Bull Eng Geol Environ
DOI 10.1007/s10064-017-1011-x
ORIGINAL PAPER
Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh
city, KSA
Alaa A. Masoud1 • Ahmed Khalaf Abdel Aal2,3
Received: 14 December 2016 / Accepted: 15 January 2017
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017
Abstract A standard penetration test (SPT) was carried
out for 700 samples from 143 boreholes in four districts in
Riyadh city, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Rock
quality designation (RQD) and unconfined compression
strength (UCS) tests were also performed for 238 samples
from 154 boreholes in 15 districts of the city. Three-di-
mensional (3D) models of the SPT, RQD, and UCS were
produced using the Voxler 3 software package. Further,
333 soil samples collected from 106 boreholes in 11 dis-
tricts were examined to spatially model the distinctive
geotechnical patterns of the alluvial soils in two dimen-
sions. Tests were carried out to determine the soil grain
size distribution, natural water content (NWC%), Atter-
berg’s consistency limits [liquid limit (LL%), plastic limit
(PL%), and plasticity index (PI%)], and soil–water chem-
ical components (pH Cl-, SO32-, and CO3-). Spatial maps
of the geotechnical parameters were produced by applying
the geostatistical ordinary kriging implemented in ArcGIS.
Soil samples were classified according to the unified soil
classification system (USCS), and a thickness of the silty
clay layer was produced. Plasticity charts indicated that the
soils are inorganic cohesive clays with low and moderate
plasticity (CL). Soil strength parameters showed wide
ranges of UCS (average 220, range 21.3–618 kg/cm2), SPT
(average 39, 0–100 N), and RQD (average 44, 11–78%).
& Alaa A. Masoud
alaa_masoud@science.tanta.edu.eg
1
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University,
Tanta 31527, Egypt
2
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar
University, Assiut Branch, Assiut, Egypt
3
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,
Najran University, PO Box 1988, Najran, Saudi Arabia
UCS and SPT 3D models clarified a regional southeastward
trend of increase. RQD 3D models showed poor to fair
engineering quality of rocks (25–75%). The results pre-
sented here can help to establish geohazard zonation maps
with construction favorability ratings for safe urban
expansion.
Keywords Alluvial soils
Geotechnical modeling
GIS

3D models
Riyadh
KSA
Introduction
Population growth and associated continuous urban
development put much pressure on governments, which
face challenges in delivering public services to citizens in
many countries. Suppliers struggle to provide directions for
improving efficiency, while addressing issues of sustain-
able resource management in order to support very high
average human development indicators. Urban planning in
major rapidly growing cities with high anthropogenic
pressure and significant socio-economic problems requires
an in-depth knowledge and accurate integrated multi-di-
mensional modeling of the geotechnical hazards and spatial
variability of the geological and geotechnical properties of
the soils upon which cities are built (Kolat et al. 2012;
Donghee et al. 2012). Traditional geotechnical maps are
restricted in their ability to depict the subsurface across a
range of depths and to chart the variations in geotechnical
properties underground; however, a three-dimensional (3D)
geological model has been shown to be a robust tool for
representing and analyzing the conditions underground;
see, for example, Royse et al. (2009), and Thierry et al.
(2009). Such models can help accurately identify, and thus
avoid, future geotechnical hazards, and properly select and
123

