Adoption and Use of Computer-Based Voice Over Internet Protocol Phone Service: Toward An Integrated Model

Journal of Communication ISSN 0021-9916
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Adoption and Use of Computer-Based Voice
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/joc/article-abstract/60/1/40/4098542 by Hankuk University of Foreign Studies user on 16 April 2019
Over Internet Protocol Phone Service:
Toward an Integrated Model
Namkee Park
Gaylord College of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019
This study examines factors influencing adoption and use of computer-based voice over
Internet protocol (VoIP) phone service and attempts to integrate 2 theoretical approaches:
the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the uses and gratifications framework. Using
data from an online survey of VoIP users (N = 420), structural equation modeling analyses
revealed that perceived ease of use had a significant impact on perceived usefulness. In
addition, perceived usefulness had a positive effect on actual VoIP use. The study further
discovered that motivations for communication and instrumental use significantly affected
perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and actual VoIP use. This study suggests that
integration of TAM and uses and gratifications can be fruitful in understanding user
acceptance of new communication technologies.
doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01440.x
The last few years have seen a remarkable growth in the use of computer-based
voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) phone service, which allows computer users to
talk to other people via calls through an Internet connection. Compatible software
programs at both ends together with microphones, speakers, and frequently webcams
have made it possible for computer users to easily place a call without relying on
traditional phone systems. Further, newer functions and services have attracted more
users of the technology. For instance, a leading computer-based VoIP phone service,
Skype, claims more than 220 million users worldwide and typically 5 to 6 million
users online at any given time, as of mid-2007 (New York Times, 2007). Moreover,
Internet giants such as Google, Yahoo, and MSN have also provided beta versions of
the service for their huge potential user bases.
There are a few factors that may account for the growth and popularity of
computer-based VoIP phone service. To start with, the greatest attraction is cost
reduction. Because voice transmission in computer-based VoIP phone service is
Corresponding author: Namkee Park; e-mail: npark@ou.edu
40 Journal of Communication 60 (2010) 40–72

c 2010 International Communication Association
N. Park Computer-Based VoIP Phone Service
similar to e-mail transmission, the cost for making calls is almost free or at least very
cheap if the two endpoints are connected to the Internet. Another advantage is that
calls can be placed and received regardless of users’ locations as long as an Internet
connection is available. Further, computer-based VoIP phone service can be easily
integrated with other services available on the Internet, including conference calling,
file exchange, or video conversation. Helped by the recent widespread diffusion of
broadband Internet services via cable modem or digital subscriber line (DSL), these
advantages of computer-based VoIP phone service have facilitated the rapid adoption
of the technology from businesses to ordinary computer users (The Economist, 2006).
The current popularity of computer-based VoIP phone service attracts much
academic interest from communication researchers given that the technology may
integrate two domains of communication studies—point-to-point communication
through telephone conversations and computer-mediated communication (CMC)
including text and video conversations—that are embedded in most computer-based
VoIP phone service programs. Given the lack of academic research on the telephone
as an interpersonal medium, the last 20 years have seen a notable growth of research
on the telephone including mobile phones (e.g., Campbell & Russo, 2003; Claisse
& Rowe, 1987; Dimmick, Sikand, & Patterson, 1994; Ishii, 2006; LaRose & Atkin,
1992; LaRose & Dordick, 1993; Noble, 1987; O’Keefe & Sulanowski, 1995; Wei &
Lo, 2006; Wellman & Tindall, 1993). Moreover, thanks to lower long distance rates
together with increased social mobility, the telephone has developed as an important
interpersonal medium with which virtual communities of friends and acquaintances
have been created regardless of geographic location (LaRose, 1999). Further, the
rapid development of the Internet in recent years provides the telephone with a
new role as a personalized information utility (LaRose, 1999). On the other hand,
research on CMC has extensively focused on communication via texts until recently,
highlighting the lack of nonverbal cues and asynchronous communication in CMC
(e.g., Walther, 1992, 1996; Walther & Burgoon, 1992). Computer-based VoIP phone
service is a unique combination of these two communication media. Not only does
it provide synchronous communication like the telephone and information utility
functions from the Internet, but it also makes it possible to overcome the lack of
nonverbal cues should users of the technology employ webcams.
Although both the telephone and computers have been important vehicles for
interpersonal communication, there has been almost no research investigating the
integration of the two technologies. Together with the various types of convergence
in communication technologies in recent years, computer-based VoIP phone service
thus offers a unique opportunity for communication researchers to explore a new
research venue.
Despite the recent upsurge of computer-based VoIP phone service and the
technology’s potential to be an interesting target of communication research, few
academic studies about the use of the technology have been located. This is partly
because computer-based VoIP phone service is in an early stage of technology
adoption. However, the technology’s relative infancy and a lack of existing studies
Journal of Communication 60 (2010) 40–72

c 2010 International Communication Association 41
Computer-Based VoIP Phone Service N. Park
suggest the need for a comprehensive investigation of users’ dispositions toward the
technology. As many studies about technology diffusion and user adoption illustrate,
the best time to account for a new technology’s user characteristics is its early
stage of diffusion, because the technology’s novelty may disappear as it reaches a
critical mass (Kang, 2001). Thus, an investigation about users’ adoption and use of
computer-based VoIP phone service will help provide a theoretical contribution to
existing theories about user acceptance of communication technologies.
The present study has the following two purposes. First, this study will identify
the factors that affect users’ acceptance of computer-based VoIP phone service. They
include not only users’ personal/individual factors related to technology adoption
but also system characteristics that are embedded in computer-based VoIP phone
service. Second, related to the first goal, the current study is intended to suggest an
integrated model that explains the dynamics of user acceptance of computer-based
VoIP phone service. Although a significant amount of diffusion research in new
communication technologies has accumulated, efforts to integrate different user
characteristics with respect to the adoption of new technologies are relatively scarce.
The current study tries to build a theoretical model incorporating two theories, the
technology acceptance model (TAM) and the uses and gratifications approach, in
order to understand the adoption process and dynamics of computer-based VoIP
phone service more fully.
The technology acceptance model as a theoretical framework

Among the various efforts to understand the process of user acceptance of information
and communication technologies (ICTs), the TAM, introduced by Davis (1986), is
one of the most respected theoretical frameworks. The model aims not only to explain
key factors of user acceptance of ICTs but also to predict the relative importance of
such factors (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989). Further, the model attempts to derive
the determinants of technology acceptance explaining user behavior across a broad
range of end-user applications, while trying to be parsimonious and theoretically
justified (Davis et al., 1989).
Drawn from the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and
the theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), the TAM
explores the factors that affect behavioral intention to use information or computer
systems, and suggests a causal linkage between two key variables—perceived usefulness
and perceived ease of use— and users’ attitudes, behavioral intentions, and actual
system adoption and use (Davis, 1986 [see Figure 1]). Perceived usefulness is defined
as a prospective user’s subjective probability that using a specific ICT system will
enhance his or her job performance, while perceived ease of use refers to the degree
to which the prospective user expects the system to be free of physical or mental
effort (Davis et al., 1989). In addition to these two main determinants, the TAM
suggests that external factors can have a significant impact on users’ adoption as
they are mediated through these two perceptions. As Figure 1 illustrates, the TAM

