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Degrees of Freedom
Damping in structures
P P(t)
What is Dynamics ?
Resistance due to internal Accelerations producing inertia
elastic forces of structure forces (inertia forces form a
significant portion of load
equilibrated by the internal
elastic forces of the structure)
Static Dynamic
Characteristics and sources of Typical Dynamic Loadings
Periodic Loading:
(d) Earthquake on
water tank
(a) Simple harmonic (b) Complex (c) Impulsive (d) Long duration
Massless
1. 2. spring
Massless Inextensible
Spring
spring with Spring
θ
mass (a) (b) (c)
Flexible beam
4. Flexible and Flexible beam with distributed
massless with distributed mass
mass
(a) (b) (c)
Point
mass
y(x) = c1φ1(x)+ c2φ2(x)+55
Rigid deck
5.
c m P(t)
=
..
x, x
When mass is not varying with time, P(t) ..
Mass element ,m - representing the mass and inertial mx
..
characteristic of the structure P(t) = m x(t) = mass x acceleration
Spring element ,k - representing the elastic restoring force
and potential energy capacity of the Inertia force
structure.
Dashpot, c - representing the frictional characteristics D’Alembert’s Principle: This Principle states that “mass develops
and energy losses of the structure an inertia force proportional to its acceleration and opposing it”.
Excitation force, P(t) - represents the external force acting on
structure.
Equations of motion:
The force P(t) includes , mg fs
Spring force - fs ∝ x k
1) Elastic constraints which opposes displacement . 1
.. Viscous damping force - fd ∝ x
2) Viscous forces which resist velocities kx mx x
..
Inertia Force - fI ∝ x
3) External forces which are independently defined
External Forces - P(t) fD
4) Inertia forces which resist accelerations N
c
1
.
x
FBD for mass
1.
x fs = kx
k ..
f I = m .x P(t)
c m P(t) fd = cx
Examples
2. ..
. mx
0+ cx
Kx + w
P(t) w
δst = w/k
x(t) = displacement measured from
position of static equilibrium
P(t)
mx&& + cx& + kx = P(t ) (2)
..
mx
a
k c x Rigid
b
massless a
a b k x
a k x c x& d k L
L L
b L b
x – vertical displacement of the mass c x&
d L
L
measured from the position of c
static equilibrium P(t) P(t)
x ..
mx
m
Stiffness term W=mg
2 2
b a d
&& + c x& + k x =
mx P (t ) (3)
L L L b
2
a 2 W d
&& + c x& + k +
mx x = P (t ) (4)
L L L L
Note: The stiffness is larger in this case
(3c) (4a) µ (distributed mass)
P(t) m µL P(t)
m .. &&
x
mx (2/3)L 2
x
k c ..
P(t) P(t) x mx
c a b .
b . a fs = k x f d = c x&
c x& L L
L L b
d
d a
k x L
Rigid
b L
massless a
2 2
Stiffness term 1 b a d
m + µ L &&
x + c x& + k x = P (t )
b
2
a 2 W d 3 L L L
&& + c x& + k −
mx x = P (t ) (5)
L
L L
L
Note: The stiffness is decreased in this case. The stiffness term
goes to zero - Effective stiffness is zero – unstable - Buckling load
1 b
2
a 2 W 1 d x
m + µ L &&
x + c &
x + k ± + µ g x = P (t )
3 L L L 2 L
g 3 g
x+
&& x=0 x+
&& x=0 Jθ&& + kθ = 0
(Negative sign for the bar L 2 L
supported at bottom)
Internal
m/2 hinge P(t) Rigid with uniform mass µL/2 = m/2
Rigid ,massless
x
ke N N
x(t)
k c
ce me Pe(t)
x + ce x& + ke x = Pe (t )
me && (6) m &&
⋅
x P(t) µ L &&
x m
⋅ = &&x
2 2 2 2 4
me - equivalent or effective mass N N
o
Ce - equivalent or effective damping coefficient RL
x x&
k c
Ke - equivalent or effective stiffness 2 2
7 1 1 16 N 3
me = m ce = c ke = k 1 + Pe (t ) = P(t ) (7) Free Vibration
24 4 4 kL 4
Amplitude of motion
x + p2 x = 0
&& (9)
v
2
x x + 0
2
0
k (10) p
p =
2
vo
m
General solution is, x0
x(t) = A cos pt + B sin pt (or) (11)
αt t
x(t) = C sin (pt + α) (12)
where,
(13) 2π
C = A2 + B 2 T=
p
2π m v
2
T= = 2π = natural period (14) v x(t ) = x02 + 0 sin ( pt + α ) (16)
p k x (t ) = x0 cos pt + 0 sin pt or
p p
p 1 (15)
f = = = natural frequency X 0 =initial displacement
2π T where, tan α =
x0 (17)
v0 p V0 =initial velocity
p - circular natural frequency of undamped system in Hz.