design suitable surface and subsurface foundation systems
for successful and rational land use planning.
Factors related to geological and hydrogeological con-
ditions, climatology, and human practices, either individ-
ually or combined, govern the geotechnical variability of
soils (Phien-wej et al. 2006; Chrétien et al. 2007). The
ability of soils to swell or shrink, and hence to change
volume, makes alluvial clays that are most likely over-
consolidated (Dhowian et al. 1985) significantly hazardous
to constructions, which can result in land subsidence, dif-
ferential settlements, and building collapse (Stavridakis
2006; Hyndman and Hyndman 2009). Changes in volume
and hydrochemical content of these clays are significant in
arid and semi-arid areas, justifying their close analysis to
disclose possible geotechnical hazards. In these areas,
changes in soil water content are often brought about by
local site changes, such as leakage from water supply pipes
or drains, or can be associated with a pattern of short
periods of rainfall followed by long dry periods resulting in
seasonal cycles of soil swelling and shrinkage (Cameron
2006; Clayton et al. 2010).
Clayey soils with high swelling potential undergo
excessive volume change upon contact with water and
exert upward pressure under foundations, resulting in
damage to structural elements, which induces heave
cracking and breaking of foundations, slabs, and walls
(Dhowian et al. 1988). Unraveling the accurate spatial
geotechnical and geological constraints of these clays and
their spatial variability is therefore imperative when
investigating land suitability for construction, and for land
use management on limited soil resources. Such analysis
can play a decisive role in helping to efficiently prioritize
areas with cost effective optimization of construction
times, efficient setting of hazard mitigation measures, and
to design projects for safe extension with appropriate and
reliable foundation systems to compensate for geotechnical
risks or overspends (e.g., Parsons and Frost 2002; Hack
et al. 2006; De Rienzo et al. 2008). However, current
geotechnical tests that are widely performed to understand
the potential problems of soils can be time-consuming,
expensive, and limited. This call for the use of a multi-
disciplinary approach that can integrate various multivari-
ate statistical and geostatistical techniques in a
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) environment.
The present research therefore aimed to evaluate 2D and
3D geotechnical models of the alluvial clays in Riyadh
City, KSA. The goal was to enable prioritization of land
suitability of already settled areas, and to determine if
further precautions were needed for safer planning actions
or remediation. Such studies has been rarely addressed in
KSA, despite the significant socio-economic impacts of
geotechnical hazards, the catastrophic effects of which are
often amplified by high anthropic pressure.
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A. A. Masoud, A. K. A. Aal
The study area and its geotechnical problems
Study area
Riyadh city (Fig. 1) was established on the alluvial plain of
Wadi Batha, a tributary of Wadi Hanifah. The elevation is
below 550 m in the third industrial zone and Al-Kharj road
areas, and reaches its maximum of 1000 m to the west
(Fig. 2). The general slope of the area points southeast. The
climate is characterized by constant hot prevailing winds
with low precipitation. Summer air temperatures reach
45–50 °C. A daily variation of 15 °C in temperature is not
uncommon. Temperatures in winter average 20 °C, and
could well drop to below 5 °C. Such climatic conditions
enhance evaporation, bringing the evaporation precipita-
tion ratio to 1:30 (Dakhil and Al Gahtani 1982). Most years
are very dry but rainfall occurs at intervals of 7–10 years
with high intensity in very short periods, creating flash
floods and causing high salt concentration at the end of the
horizontal flow together with significant erosion of soil.
The population of the city was 40,000 in 1935 and
83,000 in 1949 (Elsheshtawy 2008), and is now over 7
million, according to the most recent sources. The planning
process in the city is still related directly to the urban limits
policies to reduce the unplanned growth and urban dis-
persal of the city. An unexpected and dynamic population
growth took place between 1976 and 1990, associated with
the economic boom resulting from rising oil prices.
Government expenditure increased sharply and the rate of
urban development reached high levels that superseded the
proposed plans. The first master plan (Doxiadis Company,
approved in 1973) recommended expansion along the
north–south direction, parallel to Wadi Hanifa, contrary to
the traditional development corridor in the east–west
direction, to avoid directing the city growth towards Wadi
Hanifa. Until 2011, the developed land in the city reached
1219 km2, and is expected to expand to 2500 km2 in 2029.
The area allocated for urban development is expected to
reach 2395 km2 in 2014, and 3115 km2 in 2029. This rapid
expansion beyond its original walls in 1950 has made it one
of the three largest metropolitan areas in the kingdom,
together with Makkah and Jeddah. The future structure and
land use plan 2030 for the city recommends North–East
extension, including many aspects of land use, such as
residential, commercial, public facilities, industrial, recre-
ation and resorts, open places and public utilities.
Problematic soils in Riyadh
Quaternary Wadi deposits of fluvial or aeolian origin,
including clay, silt, sand and gravel, cover about 30% of
the city, and are concentrated in the city center and its
eastern areas. Gravels inter-bedded with weathered
Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh city, KSA
Fig. 1 Location of boreholes
and physiographic features of
Riyadh city, KSA
limestone and solution-collapse breccia extend to 1 m
below Babnban, and increase gradually southeastward to
9 m at the third industrial zone. A silty clay layer, 2 m
thick, spreads widely in the central area in Al Malaz and Al
Aziziyah areas, separating the weathered limestone from
the underlying cavernous limestone (Fig. 3). Fragmented
limestone is encountered frequently. Solution-collapse of