Perceived
Usefulness
External Attitude Behavioral Actual
Variables toward Intention to System
Using Use Use
Perceived
Ease of Use
Figure 1 Technology acceptance model (TAM).
is a path model that identifies the impact of external factors such as system design
characteristics, user characteristics, task characteristics, nature of the implementation
process, organizational structure, and so forth (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The TAM
also indicates that ICT usage is determined by behavioral intention, which is jointly
determined by the user’s attitude toward using the system and perceived usefulness
(Davis et al., 1989).
Since Davis’ (1986) introduction of the model, a number of studies have applied
it in a variety of ICT usage settings, testing its appropriateness and modifying it in
different contexts. Previous research on the TAM has largely focused on personal
computer usage or relatively simple software applications such as e-mail, word
processing programs, spreadsheet software, and operating systems (e.g., Chau, 1996;
Davis, 1993; Davis et al., 1989; Doll, Hendrickson, & Deng, 1998; Mathieson, 1991).
Recently, along with the development of the Internet and Internet-based technologies,
applications of the TAM have been made in the areas of e-commerce (e.g., Jiang,
Hsu, & Klein, 2000), telemedicine (e.g., Chau & Hu, 2002; Karahanna, Straub, &
Chervany, 1999), e-learning (e.g., Park, Lee, & Cheong, 2007), and digital library
systems (e.g., Davies, 1997; Hong, Thong, Wong, & Tam, 2002; Thong, Hong, &
Tam, 2002). These studies as a whole have concluded that the TAM is not only a
powerful and parsimonious model for identifying the determinants of ICT use but
also a valuable tool for system planning (Taylor & Todd, 1995).
It is notable, however, that the TAM has undergone a significant revision in
recent years. In an effort to integrate several theoretical models that had explained
user acceptance and use of ICTs in organizational settings, Venkatesh, Morris,
Davis, and Davis (2003) proposed the unified theory of acceptance and use of
technology (UTAUT). Recognizing that eight prominent models of technology
acceptance, including the TAM, the TRA (and the TPB), and diffusion theory,
had used similar theoretical constructs yet with different terms, Venkatesh et al.
(2003) compared and contrasted those constructs and suggested incorporation of
the models with an improved explanatory power. For instance, the UTAUT classifies
perceived usefulness (from the TAM) and relative advantage (from diffusion theory)

as performance expectancy, while it categorizes perceived ease of use and complexity

as effort expectancy. In addition, subjective norm (from the TRA and the TPB) or
other social factors are represented as social influence, while perceived behavioral
control (from the TPB) and compatibility (from diffusion theory) are specified as
facilitating conditions. Further, the UTAUT includes gender, age, experience, and
voluntariness of use as moderating variables in the process of ICT acceptance and
use.
In addition to the UTAUT, the model of adoption of technology in the household
(MATH) sheds further theoretical light on the acceptance and use of ICTs, given
that ICT acceptance in many cases takes place in individual and household settings
instead of organizational contexts. Based on the TPB, the MATH presents three main
constructs—attitudinal beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs—and their
roles in technology adoption (Brown & Venkatesh, 2005). By adding the factors of
family dynamics and fun in ICT adoption, the MATH has extended the realm of ICT
acceptance and use beyond the workplace.
However, both the UTAUT and the MATH present some difficulties in explaining
the acceptance and use of computer-based VoIP phone service. First, since the
UTAUT is an integration of eight different theoretical models, it is inherently less
parsimonious regardless of its contributions to the integration and reinterpretation of
similar concepts in the different models. The UTAUT has four determinants and four
moderating variables to explain user acceptance of ICTs. Given these eight variables
may interact with each other depending on specific ICTs and research contexts, it
is not easy to interpret all possible interaction effects. Moreover, the UTAUT can
provide the advantages of incorporating different models, yet at the same time can
miss the unique theoretical strengths of each of the models. For instance, while
the UTAUT may pack more explanatory power, accounting for about 70% of the
variance in acceptance of some ICTs, a substantial improvement over any of the eight
models (Venkatesh et al., 2003), it has little room left for other relevant theories to
be integrated for a better explanation of specific ICT adoption and use. In the case
of the TPB, by contrast, there have been a few significant theoretical developments
through integration with other theories beyond the acceptance of ICTs, thanks to
the link between TPB’s and other theories’ constructs. For example, Bae (2008)
combined the TPB and the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) (Petty & Cacioppo,
1983, 1986), while Park and Smith (2007) explicated the TPB together with the social
norms approach (SNA) (Berkowitz, 1997; Perkins, 2003; Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986)
to explain people’s health communication behavior such as organ donation. In the
case of the TAM, the model allows researchers to employ relevant constructs via
external variables depending on unique ICT adoption contexts, therefore facilitating
theory development. After all, it can be said that despite the UTAUT’s merits, the
model is less parsimonious compared to the TAM and has not been fully proven so
far as a compelling model.
Second, the UTAUT made it confusing to examine ICT users’ active role with
respect to the acceptance of an ICT in question by differentiating self-efficacy from

perceived behavioral control. According to the TPB, perceived behavioral control

refers to ‘‘people’s perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior of
interest’’ and it is ‘‘most compatible with Bandura’s concept of perceived self-efficacy’’
(Ajzen, 1991, pp. 183–184). Nevertheless, by explaining that perceived behavioral
control directly affects intention to use an ICT while self-efficacy indirectly influences
the intention, the UTAUT made the conceptual meanings of the two constructs
unclear.
Third, in the case of the MATH, the model considers utility for children as
a significant factor, and the model’s principal dependent variable is intention to
purchase rather than intention to use the ICT in question (Brown & Venkatesh, 2005;
Venkatesh & Brown, 2001). In addition, it suggests that both life cycle stages and
income are important factors in the understanding of household technology adoption
decisions (Brown & Venkatesh, 2005). Thus, the MATH is not an appropriate
theoretical model to explain the acceptance and use of computer-based VoIP phone
service that can be used by individuals with computers or mobile devices for free or
at low cost.
Uses and gratifications approach and motivations for telephone use

Although the TAM is a well-documented model for explaining users’ technology
acceptance, there exist two weaknesses in the model. The first is its lack of explicit
inclusion of antecedent variables that influence perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness (Dishaw & Strong, 1999) because of the original model’s intended
generality and parsimony. The second weakness of the TAM is that it assumes ICTs as
given and focuses on the factors that affect technology acceptance and use, yet lacks
an explanation of why people are accepting and using specific ICTs. One compelling
complementary theoretical framework to overcome the TAM’s limitations is the uses
and gratifications approach (Palmgreen, 1984; Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rosengren,
1985; Rubin, 1986, 1994), which has been widely researched for decades in the area of
media effects. Although the approach focuses primarily on why and how people use
entertainment media, its emphasis on activities and choices of individual media users
makes it suitable for application to the adoption and use of other technologies. The
approach emphasizes the role of people’s initiative and activity, and consequently
focuses on motivation—which can be defined as a general disposition that influences
the actions people take to fulfill a need or want (Rubin, 1993)—as a factor that
accounts for their selective choice and subjective interpretation of media messages.
Because people are said to be actively aware of their choices of media and technology,
they are assumed to exhibit motivations to use particular media or technology
(Infante, Rancer, & Womack, 1993). Put differently, the approach views motivation
as driven by felt needs and individual differences (Rosengren, 1974) and as playing
an important role in increasing people’s behavioral intention and actual use of media
(Park et al., 2007).

