. The status port is a read-only port.Pins 18 to 25 are used for the
ground.

The MATLAB R2008b Simulink supports the parallel port interfacing for general I/O
through Data Acquisition ToolBox.The signals were derived successfully from the
parallel port.As described in part 2 the pins 4,5,8,9,1 and 16 of the parallel port were
used for triggering the MOSFET’s.The output from the parallel port was tested with
the help of LED’s and was measured to be 3.3V.

3.13.VOLTAGE FOLLOWER / BUFFER :

At the output of the parallel port switching signal’s magnitude was measured and it
was observed that the magnitude of the signal is 3.3V.Since the voltage requirement
of the gate driver IC is 15V so an intermediate circuitry commonly known as the
voltage follower or buffer was used to amplify the signal to 15V.

The IC LM741 was selected to be used as the buffer.By proper selection of the
resistance values the desired output voltage can be achieved.

3.13.A. Pin Configuration of LM741 :

Figure 3.13
 PART-III HARDWARE

Each gate driver IC will require two 15V inputs,one for the LIN pin and one for the
HIN pin so overall there are six 15V inputs required.In other words there are six
buffer circuits required.

3.14. TESTING OF HARDWARE :

After the designing of the inverter,it was time to test the final circuit.The testing of the
inverter includes the observation of the line and phase voltages.

The waveform of the phase voltage of the inverter was recorded in figure 3.14 below :

Figure 3.14
 PART-III HARDWARE

Figure 3.15 shows the line voltage of the inverter which shows the switching of the
current from the positive to the negative cycle.

Figure 3.15
 PART-III HARDWARE

The output of the DFIG was analysed and is recorded in figure 3.16 shown below :

Figure 3.16
 PART-IV
CONTROL FEEDBACK
LOOP
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

4.1. DESIGNING OF INTERFACING CIRCUIT :

After the prototype was successfully tested,the next step was to do the monitoring of
the output of the DFIG.For this purpose the audio port of the computer was used. An
intermediate circuit which is basically an interfacing circuit was needed to monitor the
output of the DFIG.Different circuits were looked upon for this purpose,finally we
came up with a circuit which was very simple and cost effective and it served the
purpose very well.

The circuit that was used for the interfacing of the DFIG and MATLAB was the
commonly used circuit known as the voltage divider.By suitable values of the
resistances,the circuit was made.

In order to protect the audio port from any short circuit,the op-amp LM741 was
used.Since LM741 cannot source more than 25mA current,so its use ensures the
safety of the audio port.In addition a 0.2mA fuse was also added to the interfacing
circuit to ensure further safety of the audio port.The interfacing circuit diagram is
attached for reference in figure 4.1 :

Figure 4.1
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

After designing the interfacing circuit,the prototype was run and the output was sent
to MATLAB via interfacing circuit.In MATLAB the function ‘softscope’ was used to
observe the output.Figure 4.2 shows the output observed :

Figure 4.2

In the above figure output frequency of 50Hz is observed.

4.2. CONTROLLING METHOD :

In practical wind turbines,the output of the DFIG changes if a change in load or wind
speed occurs.This causes a change in voltage and so there must be some sort of
control strategy to control the power flow.For this purpose a control feedback loop
can be made which will ensure proper operation of DFIG under any sort of unbalance
conditions.

In order to design the control feedback loop,we first must know the parameters to be
controlled in order to get a stable output.Since the parameter of our interest is
voltage,so we will control the voltage applied to the rotor of the DFIG.For designing
the control feedback loop PID controller was used.
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

4.3. PID CONTROLLER :

PID is an acronym for proportional,integral and derivative.A PID controller is a
controller that includes elements with those three functions.PID control is the method
of feedback control that uses the PID controller as the main tool.The basic structure of
a conventional feedback control system is shown in figure 4.3 :

Figure 4.3

A PID controller calculates an error value as the difference between a measured

process variable and a desired setpoint. The controller attempts to minimize the error
by adjusting the process control inputs. In the absence of knowledge of the underlying
process, PID controllers are the best controllers.However, for best performance, the
PID parameters used in the calculation must be tuned according to the nature of the
system.

PID controllers are designed to eliminate the need for continuous operator attention.
Cruise control in a car and a house thermostat are common examples of how
controllers are used to automatically adjust some variable to hold the measurement (or
process variable) at the set-point. The set-point is where you would like the
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

measurement to be. Error is defined as the difference between set-point and

measurement.