less resistant soft and porous breccia of the slumping car-
bonate beds has resulted from the dissolution of near-sur-
face anhydrites (Rahim 1981). These were deposited as a
conflux of numerous Wadi channels entering from the west
and north in a dynamic regime where the channel courses
were subject to frequent changes over time during the late
Tertiary and Quaternary ‘‘wet’’ periods. This type of soil
presents many problems during construction due to its high
permeability, particularly where sound rock bed underlies
the soil.
The other common problematic soils in the Riyadh area
are collapsing, shrinking, and loessal soils. Collapsing soils
are characterized as alluvial wadi deposits consisting pri-
marily of sand with varying amounts of gravel, silt and
clay. Alluvial collapsing deposit in the east of Riyadh for
soil samples collected at depths of from 1.5 to 9 m are
characterized by geotechnical properties with the following
ranges: silt and clay size fraction (8–40%), natural water
content (0–15%), liquid limit (20–40%), plasticity index
(5–20), and relative compaction (70–100%) (Dhowian and
Touma 1991). Shrinking soils in the Riyadh area (Zeleii
1984) are characterized by a shrinkage limit of about 20%,
shrinkage of 4–6%, maximum dry density of 17.5 kN/m3,
organic matter content of 19%, liquid limit of 25%, plastic
limit of 23%, and sand content of 89%. Al-Refai and Al-
Ghamdy (1994) carried out shear strength and Plate-load
tests on undisturbed soil samples from the east of Riyadh in
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Fig. 2 Elevation map with
contours of Riyadh city
natural dry and soaked conditions. The behaviour of dry
soil was considered essentially elastic, and able to support
a large load with small settlement. The soaking process
considerably reduced soil cohesion, from 225 to 25 kPa,
and hence reduced the bearing capacity. Wetting the soil
produced a significant reduction in soil modulus and void
ratio, and resulted in irrecoverable settlement. Loessal
soils, i.e., wind-blown deposits of very loose structure,
have low density and are highly compressible. In the
Riyadh area, these soils indicate significant collapse
potential, exceeding 10% on saturation even at relatively
low pressure (Al-Solai 1983). They have a liquid limit of
17%, shrinkage limit of 15%, natural water content of 3%,
organic matter content (OMC) 9.6%, and maximum dry
density of 20 kN/m3.
The unstable and continuously changing soil profile
triggered by scarce but intense rainfall, severe climate
conditions, rising salt, cavities, weathered rocks, expansive
123
A. A. Masoud, A. K. A. Aal
and collapsible potential, affects geotechnical practices in
Riyadh. Alternating wetting and drying increases salt
content, activates swell potential and causes collapse. To
overcome these problems and avoid flash flood problems in
washing out foundations, foundation type and level should
be selected with these problems in mind. Properly con-
ducted site investigations with detailed elaboration and
identification of the particular problems encountered prior
to design and foundation selection, would reduce risks
related to the subsurface conditions.
Data and methodology
Geotechnical data analysis
A standard penetration test (SPT) was carried out on 700
samples from 143 boreholes in four districts (Kharj Al
Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh city, KSA
Fig. 3 a Representative boreholes. b The drilling machine used. c Core samples
Riyadh Road, Babnban, 3rd Industrial Zone, and Tibrak).
Rock quality designation (RQD) and unconfined com-
pression strength (UCS) tests ware carried out on 238
samples from 154 boreholes in 15 districts. Three-dimen-
sional models of the UCS, RQD, and SPT were produced
using the Voxler 3 software package (http://www.gold
ensoftware.com/products/voxler) and a 3D database was
built and visualized. This database comprised all the
selected data for the city, adopting a procedure developed
to predict more reliably the spatial geotechnical informa-
tion and their layers. Further, geological investigations,
in situ, and laboratory-based geotechnical tests from 106
boreholes selected according to specific criteria have been
homogenized, classified, and archived in a GIS database
thus far. Filtering criteria are based on selecting boreholes
with a reliable location, detailed measuring of stratigraphic
logs with continuous coring vertical profile up to a depth of
20 m from the surface, and complete in situ and laboratory
tests that are statistically homogeneous with the whole data
at a confidence level above 95%.
The selected boreholes have a set of geotechnical
information comprising the soils’ natural water content
(NWC %), Atterberg’s consistency limits [liquid limit (LL
%), plastic limit (PL %), and plasticity index (PI %)], soil–
water chemical components (pH Cl-, SO32-, and CO3-),
and grain size distribution. Soil samples were classified
according to the unified soil classification system (USCS),
and the thickness of the silty clay layer was produced. This
database enables users to examine the geotechnical data
referenced by spatial coordinates, and to export these data
in the form of an ASCII or a DXF file that can be imported
easily into other numerical GIS tools.
For the 3D models, the inverse distance weighing (IDW)
gridding method was used, while the geostatistical ordinary
kriging implemented in ArcGIS was applied for the 2D
layers. Minimum error was achieved between measured
and predicted values for both the 2D layers and 3D models.
The Voxler 3 software package implements three methods,
namely Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW), Data Metric,
and Local Polynomial for gridding. All three methods were
examined. Model accuracy was also visually inspected by
comparing the produced iso-surfaces and the scatterplot of
the sampling points. Interpretation of the results with the
aid of iso-surfaces enables the accuracy of the result to be
examined in a more objective way. This is quite helpful to
ensure achievement of reliable results. The IDW grids and
iso-surfaces produced proved efficient in simulating the
real data with lowest error close to the sampling points. In
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 A. A. Masoud, A. K. A. Aal