Research utilizing the uses and gratifications approach has been widely applied to
a variety of new media and communication technologies, including the video cassette
recorder (VCR) (Cohen, Levy, & Golden, 1988; Rubin & Bantz, 1987), cable television
(Bantz, 1982), bulletin board systems (Garramone, Harris, & Anderson, 1986; James,
Wotring, & Forrest, 1995; Rafaeli, 1986), the World Wide Web (Ferguson & Perse,
2000), online services (Lin, 1999), and the Internet in general (Flanagin & Metzger,
2001; Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). In the case of Internet use in particular, researchers
claimed that the uses and gratifications approach could be a productive means for
understanding the relationship between individual users and the technology (e.g.,
Newhagen & Rafaeli, 1996). That is, considering the approach’s applicability in the
field of mass media, it has been posited that the approach would be well suited
for examining CMC including Internet use (e.g., Flanagin & Metzger, 2001; Morris
& Ogan, 1996; Newhagen & Rafaeli, 1996; Rubin, 2002; Ruggiero, 2000; Williams,
Strover, & Grant, 1994).
Given that computer-based VoIP phone service is considered as an alternative to
the traditional telephone, it is necessary to examine the telephone from the uses and
gratifications approach. Not surprisingly, the study of the telephone based on the uses
and gratifications approach has focused on identifying the key motivations for its use.
For instance, Keller (1977) identified two broad motivations: intrinsic (or social) and
instrumental (or task-oriented) uses. According to the study, intrinsic motivations
for telephone use refer to calls for socializing including chatting, gossiping, and
maintaining family contacts, while instrumental motivations include calls for utility
such as making appointments, ordering products, or seeking information. Singer
(1981) and Fischer (1988) also distinguished between the ‘‘social’’ and the ‘‘practical’’
uses of the telephone, while Claisse and Rowe (1987) categorized telephone uses as
having ‘‘functional’’ and ‘‘relational’’ motives. Although the terms for the motivations
for telephone use are slightly different from each other, all of these studies generally
categorize the motivations as ‘‘social’’ and ‘‘instrumental’’ functions.
Williams, Dordick, and Jesuale (1985) added the motivation of fun or
entertainment, while Dimmick et al. (1994) extended the motivations with the
‘‘reassurance’’ function, the use of the telephone to fulfill one’s psychological needs
for feeling secure. Further, O’Keefe and Sulanowski (1995) claimed that telephones
become a mixed mass media and interpersonal communication channel, listing
sociability, entertainment, acquisition, and time management as key motivations
for using telephones. In addition, Leung and Wei (2000) investigated the uses of
cell phones and identified fashion/status, affection/sociability, relaxation, mobility,
and immediate access as key motivations. In an extensive review of studies about
telephone use, LaRose (1999) claimed that the uses and gratifications approach
sheds light on interpersonal communication between two parties by identifying
interpersonal communication motives. For instance, Rubin, Perse, and Barbato
(1988) classified six dimensions of interpersonal communication motives including
pleasure, affection, social inclusion, escape, relaxation, and control. LaRose (1999)
also posited that the aforementioned functions of social and instrumental uses of the

telephone can be connected to social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) in that people’s
learning experiences motivate and regulate their telephone behavior.
In the case of computer-based VoIP phone service, it is reasonable to assume
that users have specific motivations that drive them to adopt and use the technology.
Moreover, the propositions of the uses and gratifications approach can be easily
modified and utilized to explain the adoption and use of computer-based VoIP phone
service. Users who adopt and use computer-based VoIP phone service would be also
goal oriented and motivated by various purposes to enhance their communication
with others. Given the many options in today’s complex technology environment
(e.g., various telephone services including cellular phones and BlackBerry), it is
necessary to achieve a thorough understanding of individuals’ motivations for the
use of computer-based VoIP phone service. Thus, it is expected that the uses and
gratifications approach will not only provide a meaningful theoretical explanation to
facilitate a clear understanding of the relationship between individual users and the
adoption and use of computer-based VoIP phone service but also help address the
limitations of the TAM.
Hypotheses
Drawing from the theoretical perspectives examined above, the current study
proposes the following hypotheses with respect to the adoption and use of computer-
based VoIP phone service.
Perceived ease of use

A considerable amount of research over the past 2 decades supports the significant
effect of perceived ease of use on perceived usefulness (e.g., Agarwal & Prasad, 1999;
Davis et al., 1989; Hu, Chau, Sheng, & Tam, 1999; Jackson, Chow, & Leitch, 1997;
Venkatesh, 1999; Yi & Hwang, 2003). It is notable, however, that perceived ease of
use has only an indirect effect on behavioral intention to use or actual system use as
illustrated in Figure 1. Although the original TAM suggested that ‘‘perceived ease of
use operates through perceived usefulness’’ (Davis, 1989, p. 332), some studies have
questioned the variable’s direct effect on actual system use (e.g., Keil, Beranek, &
Konsynski, 1995), and in fact some of the studies have concluded that perceived ease
of use could have a direct effect on actual system use (e.g., Gefen & Straub, 2000). For
the current study, given that many people have already been using computer-based
VoIP phone service, it would be less meaningful to examine the effect of perceived
ease of use on behavioral intention; rather, it would be more appropriate to look at
the impact of perceived ease of use on actual system use. As described earlier, there
are more than 220 million people worldwide who use a computer-based VoIP phone
service, Skype. Therefore, an examination of the relationship between perceived ease
of use and actual system use would highlight the variables’ applicability in the context
of computer-based VoIP phone service. Thus, based on prior research, it is expected
that perceived ease of use positively affects actual use of the technology.

H1a: Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of
computer-based VoIP phone service.
H1b: Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on actual use of computer-based VoIP
phone service.
Perceived usefulness
There is also extensive empirical evidence that supports the significant effect of
perceived usefulness on behavioral intention or actual use (e.g., Agarwal & Prasad,
1999; Davis et al., 1989; Hu et al., 1999; Jackson et al., 1997; Venkatesh, 1999; Yi &
Hwang, 2003). Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed.
H2: Perceived usefulness will have a positive effect on actual use of computer-based VoIP
phone service.
Internet self-efficacy
Past research has shown that computer self-efficacy plays an essential role in
understanding and using computer-related technologies or applications (Salanova,
Grau, Cifre, & Llorens, 2000). Computer self-efficacy, which refers to an individual’s
perceptions about his or her ability to use a computer to perform a computing
task successfully (Compeau & Higgins, 1995), is a construct derived from the
general concept of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Internet self-efficacy is a more
recent construct which specifically focuses on Internet use. Similar to computer
self-efficacy, Internet self-efficacy is Internet users’ self-perceived confidence in using
the Internet to perform tasks successfully. In addition, Internet self-efficacy is more
about confidence in finding information or troubleshooting search problems and
less about specific Internet skills such as writing HTML, given that self-efficacy is
not a measure of skill (Eastin & LaRose, 2000). Previous studies found positive
relationships between Internet self-efficacy and task performance (Nahl, 1996, 1997),
and between Internet self-efficacy and the amount of Internet use (Ren, 1999).
Studies that utilized the TAM also proposed that computer self-efficacy would
affect behavioral intention through perceived ease of use (e.g., Thong et al., 2002).
Moreover, computer self-efficacy has been modeled as an indirect determinant
of behavioral intention or actual use fully mediated by perceived ease of use
(Venkatesh, 2000; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996; Venkatesh et al., 2003). Thus, it is
expected that Internet self-efficacy facilitates people’s perceived ease of use with
respect to computer-based VoIP phone service.
H3: Internet self-efficacy will have a positive effect on perceived ease of use of computer-based
VoIP phone service.
Perceived cost-effectiveness
Cost has almost always been a primary factor in the adoption of a new technology
(Reagan, 2002). For average technology users or customers, early adoption of a new
ICT is generally costly and often unaffordable (Kang, 2003). As noted earlier, no cost
or at least low cost is one of the major advantages of computer-based VoIP phone

service over traditional phone systems. Thus, it is expected that users’ perceptions of
the low cost of computer-based VoIP phone service will positively affect perceived
usefulness of the technology, and ultimately lead to the actual use of it.
H4a: Perceived cost-effectiveness of computer-based VoIP phone service will have a positive
effect on perceived usefulness of the technology.
H4b: Perceived cost-effectiveness of computer-based VoIP phone service will have a positive
effect on actual use of the technology.
Perceived quality
Computer-based VoIP phone service has significantly improved sound quality during
the last couple of years in conjunction with increased broadband Internet access.
However, quality here does not mean an absolute level of quality. Rather, it is an
acceptable level of quality given the service’s cost or a comparable quality in relation
to alternative means of making calls. In other words, it is about users’ perception of
the quality of the technology. It is expected that users’ perception of the improved
quality of computer-based VoIP phone service in recent years will influence their
perceived usefulness of the technology.
H5: Perceived quality of computer-based VoIP phone service will have a positive effect on
System functions
New and unique functions an innovative ICT provides would be an important factor
for the technology to be widely adopted and used. For instance, LaRose and Atkin
(1991) demonstrated that people’s intention to adopt pay-per-view services was
most strongly associated with its perceived benefits such as lack of commercials and
convenient access. In the case of computer-based VoIP phone service, there are a
couple of unique and valuable functions including video conversation, conference
calling, data or file transmission, and integration with instant messaging services. It
is expected that these functions of computer-based VoIP phone service will enhance
users’ perception of the technology’s usefulness.
H6: System functions of computer-based VoIP phone service will have a positive effect on
Motivations
The uses and gratifications approach presumes that people’s technology or media
selection is motivated by the expectation that it will fulfill their needs (Rosengren,
1974; Rubin, 2002), and hence they are assumed to exhibit motivations to use
a particular technology or medium (Infante et al., 1993). In parallel with this
proposition, users of computer-based VoIP phone service are also expected to have
specific motivations to adopt and use the technology in the ever-changing technology
and media environment. However, it is hard to know what kind of motivations users
of computer-based VoIP phone service would have, given that each new technology