(error) = (set-point) - (measurement)

The variable being adjusted is called the manipulated variable which usually is equal
to the output of the controller. The output of PID controllers will change in response
to a change in measurement or set-point.

The PID controller controls a system based on the tuning of the P,I and D
parameters.Now we will see the effect of tuning the P,I and D parameters separately
on the response of a system:

4.3.A. Proportional Term :

The proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current
error value.The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a
constant Kp, called the proportional gain.The effect of proportional term can be
observed as shown in fig 4.4 :

Figure 4.4
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

The proportional term is given by:

Pout = Kp e(t)

where

Pout : Proportional term of output.

Kp : Proportional gain, a tuning parameter.
e: Error = SP - PV
t: Time or instantaneous time.

A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in
the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable. In
contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a
less responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control
action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.

4.3.B. Integral Term :

The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the
error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time
(integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected
previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to
the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to the
overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki. The effect of integral
term can be observed as shown in fig 4.5 :
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

Figure 4.5

The integral term is given by:

Iout = Ki 0?t e( G ) dG

where

Iout: Integral term of output.

Ki: Integral gain, a tuning parameter.
e: Error = SP - PV
t: Time or instantaneous time.
G: a dummy integration variable.

The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of
the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs
with a proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to
accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the
setpoint value (cross over the setpoint and then create a deviation in the other
direction).
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

4.3.C. Derivative Term :

The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the
error over time (i.e., its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate
of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the
derivative term (sometimes called rate) to the overall control action is termed the
derivative gain, Kd.The effect of derivative term can be observed as shown in fig 4.6 :

Figure 4.6

The derivative term is given by:

Dout = Kd d/dt e (t)

where

Dout: Derivative term of output.

Kd: Derivative gain, a tuning parameter.
e: Error = SP - PV
t: Time or instantaneous time.
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is
most noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative control is used to
reduce the magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and
improve the combined controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a
signal amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise
in the error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the
derivative gain are sufficiently large.

4.4. IMPLEMENTATION OF PID ON MATLAB :

Figure 4.7
 PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

To realize how the PID controller is working,the model of the three phase inverter
was controlled with the help of PID as shown in figure 4.7.The output of each phase
was compared with a reference signal and the difference of the two signals was given
to the PID.The PID will generate the values for Kp,Ki,Kd and these values are
multiplied by the input sine waves and the resultant will finally control the
modulation index of the PWM generator.In other words,when load increases,the
voltage drops thus,a stable output can be achieved by the use of PID.Upper part of the
figure 4.8 shows the comparison between the reference signal and the generator
output voltage and the second waveform shows the output of the PID controller.

Figure 4.8

If the PID was not used the output will no more be stable with the change in
load.Finally the output of the DFIG controlled via PID is indicated in figure 4.9 below
:
PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

Figure 4.9
PART-IV CONTROL FEEDBACK LOOP

Figure 4.10
REFERENCES

1) Energy Storage and Reactive Power Compensator in a Large Wind Farm

E. Muljadi and C.P. Butterfield, National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
R. Yinger, Southern California Edison. H. Romanowitz, Oak CreekEnergy

2) Hans Øverseth Røstøen Tore M. Undeland Terje Gjengedal’ IEEE paper

on doubly fed induction generator in a wind turbine.

3) Analysis, Modeling and Control of Doubly-Fed Induction Generators for

Wind Turbines Andreas Petersson, Department of Electric Power
Engineering CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,
Goteborg, Sweden 2003

4) F. Abrahamsen. Energy Optimal Control of Induction Motor Drives.

Ph.D. Thesis, Aalborg University, 2000.

5) Application Note AN-978

HV Floating MOS-Gate Driver ICs

6) Maxim Application Note 3835

CCFL Push-Pull Snubber Circuit
APPENDIX-A DATASHEETS
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 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
___________________________________________________________

Dear sir,

We are submitting herewith our report entitled “To investigate and

implement a closed loop control method for Double fed Induction
Generator using MATLAB”.

This report is a compilation of our findings from the work that we

completed during the year 2010, as our final year project (project code
“22/2006”). The report shows a detail scope of works, approaches, and
methodologies.

We would like to articulate our deep gratitude to you for your valuable
suggestions and constant encouragement throughout the project.

If you have any queries regarding the compilation of this report,please

feel free to contact us.

Sincerely,
Group Members.
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