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the geotechnical parameters

NWC Atterberg limits % USCS Chemical analysis Grain size %
-
% LL PL PI pH Cl SO32- CO3 Gravel Sand Fines

Ash Shifa
Min 0.6 22 5 SM 7.72 0.024 0.075
Max 13.1 35 7 SC 7.88 0.03 0.092
Mean 4.83 30.00 6.00 7.80 0.03 0.08
Std 7.16 7.00 1.00 0.08 0.00 0.01
Counts 3 3 3 3 3 3
Sajir
Min 0.3 22 9 13 SM 0 0 0
Max 30.1 48 18 39 CL 7.84 0.232 0.288
Mean 10.48 34.18 10.65 23.53 7.76 0.15 0.20
Std 9.18 7.64 3.02 8.05 0.06 0.05 0.05
Counts 39 17 17 17 8 8 8
Al Malaz
Min 0.90 16.00 14.00 2.00 SC-SM 7.47 0.01 0.04 0.70
Max 14.8 23 17 6 SM 7.58 0.024 0.086 7.54
Mean 8.43 18.60 16.00 4.00 ML 7.53 0.02 0.07 3.12
Std 4.75 3.21 1.41 2.00 GM 0.06 0.01 0.02 3.83
Counts 8 5 4 3 SP-SM 3 3 3 3
Al Murabba
Min 2.10 22.00 14.00 5.00 SM 7.70 0.02 0.08 0.00
Max 14 35 28 7 SC 7.88 0.03 0.092
Mean 8.38 30.00 23.00 6.00 7.77 0.03 0.08
Std 5.06 7.00 7.81 1.00 0.10 0.00 0.01
Counts 6 3 3 3 3 3 3
Ad Diriyah
Min 0.10 17.00 14.00 3.00 GC-GM 11.80 35.10 8.60
Max 1.1 30 25 9 GW-GM 53 46.3 43.6
Mean 0.54 23.43 17.71 5.71 SC 33.34 40.81 25.84
Std 0.36 3.95 3.45 2.06 SM 13.08 4.39 11.63
Counts 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
Min 0.30 23.00 14.00 8.00 GC 26.10 13.30 33.50
Al Malqa
Max 10.9 28 16 12 50.1 35.9 45.4
Mean 3.30 25.33 15.00 10.33 36.25 24.85 38.90
Std 3.93 2.52 1.00 2.08 8.72 8.24 4.73
Counts 6 3 3 3 6 6 6
An Nuzhah
Min 2.10 24.00 18.00 5.00 SC-SM 7.43 0.01 0.04 0.54 29.00 30.00 4.30
Max 14 25 20 6 GM 7.58 0.024 0.086 7.54 44 55 35.2
Mean 8.38 24.50 19.00 5.50 GP 7.51 0.02 0.07 2.48 38.60 44.82 20.63
Std 5.06 0.71 1.41 0.71 SC 0.07 0.01 0.02 3.39 7.10 9.84 10.34
Counts 6 2 2 2 SM 4 4 4 4 6 6 6
Al Khalij-Alquwayiyah
Min 0.60 17.00 14.00 1.00 SP-SM 0.00 29.30 3.80
Max 19.9 35 28 10 SC-SM 43.4 94.4 70.7
Mean 10.27 22.35 18.29 4.06 SM 10.53 73.53 15.93
Std 4.01 4.99 3.37 2.11 SP 10.21 14.82 12.61
Counts 59 17 17 17 58 58 58

