1) What is Grade of concrete?

Differentiate between normal, standard and high strength

grades of concrete. Also specify their mix ratio and compressive strength.

Grade of concrete: Grade of concrete is defined as the minimum strength the concrete must
posses after 28 days of construction with proper quality control. Grade of concrete is denoted by
prefixing M to the desired strength in MPa.

Compressive Strength
Concrete Grade Mix Ratio
MPa (N/mm2) psi

Normal Grade of Concrete

M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi

M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi

M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi

M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi

M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi

Standard Grade of Concrete

M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi

M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi

M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi

M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi

M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi

High Strength Concrete Grades

M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi

M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi

M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi

M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi

M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi

2) Explain each step of concrete construction in detail that includes selecting quantities of
materials for selected mix proportion, mixing, checking workability, transporting, pouring in
formwork, compaction, removal of formwork, curing with suitable method and time.

Selecting quantities of materials:

The durable concrete structures are to be conceptualized,

specified, designed, contracted, constructed and maintained. To achieve the
design life of the structure at reasonable maintenance cost, the following aspects are
required to be taken care of:

i) The structure should also be designed for environment loads and detailing done.

ii) Selection of proper construction materials.

iii) The concrete should be impermeable, with designed crack width due to shrinkage,
thermal forces or loads.

iv) The good construction practices should be followed.

v) Selection and application of correct coatings to reinforce bars and concrete

surface.

vi) Planned maintenance of concrete structures should be followed.

vii) Proper specifications for construction materials and structural components should be
prepared.

Mix proportion:
The strength of this concrete mix is determined by the proportion on which these
cement, sand, stones or aggregates are mixed. There are various grades of concrete
available in the market based on these ratios. Some of them are: M10, M20, M30,
M35, etc.
 Workability:

The workability of concrete depends on many factors which are explained in factors affecting
workability of concrete. Water cement ratio has much effect in the workability. Workability is
directly proportional to water cement ratio. An increase in water-cement ratio increases the
workability of concrete.

Factors Affecting Workability of Concrete

The workability requirements for a concrete construction depend on:

o Water cement ratio

o Type of construction work
o Method of mixing concrete
o Thickness of concrete section
o Extent of reinforcement
o Method of compaction
o Distance of transporting
o Method of placement
o Environmental condition
Transporting:

Transporting the concrete mix is defined as the transferring of concrete from the mixing plant
to the construction site. Keep in mind that not all concrete is mixed on the actual construction
site and could require some significant travel. This is most common for ready-mixed concretes.
The main objective in transporting concrete is to ensure that the water-cement ratio, slump or
consistency, air content, and homogeneity are not modified from their intended states.

There are many modes of transportation as shown below:

i) Wheelbarrow or motorized buggy

ii) Truck mixer
iii) Bucket or steel skip
iv) Chute
v) Belt conveyor
vi) Concrete pump
vii) Pneumatic placer
Pouring in formwork:

Concrete needs to be poured into an enclosed space and remain there until it adequately
consolidates to maintain its shape. Concrete that has been poured newly for concrete slabs can be
preserved in shape by existing features like walls and edgings. Alternatively, provisional
shuttering, which is also called formwork, could be necessary. On vertical structures, formwork
construction can be difficult and is therefore usually carried out by professional formwork
erectors. However, slab work at ground level is usually less difficult and needs only simple
formwork. In all the cases, whether vertical structures or work at the ground, the formwork
should be strong. It must be able to bear the forces produced by the wet concrete, including the
weight of the vibration producing equipment. The formwork joints must be fastened adequately
and prevent the leaking of the wet concrete during the vibration and curing. The primary
formwork types being used for producing ground slabs are steel road form and customized
timber shuttering.