Internet
self-efficacy
H3
Perceived cost- Perceived

effectiveness ease of use
H4b
H4a
H1a H1b
Perceived
quality
H5
System H6 Perceived H2 Actual

functions usefulness system use
RQ1
Motivations
Figure 2 Hypothesized research model.
or medium has its unique characteristics that meet different types of motivations.
For instance, Leung (2001) and Leung and Wei (1999, 2000) found a motivation
to be fashionable among users of pagers, cellular phones, and ICQ, which is quite
different from other motivations in the context of other technologies. Based on this
understanding, the current study set up the following research question.
RQ1: What motivations are related to computer-based VoIP phone service and how do
they affect adoption and use of the technology?
To sum up, integrating the literature and hypotheses described above, the
proposed research model of the current study is presented in Figure 2.
Method
Sampling
In order to test the hypotheses and answer the research question, the current study
employed an online survey, having all Internet users as the population. Given that
users of computer-based VoIP phone service need to have an Internet connection, it
is not only appropriate to have all Internet users as the population but also reasonable
to employ an online survey as the method. It should be noted, however, that in

online surveys it is hard to obtain a sampling frame within which every subject in
the population has an equal chance of being selected for participation (for other
concerns about online surveys, see Sheehan (2001); Smith (1997); Stanton (1998),
and Thompson, Surface, Martin, & Sanders (2003)). Recognizing this weakness of
online surveys, this study used an online panel provided by the Media Research Lab at
the University of Texas at Austin for data collection.1 The panel is an opt-in, informed
consent, privacy-protected resource of over 20,000 respondents from all over the
world who regularly participate in Web-based research (T. Daugherty, personal
communication, March 25, 2008; Daugherty, Lee, Kim, & Outhavong, 2005).2
According to the Media Research Lab, study participants are randomly selected unless
researchers request a different method (T. Daugherty, personal communication, April
19, 2007).
Survey administration
The online survey was conducted in a 3-month time frame from April 2 to July
1, 2007. An e-mail invitation, which included a link to the survey questionnaire
on SurveyMonkey (http://www.surveymonkey.com), was sent on April 2 to 9,000
panel members. However, 2,250 invitations were returned because they were sent to
invalid e-mail addresses, indicating that the number of valid invitations delivered
was 6,750. After one week, the number of responses was 715, of which the number of
computer-based VoIP users was 131. A follow-up e-mail was sent to the same panel
on April 11. One more week with the same panel provided a total number of 1,024
respondents, of whom the number of computer-based VoIP users was 215. Aiming
to collect data from more than 300 users, a second wave of the online survey was
sent to another panel of 5,000 on April 19. When the survey was closed on July 1,
the total number of participants was 2,268, of which the number of computer-based
VoIP phone service users was 512. In sum, the e-mail invitations were sent to the
total of 11,750, and the number of participants was 2,268, a response rate of 19.3%.
Measurement
Perceived ease of use was measured with five statements anchored by a 7-point Likert
scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree,’’ including ‘‘It is easy to
have an account and phone number from computer-based VoIP phone service’’
and ‘‘Using computer-based VoIP phone service does not require a lot of effort’’
(α = .90).
Perceived usefulness was an index composed of four statements anchored by a
7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree,’’ including ‘‘I
find computer-based VoIP phone service to be useful for my personal communication
with others’’ and ‘‘Using computer-based VoIP phone service improves my personal
communication with others’’ (α = .85).
Internet self-efficacy was measured with seven statements anchored by a 7-point
Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree,’’ including ‘‘I feel
confident understanding terms related to Internet hardware (e.g., cable modem

and wireless Internet router)’’ and ‘‘I feel confident understanding terms related to
Internet programs (e.g., Web browser and Java applications)’’ (α = .93).
Perceived cost-effectiveness was measured with the following four statements
anchored by a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly
agree’’: (a) It is cheaper to use computer-based VoIP phone service compared to
traditional services; (b) I have saved a lot of money since I have used computer-based
VoIP phone service; (c) computer-based VoIP phone service is valuable when I make
long-distance calls; and (d) computer-based VoIP phone service is valuable when I
make international calls (α = .77).
Perceived quality was an index composed of five statements anchored by a 7-point
Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree,’’ including ‘‘When
talking through computer-based VoIP phone service, there is no delay in hearing the
voice from the other side’’ and ‘‘The quality of calls via computer-based VoIP phone
service is below my expectation’’ (reverse-coded) (α = .83).
System functions were measured with four statements anchored by a 7-point
Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree,’’ including ‘‘Video
conversation with a webcam makes computer-based VoIP phone service more
valuable’’ and ‘‘Computer-based VoIP phone service is valuable because I can attach
and send files or photos’’ (α = .76).
Actual system use was measured by the following question: ‘‘If you are currently
using computer-based VoIP phone service, approximately how many hours do you
use the service in a typical week?’’ The participants were asked to fill in with the
number of hours.
The questions for motivations were gleaned from past studies that investigated
various motivations for using the telephone (Dimmick et al., 1994; Leung, 2001;
Leung & Wei, 2000; O’Keefe & Sulanowski, 1995). The questions were modified for
the current study of computer-based VoIP phone service. Since it was not clear what
motivations users of computer-based VoIP phone service would have, the questions
were factor-analyzed for further statistical analyses (see the Results section for an
exploratory factor analysis). Nineteen statements were used to measure motivations,
anchored by a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly
agree’’ (see Table 1 for the specific questions).
Data analysis
This study used structural equation modeling (Bollen, 1989) to test the hypotheses
and build a theoretical model. The chi-square goodness-of-fit test is the traditional
criterion employed to determine acceptance or rejection of the hypothesized model. A
good fit is represented by a nonsignificant chi-square value (i.e., the difference between
theoretical and empirical models, between expected and observed relationships, can
be attributed to chance alone). However, chi-square is strongly affected by sample
size and is difficult to interpret (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996). Thus, researchers are
urged to use multiple criteria. The following criteria were used to evaluate how well