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Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh city, KSA

Table 1 continued
NWC Atterberg limits % USCS Chemical analysis Grain size %
- 2-
% LL PL PI pH Cl SO3 CO3 Gravel Sand Fines

As Suwaidi
Min 1.20 22.00 18.00 4.00 SP-SM 14.00 14.40 2.40
Max 14 22 18 4 SW 77.8 76.4 21.6
Mean 7.67 22.00 18.00 4.00 SM 46.61 42.21 11.17
Std 2.77 SC-SM 18.95 18.16 5.46
Counts 15 1 1 1 GM 15 15 15
Al Aziziyah
Min 2.10 24.00 18.00 5.00 23.50 29.10 4.30
Max 14 25 20 6 43.7 58.9 35.2
Mean 8.38 24.50 19.00 5.50 33.75 45.62 20.63
Std 5.06 0.71 1.41 0.71 8.14 10.93 10.34
Counts 6 2 2 2 6 6 6
Al Qirawan
Min 0.30 23.00 14.00 8.00 26.10 13.30 33.50
Max 10.9 28 16 12 50.1 35.9 45.4
Mean 3.30 25.33 15.00 10.33 36.25 24.85 38.90
Std 3.93 2.52 1.00 2.08 8.72 8.24 4.73
Counts 6 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 6 6 6
Riyadh
Min 0.1 16 6 1 7.43 0.011 0.04 0.54 0 13.3 2.4
Max 21.9 46 28 39 7.88 0.118 0.18 7.54 77.8 94.4 70.7
Mean 8.15 24.28 16.76 7.77 7.64 0.04 0.10 2.75 23.20 57.93 19.11
Std 5.24 6.12 4.82 7.20 0.14 0.04 0.04 3.13 18.67 23.19 13.32
Counts 135 51 50 49 16 16 16 9 106 106 106

NWC Natural water content, LL liquid limit, PL plastic limit, PI plasticity index, USCS unified soil classification system

contrast, local polynomial gridding results in a smooth iso-
surfaces. In the case of the Data Metric method, the created
models differ greatly from the real data. Therefore, IDW
was the most suitable gridding method given the available
set of the irregularly spaced data points of relatively low
density in Riyadh.
Results and discussion
Geotechnical properties
The geotechnical parameters (Table 1) showed the fol-
lowing ranges: NWC (0.1–21.9%), LL (16–46%), PL
(6–28%), PI (18-78.6%), pH (7.43–7.88 m), CO3-
(0.54–7.44), UCS (21.3–618 kg/cm2), SPT (0–100 N), and
RQD (11–78%). Such wide ranges suggest that multiple
sources and/or complex geological/hydrogeological pro-
cesses affect the spatial variability of these geotechnical
properties. For NWC, LL, and PI, the Sajir site attained the
largest averages of 10.48%, 34.18%, and 23.53%, and
largest maximum values of 30.1%, 48%, and 39%,
respectively. Riyadh soils are dominated by sand (averag-
ing 57.93%), followed by gravel (averaging 23.20%), and
fines (averaging 19.11%). Gravels dominated in As
Suwaidi, with an average of 46.6% and a maximum of
77.8%. Sands prevailed in Al Khalij-Alquwayiyah, with
mean of 73.5% and a maximum of 94.4%. Fines dominated
with average of 38.9% in Al Qirawan, and reached its
maximum in 70.7% in Al Khalij-Alquwayiyah.
Plasticity characteristics
A Casagrande (1932) plasticity chart (Fig. 4) showed that
the majority of the soil samples were clay with low or
moderate plasticity (CL). All samples are plotted above the
A-line, except for three samples located in the organic or
inorganic silts of medium compressibility (MH-OL). The
soils tend to show a general increase in PI, which can be
best determined linearly at R2 = 0.71 against LL.

