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Distributed as a sinusoid.
Communication Systems
FM – Frequency Modulated
Am – Amplitude Modulated
V(t) = Vm cos(ωt + ∅)
Vm
Vm : Amplitude (Peak Value)
ω : Angular Frequency (rad/s)
∅ : Phase Angle (Degrees or Radians)
t T : Period
2π 1
-Vm T= f=
ω T
Euler’s Identity
j Imaginary
Complex Axis على اليمين يوضح الشكل
Plane
علىV(t) رسمة الجهد
∅ حيث انComplex Plane
ω Real Axis
:
. هو طول الفكتور: Vm
الزاوية التي يصنعها مع: ∅
-j
.Real Axis
: ωسرعة دوران الفكتور.
على اليمين يوضح الشكل اسقاط
Vm
Real Axis علىV(t) الجهد
1 : حيث
عندماV(t) اسقاط: 1 النقطة
t
2 يكون منطبق تمام على محور
-Vm ومتوجه لليمين فتكونReal
3 .القيمة اكبر ما يمكن
T
عندماV(t) اسقاط: 2 النقطة
يكون منطبق تمام على محور
. تساوي صفرReal Axis ومتوجه لألعلى فتكون القيمة علىImaginary
ومتوجهReal عندما يكون منطبق تمام على محورV(t) اسقاط: 3 النقطة
..... وهكذا. Vm وتساويReal Axis لليسار فتكون القيمة اقل ما يمكن على
Charles Steinmetz observed that all voltages and currents
sinusoidal function
The only quantities necessary to distinguish sinusoids are
V(t) = Vm cos(ωt + ∅)
V = Vm∠∅ , Polar form of a complex number
Review of Complex numbers - مراجعة
n = a + jb, Rectangular Form
j Imaginary
Complex Axis n = c∠∅, Polar Form
Plane b n=a+jb
∅ Real Axis
Rec→Polar
a
c = √a2 + b 2
b
∅ = tan−1 ( )
a
-j
𝑗 = ∠90°
Polar→Rec
−𝑗 = ∠ − 90°
2
a = c cos ∅ 𝑗 2 = √−1 = −1
b = c sin ∅
n = a + jb = c c cos ∅ + jc sin ∅ = c ej∅ , Exponential Form
Basic Arithmetic
Addition/Subtraction → use Rectangular form
Identities
Complex Canongate (*)
n∗ = a − jb = c∠ − ∅ = ce−j∅
nk = (a + jb)k = (ce−j∅ )k = ck e−jk∅
Example: Given that n1 = 4 + j3 = √42 + 32 ∠ tan−1 4 = 5∠36.9°
3
n1 + n2 = 9 + j15 = 17.5∠59°
n1 5∠36.9° 5
= = ∠36.9° − 67.4° = .385∠ − 30.51° = .331 − j. 195
n2 13∠67.4° 13
n1 4 = (5∠36.9°)4 = 54 ∠4(36.9°) = 625∠147.48°
(n1 ∗ )(n2 ) = (5∠ − 36.9°)(13∠67.4°) = 5 ∗ 13∠67.4° − 36.9°
= 65∠30.5°
j(3−j4)∗
Example: (−1+j6)(2+j)2
j(3 + j4)
=
2
(6.083∠99.462°) (2.236 ∠2 ∗ (26.565°))
(∠90°)(5∠53.13°) 1
= = ∠90° − 99.462°
(6.083∠99.462°)(5∠53.13) 6.083
= 0.164∠ − 9.462° = 0.164 − j0.027
∅-
إذا كانت sin or cosine
)sin(ωt مضروبة بسالب نأخذ السالب بعين
اإلعتبار.