Table 1 Factor Analysis for Motivations

Factor Loadings
Questions 1 2 3
Factor 1: Motivation for entertainment
I use computer-based VoIP phone service in order to .803
relieve boredom by calling people
I use computer-based VoIP phone service because it is .758
entertaining
I use computer-based VoIP phone service in order to kill .738
time
gossip or chat
I use computer-based VoIP phone service because .681
sometimes I just like to talk
I use computer-based VoIP phone service because it is a .661
status symbol
look cool
avoid looking old-fashioned
I use computer-based VoIP phone service because using .547
it relaxes me
Factor 2: Motivation for instrumental use
order products
I use computer-based VoIP phone service in order to get .875
information about products and services
buy tickets for travel or special events
schedule appointments
Factor 3: Motivation for communication
I use computer-based VoIP phone service in order to feel .824
involved with what is going on with other people
communicate with friends and family
I use computer-based VoIP phone service in order to let .784
others know I care for them
keep up-to-date on people and events
stay in touch with people I do not see very often
enjoy the pleasure to talking to people
Eigenvalue 8.30 3.29 1.85
Cronbach’s alpha .92 .93 .89

the proposed model fits the observed correlation matrix (Bentler, 1988): (a) the chi-
square statistic (nonsignificant); (b) the goodness-of-fit index (GFI) and the adjusted
goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) (close to 1.00); (c) the Bentler–Bonett normed fit index
(NFI, greater than .90); (d) the comparative fit index (CFI, greater than .90); and
(e) the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA, less than .05).
Additionally, this study used the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom and
the chi-square difference test to assess the hypothesized model. When the ratio of
chi-square to degrees of freedom is less than 5, it is conventionally accepted as a good
fit (Wheaton, Muthen, Alwin, & Summers, 1977). The chi-square difference test can
be interpreted in the following way: A significant decrease in chi-square relative to
a decrease in degrees of freedom indicates an improvement in the fit of the model
(Monge, Bachman, Dillard, & Eisenberg, 1982). Finally, the significance of individual
paths was assessed using t ratios.
The unfolding procedure this study employed began by testing the hypothesized
model using LISREL 8.80, a statistical program that tests structural equation models.
Results
Descriptive statistics
The total number of participants was 2,268 and the number of computer-based VoIP
phone service users among the participants was 512 (22.57%). Among 512 users
from the survey, only 420 users were valid participants for statistical analysis. The
rest did not answer more than half of the survey questions, and thus they were not
included in further analyses. Of these 420 users there were 208 female participants
(49.5%) and 206 male participants (49.0%), while six did not indicate their gender.
The average age of the participants was 38.00 (SD = 12.00). With respect to ethnicity,
the number of ‘‘White, not of Hispanic origin’’ was 285 (67.9%), ‘‘African American,
not of Hispanic origin’’ was 14 (3.3%), ‘‘Hispanic’’ was 18 (4.3%), ‘‘Asian or Pacific
Islander’’ was 70 (16.7%), ‘‘Other’’ was 30 (7.1%), and three participants did not
indicate their ethnicity.
With respect to the use of computer-based VoIP phone service, users employed
the technology about 11 times per week on average (M = 10.80, SD = 29.98), while
the median for the frequency of using the technology was three times per week. The
time spent with the technology was approximately 4.5 hours per week on average
(M = 263.37, SD = 381.34 in minutes), while the median for the time using the
technology was 2 hours. In terms of the experience of using computer-based VoIP
phone service, more than a half of the users had been using the technology for less
than 1 year (226 users, 53.8%).
Exploratory factor analysis for motivations

In order to search for underlying structures from the 19 motivation questions,
an exploratory factor analysis was conducted. Using an orthogonal Varimax
rotation, three underlying motivation factors for using computer-based VoIP phone

Table 2 Zero-Order Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations (N = 420)

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M SD
1. Internet 1 .19** .14** .12* .18** .17** .27** .30** .24** .14** 5.42 1.03
self-efficacy
2. Motivation for 1 .46** .30** .48** .36** .31** .46** .57** .28** 5.10 1.17
communication
3. Motivation for 1 .57** .10* .31** .33** .05 .32** .24** 3.45 1.29
entertainment
4. Motivation for 1 .14** .33** .20** .03 .31** .37** 3.41 1.64
instrumental
use
5. Perceived cost- 1 .31** .38** .42** .43** .23** 5.73 .98
effectiveness
6. Perceived 1 .19** .41** .43** .22** 4.47 1.22
quality
7. System 1 .30** .37** .13** 5.36 .93
functions
8. Perceived ease 1 .60** .13** 5.74 .96
of use
9. Perceived 1 .29** 5.19 1.10
usefulness
10. Actual system 1 2.07 .59
use
*p < .05, **p < .01 (2-tailed).
service (communication, entertainment, and instrumental use) were extracted. These

motivation variables are generally consistent with those found in past studies (e.g.,
Claisse & Rowe, 1987; Fischer, 1988; Keller, 1977; Singer, 1981; Williams et al., 1985).
Loadings of variables on factors and eigenvalues are presented in Table 1.
Based on the exploratory factor analysis, summed scales were made for subsequent
structural equation modeling analyses. Cronbach’s alphas from the summed scales
are also presented in Table 1. The three motivation variables were hypothesized to
be positive predictors of perceived usefulness and actual system use, based on the
discussions about the uses and gratifications approach.
Analysis of structural equation modeling

Prior to structural equation modeling analyses, a correlation analysis with all the
variables was conducted. The correlation matrix used to test the hypothesized model
is shown in Table 2. All pairwise associations were positively correlated with one
another. The correlation coefficients among these variables were less than .60, except
for one association. It was the association between perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness (r = .60, p < .001), suggesting that the two variables are related to each
other. Overall, these low correlation coefficients between the variables indicate that
the variables do not exhibit significant multicollinearity problems.

The variable of actual system use showed high degrees of skewness and kurtosis
(skewness: 2.83, kurtosis: 8.88), indicating that a transformation of the variable is
necessary for further statistical analyses. Thus, the common logarithm (the logarithm
having base 10) of the original data was computed in order to achieve normality.
Tests of the overall model

Maximum likelihood estimation was employed to estimate the hypothesized research
model. The chi-square statistic was significant for the hypothesized model, χ 2 (10,
N = 420)= 150.92, p < .001, and the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom was
not acceptable at 15.09 (150.92/10). For other indices, the GFI was .93, while the
AGFI was .63. The Bentler–Bonett NFI was .90, while the CFI was .91. In addition,
the RMSEA was .18. In sum, the summary statistics indicate that the proposed model
does not represent a good fit of the set of hypotheses to the data and a model revision
is necessary.
Tests of hypotheses
Figure 3 presents the results for the LISREL analysis of the combined hypotheses.
The first two hypotheses proposed that perceived ease of use would predict perceived
usefulness of computer-based VoIP phone service (H1a) and actual use of the
technology (H1b), both with positive signs. While perceived ease of use was a
significant predictor of perceived usefulness (β = .40, t = 11.94), the impact of
perceived ease of use was not channeled into actual use of the technology (β = −.04,
t = −.84). Thus, H1a was supported, whereas H1b was not.
The second hypothesis proposed that perceived usefulness would be a positive
predictor of actual use of the technology. The hypothesis was supported as expected
(β = .12, t = 1.98). The third hypothesis predicted that Internet self-efficacy would
have a positive effect on perceived ease of use of computer-based VoIP phone service.
The proposed path was significant (γ = .30, t = 6.29), confirming the hypothesis.
The fourth set of hypotheses proposed that perceived cost-effectiveness would
predict perceived usefulness of computer-based VoIP phone service (H4a) and
actual use of the technology (H4b), all with positive signs. However, only the
impact on actual use of the technology was supported (γ = .06, t = 1.43 for H4a;
γ = .10, t = 1.96 for H4b).
H5, which predicted the impact of perceived quality of computer-based
VoIP phone service on perceived usefulness of the technology, was supported
(γ = .08, t = 2.12). In a similar fashion, H6, which suggested that system functions
influence perceived usefulness, was also supported (γ = .09, t = 2.45).
After the exploratory factor analysis with the items for motivations, it was
hypothesized that the three motivations in the use of computer-based VoIP phone
service (communication, entertainment, and instrumental use) would be positive
predictors of both perceived usefulness and actual use of the technology. Both
the motivation for communication and the motivation for instrumental use were
positive predictors of perceived usefulness (γ = .23, t = 5.23 for the motivation