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 A. A. Masoud, A. K. A. Aal

Fig. 4 Plasticity chart of the

soils

Fig. 5 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) three dimensional (3D) models with a sample distribution, b 3D model, and c, d iso-surfaces
from two opposite directions

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Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh city, KSA

Table 2 Descriptive statistics of the N values of the standard penetration test (SPT)
Samples/no. of Elevation Depth SP Samples/no. of Elevation Depth SP
boreholes (m) boreholes (m)

3rd Industrial zone Babnban

Min 71/16 6 0 17 Min 237/47 6 0 0
Max 20 10.5 100 Max 8 10.50 61
Mean 8 5.25 64 Mean 6.61 5.23 27
Std 4.43 3.45 22 Std 0.92 3.43 17
Counts 16 128 71 Counts 47 374 237
Tibrak Al Kharj Ryadh Road
Min 8/5 6 0 23 Min 384/75 3 0 5
Max 10 10.5 69 Max 8 10.5 100
Mean 6.80 5.25 51 Mean 6.73 5.25 42
Std 1.79 3.48 18 Std 1.07 3.44 18
Counts 5 40 8 Counts 75 600 384
Riyadh
Min 700/143 3 0 0
Max 20 10.5 100
Mean 7 5 39
Std 1.6 3 21
Counts 1119 1132 700

Fig. 6 Standard penetration test (SPT) 3D models with a sample distribution, b 3D model, and c, d iso-surfaces from two opposite directions

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 A. A. Masoud, A. K. A. Aal

Table 3 Descriptive statistics of the rock quality designation (RQD) parameters

District No. of boreholes Depth UCS (kg/cm2) RQD % District No. of Depth UCS (kg/cm2) RQD %
boreholes

Al Aziziyah An Nuzhah
Min 5 3.75 200 23 Min 7 0.85 104.4 23
Max 9.5 321 65 Max 10 322 65
Mean 5.20 239.28 42.20 Mean 5.78 226.09 37.11
Std 2.49 48.66 17.22 Std 2.71 66.78 12.21
Counts 5 5 5 Counts 18 18 18
Ad Diriyah Al Malqa
Min 7 3 165 43 Min 5 3 233 23
Max 6 343 76 Max 6 343 27
Mean 4.00 246.14 54.86 Mean 4.00 283.40 24.20
Std 1.15 64.73 12.44 Std 1.22 55.46 1.79
Counts 7 7 7 Counts 5 5 5
As Suwaidi Al Murabba
Min 6 0.75 251 23 Min 7 1.5 213 23
Max 9.5 618 54 Max 9 432 54
Mean 4.87 365.93 41.60 Mean 4.50 281.33 37.22
Std 3.20 102.38 10.22 Std 2.60 73.30 10.88
Counts 15 15 15 Counts 9 9 9
Al Qirawan Al Malaz
Min 5 3 122 44 Min 5 4.5 200 45
Max 6 312 76 Max 23 342 66
Mean 4.00 233.20 57.40 Mean 11.82 269.22 57.73
Std 1.22 77.91 13.74 Std 5.75 54.42 7.39
Counts 5 5 5 Counts 11 11 11
Hittin Ash Shifa
Min 5 0.85 41 36 Min 6 1.5 232 44
Max 9 435 77 Max 9 451 77
Mean 4.40 262.69 52.12 Mean 4.50 365.30 58.00
Std 2.68 82.91 13.13 Std 2.45 66.80 10.00
Counts 18 18 17 Counts 10 10 10
Hijrat Laban Namar
Min 4 0.85 106.1 11 Min 79 0.75 21.3 11
Max 9.5 245.4 54 Max 17.25 326 65
Mean 5.20 161.98 27.92 Mean 3.86 157.71 37.24
Std 2.25 41.23 16.37 Std 2.73 58.37 12.02
Counts 13 13 13 Counts 80 80 79
Khanshalilah Al Hada
Min 4 0.85 41 32 Min 5 0.85 98 34
Max 9 452 77 Max 9.5 253.4 78
Mean 3.86 300.50 51.92 Mean 5.00 166.59 54.50
Std 2.35 114.87 15.42 Std 2.30 53.43 10.13
Counts 14 14 13 Counts 18 18 18
As Safah Riyadh
Min 4 0.85 98 49 Min 154 0.75 21.3 11
Max 9.5 245.4 78 Max 23 618 78
Mean 5.06 158.91 59.90 Mean 4.78 220 44
Std 2.55 51.18 8.65 Std 3.18 97.27 15
Counts 10 10 10 Counts 238 238 235