Example 3: Calculate the phase angle between V1 (t) = −10 cos(ωt + 50°) and
)V2 (t) = 12 sin(ωt − 10°
- sin(ωt)
الحظ بعد رسم الفكتورين اصبح واضحا
90° − (50° + أن الزاوية بينها تساوي
°30 أي ان الزاوية تساوي10°)
- cos(ωt) cos(ωt)
50°
10°
sin(ωt)
Example 4: Find the phase angle between i1 (t) = −4 sin(377t + 25°) and i2 (t) =
5 cos(377t − 40°)
- sin(ωt)
الحظ بعد رسم الفكتورين اصبح واضحا
25°
90° + (25° + أن الزاوية بينها تساوي
° 155 أي ان الزاوية تساوي40°)
- cos(ωt) cos(ωt)
40°
sin(ωt)
Case 1
cos(α ± β) = cos(α)cos( β) ∓ sin(α) cos( β)
Vs (t) = 20 cos(ωt) cos(−45°) + 20 sin(ωt) sin(−45°)
+10 cos(ωt) cos(−30°) + 10 sin(ωt) sin(−30°)
Vs (t) = [20 cos(−45°) + 10 cos(−30°)] cos(ωt)
+[20 sin(−45°) + 10 sin(−30°)] sin(ωt)
Vs (t) = 22.8 cos(ωt) − 19.14 sin(ωt)
−19.14
Vs (t) = √22.82 + (−19.14)2 cos (ωt + tan−1 ) = 29.77 cos(ωt + 40.01°) V
22.8
Case 2
Phasors
V1 = 20∠ − 45° V
V2 = 10∠ − 30° V
Vs = V1 + V2 = 20∠ − 45° + 10∠ − 30° = 29.77∠ − 40.01°
Vs (t) = 29.77 cos(ωt + 40.01°) V
Resistor
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
time-domain
Impedance of a Resistor
V V𝑚 ∠∅𝑣
Z𝑅 = = 𝑅 = 𝑅∠0° =
I I𝑚 ∠∅𝑖
0° = ∅𝑣 − ∅𝑖
∅𝑣 = ∅𝑖
Voltage and Current are in phase.
Summary - Resistor
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
i(t) I
V(t) R V ZR = R
V(t) = R ∗ i(t) V = ZR ∗ I
v,i Im
v(t)
i(t)
t ∅v
ω ∅i Re
Inductor
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) Vm ej∅v = jωL ∗ Im ej∅i
V(t) = L ∗
𝑑𝑡
V = jωL ∗ I
j(ωt+∅v ) j(ωt+∅i )
Vm e = jωL ∗ Im e
Divide by ejωt (leaving time-domain)
Impedance of an Inductor
V V𝑚 ∠∅𝑣
Z𝑙 = = jωL = ωL∠90° = Im
I I𝑚 ∠∅𝑖
ωL
Re
90° = ∅𝑣 − ∅𝑖
∅𝑖 = ∅𝑣 − 90°
Current lags Voltage by 90° -
Summary - Inductor
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
i(t) I
V(t) L V ZL = jωL
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
V(t) = L ∗ V = ZL ∗ I
𝑑𝑡
v,i Im
v(t)
V(t) i(t)
∅v
t
∅i R
ω
i(t)
Capacitor
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
𝑑𝑣(𝑡) Im ej∅i = jωC ∗ Vm ej∅v
i (t ) = C ∗
𝑑𝑡
I = jωC ∗ V
j(ωt+∅i ) j(ωt+∅v )
Im e = jωC ∗ Vm e
Divide by ejωt (leaving time-domain)
Impedance of an Capacitor
V 1 −𝑗 1 V𝑚 ∠∅𝑣
Z𝑐 = = = = ∠ − 90° = Im
I jωC ωC ωC I𝑚 ∠∅𝑖
−90° = ∅𝑣 − ∅𝑖 Re
∅𝑖 = ∅𝑣 + 90° 1/ωC
Current leads Voltage by 90°
-
Summary - Capacitor
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
i(t) I
V(t) −𝑗
C V ZC =
ωC
d
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
i(t) = C ∗ V = ZC ∗ I
𝑑𝑡
Im
v,i v(t)
i(t)
i(t)
∅v
R
t ω
v(t)
Impedance Triangle – (Complex numbers)
j Im 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑥 = |𝑍|∠∅
Z: AC Impedance
R: AC Resistance
X
∅ X: AC Reactance
Re
Impedance Combination
-j Series: Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + … + Zn
1 1 1 1
Parallel: 𝑍 = 𝑍 + 𝑍 + ⋯ + 𝑍
𝑒𝑞 1 2 𝑛
j Im
ZL = jωL = ωL∠90°
Re
ZR = R = R∠0°
−𝑗 1
𝑍𝐶 = = ∠-90°
ω𝐶 ω𝐶
-j
Resistor R ـــــــــــــــ
Inductor jωL jω
−j −1
Capacitor
ωC ωC
AC Admittance (y)
1
𝑦= G: AC Conductance
𝑍
𝑦 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵 B: AC Susceptance
Sinusoidal steady-state analysis
1. Identify the angular frequency (ω).
2. Convert from the time-domain to the frequency-domain
Represent sinusoidal voltages and currents as phasors.
Represent R,L,C as impedances.
3. Linear system V = Z I
We can use our conventional linear system circuit
Analysis to evaluate the circuit.
4. When requested, convert the answer to a time-domain
expression.