Internet
self-efficacy
.30***
Motivation
for communication
Perceived
.11+
.23*** ease of use
Motivation
for entertainment .40***
-.04
.05
-.04
Motivation .32***
for instrumental
use
.15**
Perceived Actual
usefulness .12* system use
Perceived
.08*
quality
.09*
System
functions .06 .10*
Perceived
cost-
effectiveness
Figure 3 LISREL results for the hypothesized model. Note: + p < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01,
***p < .001.
for communication; γ = .15, t = 3.52 for the motivation for instrumental use)
and of actual use of the technology (γ = .11, t = 1.83 for the motivation
for communication; γ = .32, t = 5.71 for the motivation for instrumental use).
However, the motivation for entertainment was not a significant predictor of
perceived usefulness (γ = .05, t = .98) or of actual system use (γ = −.04, t = −.68)
in the initial analysis.
Model revision
As illustrated above, the poor summary statistics and the nonsignificant paths of the
hypothesized research model suggested that it was necessary to revise the model. The
ultimate objective of model revision in structural equation modeling is ‘‘to find a

model that is both substantially meaningful and statistically well fitting’’ (Byrne, 1998,
p. 8). The improvement processes were conducted based both on theoretical grounds
and on statistical indicators helped by LISREL output. The specific improvement
processes are as follows.
First, all nonsignificant paths were deleted in order to have a meaningful and
parsimonious model. Then, possible paths that had not been suggested in the original
model were added driven by modification indices (MIs) from the LISREL output that
capture evidence of poor fit (Byrne, 1998). The MIs suggested that (a) the motivation
for communication might be a positive predictor for perceived ease of use and (b) the
variables of system characteristics (perceived cost-effectiveness, perceived quality,
and system functions) might be predictors for perceived ease of use. Although the
uses and gratifications approach claims that people select and use a technology to
satisfy their felt needs or desires, and their motivations guide, filter, or mediate their
communication behavior, the indication from the LISREL results that the motivation
for communication could be a positive predictor even for perceived ease of use is
somewhat interesting. A previous study found that the motivation could be a positive
predictor of perceived ease of use (Park et al., 2007). It may be necessary, however,
to explain the relationship between the motivation and perceived ease of use, if the
path is significant when added.
It is theoretically sound that the variables of system characteristics would be
positive predictors for perceived ease of use. According to the TAM, external
factors including system design characteristics and user characteristics affect not only
perceived usefulness but also perceived ease of use. In a similar fashion, the TRA also
hypothesizes that external variables such as system characteristics influence behavior
only indirectly via attitude or subjective norm (Davis et al., 1989). Thus, the direct
effects of system characteristics on perceived ease of use are congruent with the
theoretical propositions of the TAM.
After the process of adding relevant paths, a revised model was obtained and its
indices were as follows. The chi-square statistic was not significant for the revised
model, χ 2 (10, N = 420)= 12.94, p = .23, and the ratio of chi-square to degrees of
freedom was acceptable at 1.29 (12.94/10). For other indices, the GFI was .99, while
the AGFI was .97. The Bentler–Bonett NFI was .99, and the CFI was 1.00. In addition,
the RMSEA was .027.
When the chi-square difference test was conducted between the revised
model and the hypothesized model, the revised model was significantly better
than the hypothesized model. Specifically, the chi-square difference between the
revised model and the hypothesized model was 137.98 (150.92–12.94), while
the difference in the degrees of freedom was 0 (10–10), which is statistically
significant at both 95% and 99% significance levels. Interestingly, however, it
was found that the motivation for entertainment was a negative predictor for
perceived ease of use (β = −.29, t = −6.24) during the revision process, which
is addressed in the Discussion section. Nevertheless, overall summary statistics
indicate that the revised model represents an excellent fit with various indices.

Internet
self-efficacy
.16***
Motivation .37***
for communication Perceived
ease of use
−.29*** (R2 = .40)
.26***
Motivation
for entertainment
.41***
Motivation .16*** Perceived

for instrumental
usefulness
use
(R2 = .53) .13**
.27***
.32***
Perceived .09* .12**
quality Actual
.14** system use
(R2 = .19)
System
functions .13**
.11*
Perceived
cost-
effectiveness
Figure 4 LISREL results for the final model. Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
The final model is presented in Figure 4 and examination of total effects is shown
in Table 3. Finally, in order to check the multicollinearity between exogenous
variables, multiple regression analyses were conducted for each endogenous variable.
Table 4 shows tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF). Given that there is
no tolerance less than .10 or no VIF above 10, it is assumed that there is no
multicollinearity problem between exogenous variables (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, &
Black, 1998).

Table 3 Direct and Indirect Effects

Effects ona
Perceived ease of use Perceived usefulness Actual system use
Variable Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total
Internet .16 — .16 — .07 (.02) .07 — .01 (.00) .01
self-efficacy
Motivation for .37 — .37 .26 .15 (.03) .41 — .06 (.02) .06
communication
Motivation for −.29 — −.29 — −.12 (.02) −.12 — −.02 (.01) −.02
entertainment
Motivation for .16 — .16 .32 .02 (.01) .34
instrumental
use
Perceived cost- .11 — .11 — .04 (.02) .04 .12 .01b (.00) .13
effectiveness
Perceived quality .27 — .27 .09 .11 (.02) .20 — .03 (.01) .03
System functions .14 — .14 .11 .06 (.02) .17 — .02 (.01) .02
Perceived ease of .41 — .41 — .05 (.02) .05
use
Perceived .13 — .13
usefulness
Standard errors in parentheses.
a All p < .05. b p < .10.
Conclusion and discussion

The first goal of the current study was to identify the factors that affect users’
acceptance of computer-based VoIP phone service. The findings generally supported
hypotheses derived from the TAM along with the uses and gratifications approach.
First, this study confirmed that perceived ease of use had a significant impact
on perceived usefulness as the TAM suggested. However, it could not confirm the
direct effect of perceived ease of use on actual use of computer-based VoIP phone
service (Figure 4). Nevertheless, the significant indirect effect of perceived ease of use
on actual system use (.05) was found. It can be interpreted that, in the context of
computer-based VoIP phone service, people’s perception of ease of use may not be
necessarily channeled into actual use of the technology because a variety of other
competing technology options such as cellular phones or BlackBerry are available.
That is, even if people perceive computer-based VoIP phone service as easy to use,
they use the technology only when they perceive it as useful.
With respect to the role of perceived usefulness, the current study confirmed
its effect on actual use of computer-based VoIP phone service. Although many
studies that employed the TAM tested whether perceived usefulness has an effect on
behavioral intention to use instead of actual system use, this study directly tested
the variable’s effect on actual use of the technology based on the fact that there are
already many users of the technology. Compared to the studies that tested the effect

Table 4 Multicollinearity Statistics

Dependent Variable Independent Variable Tolerance VIF
Perceived ease of use Internet self-efficacy .907 1.102
Motivation for communication .586 1.707
Motivation for entertainment .685 1.461
Perceived cost-effectiveness .648 1.543
Perceived quality .803 1.245
System functions .742 1.347
Perceived usefulness Motivation for communication .681 1.468
Motivation for instrumental use .803 1.245
Perceived quality .724 1.380
System functions .853 1.172
Perceived ease of use .663 1.509
Actual system use Motivation for instrumental use .892 1.121
Perceived cost-effectiveness .833 1.201
Perceived usefulness .795 1.257
on behavioral intention in which the variance explained was routinely over 40%
(Venkatesh et al., 2003), the variance explained for actual system use by the current
study’s model is somewhat low (R2 = .19). It should be noted, however, that the
correlation between behavioral intention and actual use is usually 0.6–0.8 (e.g., Davis
et al., 1989; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1981), and hence the variance explained for actual use,
which is directly influenced by behavioral intention, is likely to be lower than that for
behavioral intention.
The current study added various antecedent variables to enrich the explanation of
adoption and use of computer-based VoIP phone service. Internet self-efficacy had
a direct effect on perceived ease of use and indirect effects on perceived usefulness
and actual system use. Given that computer-based VoIP phone service is another
new Internet application, it is obvious that confidence in using the Internet led to
perceived ease of use of the technology. This finding is in line with previous studies
that examined the association between computer self-efficacy and perceived ease of
use (e.g., Thong et al., 2002; Venkatesh, 2000; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996).
System characteristics generally played an important role in the adoption and
use of computer-based VoIP phone service. Perceived cost-effectiveness affected all
dependent variables either directly or indirectly. The variable significantly influenced
actual use of computer-based VoIP phone service. This is not a surprise considering
that cost reduction is the greatest attraction of the technology. An interesting finding
about perceived cost-effectiveness is that the variable had a direct effect on perceived
ease of use but an indirect effect on perceived usefulness. It means that cost reduction
even made users feel that computer-based VoIP phone service is easy to use. In
other words, users are likely to perceive that the technology is easy to use as long
as it seems to be cost-effective for their communication and other uses. This does
not seem implausible, but does seem somewhat unreasonable. Thus, an elaborated
psychological explanation is called for to make sense of this finding in future research.