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Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh city, KSA

Three-dimensional strength properties of soils Standard penetration test

The UCS along with RQD and the N values of the SPT are
important soil strength parameters. The 3D models of these
parameters are described below.
Unconfined compressive strength
The UCS determines the bearing capacity of foundations
and is related to the consistency of the soil, where the
harder the soil, the higher the UCS and the shear strength.
Successful stabilization of expansive soils rely greatly,
therefore, on increasing the compressive strength by
reducing the PI and hence the swelling potential (e.g.,
ASTM 2005). The UCS clarified a regional southeastward
increase to reach 380 kg/cm2 in Ash Shifa, and decreases
southwestward to about 280 kg/cm2 (Fig. 5).
SPT N-values are used to estimate consistency, strength
and, in some cases, soil compressibility. The city revealed
an average N value of 39, with values, recorded at an
average depth of 5–6 m below the ground surface, being
largest for the 3rd industrial zone (64), Tibrak (51), Al
Kharj-Al Riyadh road (42), and Babnban (27). A south-
eastward trend of increase was confirmed for SPT N val-
ues, which reached a maximum of 100 at the Al Kharj-Al
Riyadh road and the 3rd industrial zone, followed by
Tibrak (69), and then Babnban (61) (Table 2). SPT
N values then generally decreased northwestward (Fig. 6)
with a local high that exceeded 50 indicating very dense
soil or rock occurs at the surface in the 3rd industrial
zone, Namar, As Shifa, Al Aziziyah, and Khanshaliyah;
lowest values were observed in Babnban district. The

Fig. 7 RQD 3D models with a sample distribution, b 3D model, and c, d iso-surfaces from two opposite directions

123

Fig. 8 Fines, sand, and gravel distribution
southern local high disappears at 3 m, where the soils
become generally dense (about 40) in the south, and the
soil materials become loose (about 10) in the northern
parts. The local high appears again at 6 m and continues
downward to 7.5 m below the ground surface. The
123
A. A. Masoud, A. K. A. Aal
southeastwards SPT N values increase is related mostly to
the silty clay layer thickness increase, which, in such arid
areas, follows the flow direction of the runoff, which,
accordingly, enhances the natural cementation and hence
soil strength.
Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh city, KSA
Fig. 9 Thickness (m) of the
silty clay layer
Rock quality designation
Deere (1964) defined the RQD as the ratio (in percent)
of the total length of sound core pieces 4 inches
(10.16 cm) in length or longer to the length of the core
run. RQD therefore indicates the significant geologic
features that influence the homogeneity of the rock mass,
such as discontinuity surfaces of fracturing and differ-
ential hardness zones where weathering is accounted for
indirectly. The city averaged 44% RQD, with the largest
averages exceeding 57 being recorded in the soils of As
Safah, Ash Shifa, Al Qirawan, and Al Malaz (Table 3).
Favorability for construction is high in areas with high
RQD values, while measures to alleviate risks from
instability should be considered in low RQD soils. RQD
can reveal poor to fair engineering quality of rocks
(25–75%). According to the engineering quality of rocks
(Deere 1989), Namar, Tibrak, Hijrat Laban, An Nuzhah,
Al Malqa, and Al Aziziyah showed poor (25–50%) RQD
values, while the other districts showed fair RQD
(50–75%) (Fig. 7).
Two-dimensional models of soil properties
Spatial distribution 2D maps of soil properties were
produced including grain size distribution, silty clay
layer thickness, Atterberg’s limits, and soil–water
chemistry. Contents of gravels and fines increases
southward associated with the gradual decrease of the
sand content (Fig. 8). The silty clay layer thickness
(Fig. 9) ranges from 1 m to 11 m, and increases south-
eastward then eastward to reach 11 m close to the Kharj-
Riyadh road. Atterberg’s limits showed a northeastward
increase of the PI and a southeastward increase of the
NWC, LL, and PL (Fig. 10). Soil–water chemistry
showed an eastward decrease of alkalinity, where the pH
123
 A. A. Masoud, A. K. A. Aal