Compaction:

After concrete has been mixed, transported and placed, it contains entrapped air in the form of
large voids. If this air is not removed by proper compaction, the presence of these voids will:
- reduce the strength of the concrete
- increase the permeability and hence reduce the durability
- lead to blemishes on the surface, such as blowholes and honeycombing.
Most concrete is compacted by means of internal poker vibrators (see Plant & Equipment) that
fluidise the concrete and permit the entrapped air to rise to the surface. External vibrators bolted
to the formwork are occasionally used for in situ concrete though their main use is for precast
concrete.
Removal of formwork:

The removal of concrete formwork also called as strike-off or stripping of formwork should be
carried out only after the time when concrete has gained sufficient strength, at least twice the
stress to which the concrete may be subjected to when the formworks are removed. It is also
necessary to ensure the stability of the remaining formwork during formwork removal.

Curing:

After concrete is placed, the concrete increases in strength very quickly for a period of 3-7
days. Concrete which is moist cured for 7 days is about 50% stronger than uncured concrete.
3) What is the significance of asbestos in concrete? Write its properties, advantages and
disadvantages.

Advantages of Asbestos

 Asbestos is a very good thermal insulator and increases the energy efficiency of the
building.
 It is highly resistant to fire and does not burn easily.
 It forms a very strong material when mixed with cement and used as an additive to form a
composite material called asbestos cement.
 It is a very inexpensive and a very cost effective material, hence widely used.
 It is extensively used as a protective roofing material in corrugated form.
 It is highly durable and weather proof.
 It is resistant to damage from termites.
 Asbestos is very easy to clean and maintain but difficult to repair.

Disadvantages of Asbestos

 The major disadvantage of using asbestos is that it is seriously hazardous to health.

Asbestos comprises of invisible micro particles which when released in the air can cause
life threatening diseases if inhaled for a continuous span of time.
 Due to this major disadvantage new materials are being manufactured as a replacement to
asbestos.

4) What is concrete delineation?

Decoration make in concrete through different process and techniques.

5) How heat of hydration in cement can be reduced? Is there any relationship between
cementing properties and heat of hydration?

Heat generation can be reduced by replacing cement portion with pulverized-fuel ash, like
PFAC, modification of clinker constituents, and fineness of cement. Areduction in
temperature will retard the rate of hydration and so further restrict the rate of heat generation
and reduce thermal shrinkage.

Generally higher heat of hydration is an indicator of higher early strength development: The
hydration reaction which causes the cement to develop its strength is exothermic, therefore the
faster it reacts, the hotter the cement will become. However, higher ultimate strength will
normally result from a slower hydration process as this allows time for a stronger crystal matrix
to develop. About 50% of heat is liberated within 3 days, about 75% in 7 days and 90% in 6
months. Hence as heat is liberated strength gain by cement also increases.

6) What is light weight concrete, Polymer concrete, Air entrained concrete and steel fiber
reinforced concrete? Write down how they are different from normal concrete, what are their
advantages, disadvantages and applications.

Light weight concrete: Lightweight concrete is mixture of cement, lightweight coarse

aggregate, sometimes lightweight fine aggregate and water. The unit weight (density) of
lightweight aggregate concrete is between 1440 kg/m3 to 1840 kg/m3.

Polymer concrete: Polymer concrete is an aggregate mixture that uses some type of epoxy
binder to cure and harden into place. A polyester, vinyl ester, or normal epoxy mixture is often
used, but polymer concrete can be made with many kinds of polymer resins that allow
the concrete to be poured or toweled and then hardened.

Air entrained concrete: Air-entrained concrete contains billions of microscopic air cells per
cubic foot. These air pockets relieve internal pressure on the concrete by providing tiny
chambers for water to expand into when it freezes. Air-entrained concrete is produced using air-
entraining Portland cement, or by the introduction of air-entraining agents.

Steel fiber reinforced concrete: Fiber reinforced concrete is a type of concrete that includes
fibrous substances that increase its structural strength and cohesion. Fiber reinforced concrete
has small distinct fibers that are homogeneously dispersed and oriented haphazardly. Fibers used
are steel fibers, synthetic fibers, glass fibers, and natural fibers.
7) What is destructive and non-destructive testing of concrete?

Destructive: The estimation of mechanical properties of concrete can be carried out by several
methods; destructive and non-destructive. In this context, the crushing of the samples is
the usual destructive test to determine the concrete strength.

Non-destructive: Non destructive testing of concrete can be defined as the test method used to
examine the properties of concrete used in the actual structure.