Supporting the findings from past research with the TAM, other system
characteristics variables such as perceived quality and system functions were also
positive predictors of all dependent variables. In addition, it is notable that the two
system characteristics variables had greater effects on perceived ease of use compared
to perceived cost-effectiveness (Table 3).
The role of motivation variables was crucial in the current study. The motivation
for communication in particular played an essential role in explaining all dependent
variables with the strongest substantial effects among all independent variables.
Although the motivation for communication lost its effect on actual system use
during the model revision process, the variable’s strong effects on perceived ease
of use and perceived usefulness indicate that it is the most important variable in
explaining the adoption and use of computer-based VoIP phone service. Further, it is
interesting that users’ strong motivation for communication led to higher perceived
ease of use. It means that, compared with those who have a weak motivation for
communication, users with a strong motivation for communication are more likely
to regard the technology as not only useful but also easy to use, and ultimately
increase actual use of the technology.
Similar to the effects of the motivation for communication, the motivation for
instrumental use was also an essential component in the use of computer-based VoIP
phone service. The difference between the motivation for communication and the
motivation for instrumental use was that the former affected perceived ease of use,
while the latter had a direct effect on actual use of the technology. This suggests that
for those who have practical rather than social or relational purposes for telephone
use, whether or not computer-based VoIP phone service is easy to use would not be
a concern; rather, they are simply inclined to use the technology by perceiving it as
useful.
One question that remains unanswered is why the motivation for entertainment
had a negative effect on perceived ease of use along with indirect negative effects
on perceived usefulness and actual system use. That is, the more an individual is
motivated to meet needs for entertainment with the technology, the more he or
she thinks it is hard to use. This finding is somewhat astounding, given that the
motivation for communication increased perceived ease of use. One possible reason
for this unexpected finding might be that computer-based VoIP phone service thus
far has not reached the level of sophistication at which users with a high motivation
to entertain can be satisfied, and thus it affected the endogenous variables negatively.
This finding, however, calls for further investigation of the role of the motivation for
entertainment in the context of computer-based VoIP phone service.
Results of this study offer some important theoretical insights and implications.
First, as the current study uncovered, the TAM is a useful framework to explain
the factors that affect people’s actual use of computer-based VoIP phone service. In
addition to the constructs that were found in this study, however, efforts to search
for other relevant constructs are encouraged in order to make the model building
process of technology use more fruitful.

Second, and more importantly, the current study proposed an integration of

the TAM and the uses and gratifications approach by incorporating motivations as
critical constructs that facilitate perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. The
two research streams have been developed in isolation (one notable exception is Park
et al., 2007) despite the fact that both are trying to explain the underlying personal
factors that influence people’s use of ICTs. Thus far, the TAM has been widely used in
studies of information systems, while the uses and gratifications approach has been
heavily utilized in media effects research. This study provides an exploration of how
the TAM and the uses and gratifications approach can be integrated in the context
of computer-based VoIP phone service. Future studies are encouraged to further
elaborate the integration of the two approaches.
Third, as a practical implication, this study suggests that vendors of computer-
based VoIP phone service need to emphasize the technology’s functions and quality as
well as its low cost. The findings of this study indicate that perceived cost-effectiveness
has a direct effect on actual use of the technology, yet other system characteristics
variables strongly affect perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. Thus far,
computer-based VoIP phone service has been successful in attracting people focusing
on free or at least very low cost service. However, as many players enter the arena,
competition between vendors will be intensified, and thus each market player needs
to develop its unique features and functions beyond the cost advantage.
This study has certain limitations, one of which may be limited external validity
due to the nature of online surveys. As explained earlier, in online surveys, it is
hard to obtain a sampling frame within which every subject in the population
has an equal chance of being selected. Although this study used an online panel
from an established academic institution, it is hard to claim that the problem of
representativeness from a population of general Internet users was completely solved.
This might be particularly problematic considering that computer-based VoIP phone
service has been used on a global scale. Future studies are encouraged to use a more
representative sample in order to replicate and corroborate the findings and the
research model suggested in the current study. Second, Bandura (1997) suggests that
researchers tailor measures of self-efficacy specifically to the behavior at hand. Thus,
self-efficacy for computer-based VoIP phone service would be a better indicator than
Internet self-efficacy. Considering that the technology has been widely diffused in
recent years, future studies can directly measure self-efficacy for computer-based
VoIP phone service. Third, given that computer-based VoIP phone service is mostly
for communication with others, it is clear that subjective norm (or social influence),
which is included in the TRA and the TPB, would be another important determinant
of use. Future research is encouraged to employ subjective norm or social influence
as a factor of the adoption and use of the technology.
Another important issue to be addressed is that the current study focuses on
adoption and use of computer-based VoIP but not on patterns of use, despite
research evidence that social consequences of new ICTs are just as contingent on
patterns of use as they are on amount of use. As the social constructive approach

to technology (Kling, 2000; MacKenzie & Wajcman, 1985; Williams & Edge, 1996)
claims, the way in which a technology’s path evolves is largely influenced by social,
organizational, economic, and cultural factors that surround the technology as well
as the technology itself. In addition, the approach emphasizes the roles of human
beings in the continuous interactions of various social and technical elements. The
early history of the telephone illustrates the process of social shaping of technology
very well. The telephone in the early 20th century was widely used for housewives as
an antidote to loneliness despite campaigns by AT&T and other telephone companies
against such uses (Fischer, 1992). This pattern of use led to changes not only in the
telephone’s functionality but also in people’s perception toward the technology as a
medium for interpersonal communication.
In parallel with the claim of the social construction of technology, Campbell
and Russo (2003) recently explored the roles of social contacts and social contexts
in the way people think about and use mobile phones. They found that people’s
interactions with social contacts, situated in social context, played an essential role
in their adoption of mobile telephony, perceptions of products and services, socially
normative use of mobile phones, and use of mobile phones as a collective resource.
In the case of the Internet, it has been found that Internet use patterns have affected
social consequences of the technology. For instance, Kraut et al. (1998) found that the
Internet increased people’s depression and loneliness, while Nie and Erbring (2002)
concluded that heavy Internet use resulted in less time spent with family and friends.
However, later studies including Kraut et al.’s (2002) follow-up study demonstrated
that greater Internet use was associated with positive psychological and social
outcomes (e.g., DiMaggio, Hargittai, Neuman, & Robinson, 2001; Howard, Rainie,
& Jones, 2001; Katz, Rice, & Aspden, 2001; Kavanaugh & Patterson, 2001; Kiesler
et al., 2002; Wellman, Boase, & Chen, 2002; Wellman, Haase, Witte, & Hampton,
2001). These contrasting findings can be attributed to many factors, yet one reason
for the positive effects of the Internet is that Internet users have developed new
patterns of use including information exchange, socializing, building communities,
or file sharing. For example, Internet users may build new social networks and
communities beyond the limits of local environments (Kiesler et al., 2002). They can
also transform their existing social networks, either by using the Internet as a way to
maintain relationships in addition to telephone and face-to-face contacts with people
they already know or by completely shifting their communication to the Internet
(Wellman et al., 2002).
Given that computer-based VoIP phone service combines features of the telephone
and the Internet, and thus has unique functions such as conference calling, file
exchange, and video conversation as described earlier, it is highly likely that users
can develop new patterns of use beyond the typical social and instrumental uses. The
patterns of use with computer-based VoIP phone service thus will provide insights
about social consequences of the technology. Therefore, future research needs to
investigate people’s various patterns of use to enrich the findings from the current
study. Since the adoption of computer-based VoIP phone service already passed the