Fig. 10 Natural water content and Atterberg’s limits of Riyadh soils

exceeded 8 in the west and decreased to reach 7.4 at An Cl- at Al Murabba district. The carbonate content
Nuzhah boreholes (Fig. 11). Contents of chlorides and decreases eastward, whereas it was highest in Hittin and
sulfates clarified an eastward increase with local high Ad Diriyah districts.

123
Three-dimensional geotechnical modeling of the soils in Riyadh city, KSA

Fig. 11 Soil-water chemistry (pH, Cl-, SO-2 -

3 , and CO3 contents)

Summary and conclusions and increases gradually southeastward to 9 m at the third

industrial zone. A silty clay layer, 2 m thick, extends
The unstable soil profile of Riyadh city is composed of widely in the central area in Al Malaz and Al Aziziyah
gravels inter-bedded with weathered limestone and solu- areas, separating the weathered limestone from the
tion-collapse breccia that extend to 1 m below Babnban underlying cavernous limestone. This type of soil

123

presents many problems during construction due to its
high permeability, particularly where sound rock bed
underlies the soil. The soils are generally inorganic clays
of low to moderate plasticity (CL). The PI increases
linearly at R2 = 0.71 with LL. Sand (average 57.93%)
dominate the Riyadh soils, followed by gravels (average
23.20%), and fines (average 19.11%). The southeastward
increase of the NWC, LL, and PL is commonly associated
with the increase of the gravels and fines contents, and the
thickness of the silty clay layer. Contents of chlorides and
sulfates revealed an eastward increase, associated with a
decrease in carbonate content and pH. Three-dimensional
models showed congruence and agreement of the UCS,
SPT, and RQD zones. Soils showed ranges of UCS
(21.3–618 kg/cm2), SPT (0–100 N), and RQD (11–78%).
The UCS, RQD, and SPT N values revealed a regional
southeastward increase. This trend is related mostly to the
increase in the thickness of the silty clay layer, which, in
such arid areas, follows the flow direction of the runoff.
Accordingly, this enhances the natural cementation and
hence soil strength, and is therefore recommended for
future urban expansion.
This is the first attempt to address the geotechnical
hazards of soils in cities in a GIS 2D and 3D framework
in KSA. The 3D models clarified the geotechnical limits
of the Riyadh city subsurface, and unraveled their spatial
behavior, which will help with long-term planning to
guide future development of the city and its trends. The
3D modeling and geotechnical databases developed are
expected to improve construction planning at all stages, to
help identify and prioritize environmentally sensitive
areas with risks or overspends, select suitable foundation
types and construction designs, suggest changing of
engineering conditions and predict hazardous geological
phenomena, and to prepare the geotechnical zoning maps
describing the suitability of a safe construction.
Acknowledgements The authors are greatly indebted to Prof Dr
Martin G. Culshaw, Editor-in-Chief, Bulletin of Engineering Geology
and the Environment, and the two anonymous reviewers for the given
time and expertise to comment on the paper and for their constructive
comments, which contributed to the improvement of the manuscript.
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