Example: find V
+
8Ω
V 10Ω 5μF
𝐼𝑠 (𝑡) =
922 cos(20,000𝑡 + 30°)
-
300μH
𝐼𝑠 = 1 1 1 1
= + +
V 𝑍𝑒𝑞 8 + 𝑗6 10∠0° 10∠ − 90°
922∠30° Zeq
1
= 0.18 + 𝑗0.04
- 𝑍𝑒𝑞
6Ω j12Ω
Yab 5Ω
j10Ω
-j2Ω 4Ω
b
13.6Ω
1
𝑦𝑎𝑏 = = 50∠36.87° mS = (40 + 𝑗30) mS
𝑍𝑎𝑏
Example: find ω
𝑖0 (𝑡) = 40 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 21.87°) mA
600Ω 3.2H
= 40 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 68.13°) mA
Phasors
الحظ أن الجزء الحقيقي من الرقمين 600متساوي وهو مقدار 𝑅𝑍 بقي جزء Complex
نساوي المعادلتين في بعض لنجد . ωقيمة ωموجبة دائما.
)(400,000
(3.2ω − = 800) ∗ ω
ω
1
∗ )⇒ (3.2ω2 − 400,000 = 800ω
3.2
⇒ ω2 − 250ω − 125,000 = 0
⇒ ω = 500
Example: find IC ,IB, Vg
VA
5Ω
IA = 2∠0° A
Ic
50Ω 120Ω
Vg IA IB (6+j3.5) A
j150Ω -j40Ω
Find VA
𝑉𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 (50 + 𝑗150) = (100 + 𝑗300) 𝑉
(100+𝑗300) 𝑉
𝐼𝐵 = (120−𝑗40) Ω
= 𝑗2.5 𝐴
240∠0° V 36 Ω
−j48 Ω
j60 Ω
240∠0° V 36 Ω
12∠90° Ω
= 20∠ − 90° 𝐴
−j48 Ω
Z𝑒𝑞 = 36//𝑗12
= 11.384∠71.565° Ω
Zeq = (3.6 + 𝑗10.8) Ω
20∠ − 90° 𝐴 j10.8 3.6
Z𝑒𝑞 →
b
Norton – Thevenin Conversion
j10.8Ω 3.6Ω
a
= 227.7∠ − 18.435° V
b
20Ω 1.25μF
V𝑎 = 60 cos 40,000𝑡 𝑉
V𝑏 = 90 sin(40,000𝑡 + 180°) 𝑉
Va 𝑖0 (𝑡)
125μH Vb = 90 cos(40,000𝑡 + 90°) 𝑉
V𝑎 = 60∠0° 𝑉 V𝑏 = 90∠90° 𝑉
𝑖0
Z𝑙 = 𝑗(40,000)125𝜇
= 𝑗5Ω
−
)Active V1 (ω=2000r/s
j2Ω
−j5Ω
+
−
)20∠−36.87°(10//−𝑗5
= V′ (10//−𝑗5)+𝑗2
𝑉 = 31.62∠ − 55.3°
)Active V2 (ω=5000r/s
j5Ω
−j2Ω
+
−
= V ′′
)10∠16.26°(10//𝑗5
𝑉 = 15.81∠34.69° الحظ أن الجهد الكلي يساوي مجموع الجهدين
(10//𝑗5)−𝑗2
لكن لكل جهد ωخاصة به لذلك ال يجمعان
)𝑉(𝑡) = V ′ + V ′′ = 31.62 cos(2000𝑡 − 55.3°) + 15.81 cos(5000𝑡 + 34.69° جمع جبري فقط اشارة +بينهم
Example: find Norton Equivalent
V2
200Ω −j50Ω V2
5𝑉 5
a
+ +
I0
V2 88I0
V1 = 5 𝑉 V2 V𝑡ℎ = V𝑜𝑐
5 10Ω
− −
KCL @ Node a
V2
−V2 V2
5
= 88𝐼0 +
−𝑗50 10
V2 V
−V2 5− 2 V2
5
⇒ −𝑗50 = 88 ( 2005 ) + 10
−0.8V V
2
⇒ 50∠−90° = 2.2 − 0.088V2 + 102
0.8∠180°
⇒ 50∠−90° V2 = 2.2 + 0.012V2
⇒ −𝑗0.016V2 = 2.2 + 0.012V2
⇒ (0.012 − 𝑗0.016)V2 = 2.2
⇒ V2 = V𝑡ℎ = V𝑜𝑐 = 110∠126.87° 𝑉
Find Zeq
200Ω −j50Ω
a
+
I0 I𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
88I0
V2 V2 V𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 1
10Ω
5
b
V2 = V𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 1
1
−
5
I0 = = −0.001
200
KCL @ Node a
1
1 1−
5
I𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 = + 88(−0.001) +
10 −𝑗50Ω
Norton Equivalent
I𝑁 −𝑗40Ω
= 2.2∠180° A
30Ω