stage of early adoption from Rogers’ (1995) classification (13.5%), according to the
results of the present study, research on patterns of use will shed new light on the
future trajectory of the technology.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Dr. Margaret McLaughlin who guided the author’s doctoral
dissertation. The present study is from a part of the author’s dissertation.
Notes
1 According to the Media Research Lab (T. Daugherty, personal communication, March
25, 2008), the ways in which panel participants are recruited and a research study with
the panel is conducted are as follows. Panel members are recruited to the panel with a
variety of mechanisms, including collaborative agreements with high-traffic Web sites
and online banner advertising designed to stimulate words of mouth about the Lab’s
research activities. These activities direct prospective members to the panel Web site
where they need to register to become a member of the panel. After joining the panel,
panelists may permanently opt out of the panel at any time. The Lab staff runs a
computer program to randomly select panel members and to invite them to participate
in a particular study. In addition, the panel database keeps tracks of whether panelists
were invited to participate in a study and whether they accepted invitations in order to
ensure that panelists are not inundated with invitations. The selected panel members for
a study will receive an e-mail invitation in which a URL that directs the members to an
online survey is included.
2 Although the panel participants can be recruited from all over the world, it would be
reasonable to assume that the majority of participants are people in the United States,
given that the Lab is operated by a university in the United States and the survey
invitations are sent in English.
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Aneignung und Nutzung von computerbasierten Internet‐Telefonie‐Angeboten: Ein
integriertes Modell

Namkee Park

Die Studie untersucht Faktoren, die die Aneignung und Nutzung von computerbasierten
Voice‐over‐IP Internet‐Telefonie‐Angeboten (VoIP) beeinflussen und versucht dabei, zwei
theoretische Ansätze zu integrieren: das Technologie‐Akzeptanz‐Modell (TAM) und den
Uses‐and‐Gratification‐Ansatz. Mittels der Daten aus einer Online‐Befragung unter VoIP‐
Nutzern (N=420) konnten wir mit Strukturgleichungsmodellen zeigen, dass die
wahrgenommene Einfachheit der Nutzung einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die
wahrgenommene Nützlichkeit hat. Außerdem hatte die wahrgenommene Nützlichkeit einen
positiven Effekt auf die tatsächliche VoIP‐Nutzung. Die Studie deckte weiterhin auf, dass
Motivationen für Kommunikation und instrumenteller Nutzen eine wichtige Rolle bei der
Beeinflussung die wahrgenommene Einfachheit der Nutzung, der wahrgenommenen
Nützlichkeit und dem tatsächlichen Gebrauch von VoIP spielten. Die Studie deutet also
darauf hin, dass die Integration von TAM und Uses‐and‐Gratification hilfreich sein kann, um
die Akzeptanz neuer Technologien beim Nutzer zu verstehen.

La Adopción y el Uso de una Voz Computarizada en un Protocolo de Servicio Telefónico de
Internet:
Hacia un Modelo Integrado
Namkee Park
Gaylord College of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
OK 73019
Resumen
Este estudio examina los factores que influencian la adopción y el uso de una voz computarizada
en un Protocolo (VoIP) de servicio telefónico de Internet y trata de integrar 2 aproximaciones
teóricas: el modelo de aceptación de tecnología (TAM) y el marco del uso y las gratificaciones.
Usando los datos de una encuesta online de usuarios de VoIP (N = 420), análisis de modelos de
ecuación estructural revelaron que la percepción del alivio en el uso tuvo un impacto sustancial
sobre la percepción de la utilidad. Además, la utilidad percibida tuvo un efecto positivo sobre el
uso actual de la VoIP. Este estudio descubrió más allá que las motivaciones para la
comunicación y para el uso instrumental afectaron significativamente la percepción del alivio del
uso, la utilidad percibida, y el uso actual de VoIP. Este estudio sugiere que la integración de
TAM y de los usos y gratificaciones puede ser productiva en el entendimiento de la aceptación
del usuario de las nuevas tecnologías.
VoIP 전화서비스에서 컴퓨터근거 목소리의 채용과 사용: 통합모델지향
Namkee Park
Gaylord College of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
OK 73019
본 연구는VoIP 전화 서비스에서 컴퓨터에 근거한 목소리의 채용과 사용에 영향을 주는

요소들을 연구하고 두 이론적 접근법들--TAM모델과 이용과 충족모델--의 통합을 시도하
고 있다. VoIP전화 사용자 (N=420)를 대상으로 한 온라인 조사 데이터를 이용한 구조균형
모델분석은 인지된 사용의 편리성이 인지된 사용성에 주요한 영향을 준 것을 나타내고
있다. 게다가, 인지된 편리성은 실제VoIP 사용에 긍정적인 효과를 준 것으로 나타났다. 본
연구는 커뮤니케이션과 도구적 사용을 위한 동기들이 사용의 인지된 편리성, 인지된 유
용성, 그리고 실제VoIP사용에 영향을 미치는데 있어 주요한 역할을 한다는 것을 발견하
였다. 본 연구는TAM모델과 이용과 충족모델의 통합이 뉴커뮤니케이션 기술들의 사용자
수용을 이해하는데 도움을 줄 수 있다는 것을 제안하고 있다.
采用和使用计算机网络协议语音电话服务：构建综合模型
Namkee Park
美国俄克拉荷马大学
【摘要：】
本研究探讨了影响采用和使用计算机网络协议语音（VoIP）电话服务的因
素，并尝试整合两类理论方法：技术接受模型（TAM）和使用与满足理论。通
过对 VoIP 用户(N = 420)的在线调查，对数据进行结构方程模型的分析显示，对
VoIP 感知的使用难易程度对有用性感知有着极大的影响。此外，感知的有用性
对 VoIP 的实际使用也有积极的影响。本研究进一步发现，传播动机和工具使用
对感知的易用性、有用性和实际使用 VoIP 有重要影响。本研究表明，在研究用户
对新传播技术的接受上，技术接受模型和使用与满足理论的结合将大有可为。

Adoption and Use of Computer-Based Voice Over Internet Protocol Phone Service: Toward An Integrated Model

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Adoption and Use of Computer-Based Voice Over Internet Protocol Phone Service: Toward An Integrated Model

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Journal of Communication ISSN 0021-9916

Adoption and Use of Computer-Based Voice

Corresponding author: Namkee Park; e-mail: npark@ou.edu

40 Journal of Communication 60 (2010) 40–72

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The technology acceptance model as a theoretical framework

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Figure 1 Technology acceptance model (TAM).

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as performance expectancy, while it categorizes perceived ease of use and complexity

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perceived behavioral control. According to the TPB, perceived behavioral control

Uses and gratifications approach and motivations for telephone use

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Perceived ease of use

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Perceived cost- Perceived

System H6 Perceived H2 Actual

Figure 2 Hypothesized research model.

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Table 1 Factor Analysis for Motivations

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Exploratory factor analysis for motivations

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Table 2 Zero-Order Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations (N = 420)

service (communication, entertainment, and instrumental use) were extracted. These

Analysis of structural equation modeling

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Tests of the overall model

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Motivation .16*** Perceived

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Table 3 Direct and Indirect Effects

Conclusion and discussion

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Table 4 Multicollinearity Statistics

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Second, and more importantly, the current study proposed an integration of

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Bentler, P. M. (1988). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin,

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Smith, C. B. (1997). Casting the net: Surveying an Internet population. Journal of

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본 연구는VoIP 전화 서비스에서 컴퓨터에 근거한 목소리의 채용과 사용에 영향을 주는

过对 VoIP 用户(N = 420)的在线调查，对数据进行结构方程模型的分析显示，对

对感知的易用性、有用性和实际使用 VoIP 有重要影响。本研究表明，在研究用户

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