6 k 16 N p2
For system considered in (5) , p = (20)
1 +
7 m kL
6 k
For N=0 , p = po = (21)
7m Ncr
and for N = −
1
kL , p = 0 N
16
Natural frequencies of single mass systems Relationship between Simple oscillator and Simple pendulum
p= k /m (10)
L
Letting m = W/g
Effective stiffness ke and static deflection δst Determination of Force - Displacement relation, F-∆
ke g
p= = (28)
1. Apply the static force ,F on the mass in the direction of motion
m δ st
2. Compute or measure the resulting deflection of the mass ,∆
ke - the static force which when applied to the mass will
Then , ke = F / ∆ δst = ∆ due to F = W
deflect the mass by a unit amount.
δst - the static deflection of the mass due to its own weight
the force (weight) being applied in the direction of
motion.
Rigid ,massless m
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(a)
k
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a
Therefore,
Examples L
F or
From Equilibrium,
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(29)
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display ed.
F
From Compatibility, This image cannot currently be display ed.
(b) Rigid bar m (c) m (d) (f) Flexible but mass less
Rigid bar k3 k1 kn
k1 k2 k1 k2 3EI
a ke =
a L ke = k1 +k2 + 55+ kn (32) L3
L
F
F = F1 + F2 (e)
∆ k1
k3
k2 12EI
k1 k2 k1 k2 .. ke =
. L3
kn
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F F
∆ = ∆1 + ∆2 = +
k 3 a 2 ∆e = ∆1 + ∆2 + 55+ ∆n
k1 + k 2
L 3EI
F F F (34)
∆= + + ...... + ke =
∆ 1 1 1 k1 k 2 kn L3
(30) = = +
F k e a 2 k 3 (31) ∆ 1 1 1 1
k1 + k 2 = = + ...... + (33)
L F k e k1 k 2 kn
(g) Rigid deck; columns mass less (h) (i)
& axially inextensible
EI
EI k2
1 FL3 5 RL3
∆= −
k1 3 EI 48 EI
L1 E1I1 E2I2 L2 k
L
Eliminating R,
F
kL3
768 + 7
L/2 L/2
3
F
∆= EI ⋅ 1 FL
k2 k2
kL3 3 EI
Lateral Stiffness : ∆ 768 + 32
kb k1 kb+k1 EI
R
E1 I1 E I where,
ke = 12 + 3 23 2
L3 L 5 FL3 1 RL3 R kL3
1 1 1 1 1 ∆a = − = 768 + 32
= + = + 48 EI 24 EI k F EI ⋅ 3 EI
ke k2 kb + k1 k2 3 EI 5
ke = =
+ k1 where, R = F ∆ kL3 L3
L3 EI 768 + 7
2 + 48 EI
L3
d
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
Gd 4 AE
48 EI 768 EI k = k =
ke = ke = 64nR 3 L
L3 7 L3
n – number of turns A – Cross sectional area
(k) (m)
(0) (q)
L
L/2 L/2 a b GJ
k =
EI k =
192 EI 3EIL L
ke = ke = 2 2 L
L3 ab I - moment of inertia of cross sectional area J – Torsional constant of cross
L - Total length section
Natural frequencies of simple MDF systems treated as SDF
mx&& + cx& + kx = 0 k
c k m
x + x& + x = 0
&& c
m m
Free Vibration of Damped SDOF x + 2ζpx& + p 2 x = 0
&& (A)
x
k
where, p=
m
c c
ζ= = (Dimensionless parameter) (38)
2mp 2 km
rt rt
Thus e 1 and e 2 are solutions and, provided r1 and r2 are different
Solution of Eq.(A) may be obtained by a function in the form x = ert from one another, the complete solution is
where r is a constant to be determined. Substituting this into (A) we
obtain,
x = c1e r1t + c2 e r2t
( )
e rt r 2 + 2ζpr + p 2 = 0
The constants of integration c1 and c2 must be evaluated from the
In order for this equation to be valid for all values of t, initial conditions of the motion.
Note that for ζ >1, r1 and r2 are real and negative
r + 2ζpr + p = 0
2 2
for ζ <1, r1 and r2 are imaginary and
or (
r1,2 = p −ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ) for ζ =1, r1= r2= -p
t
A = x0 pd = p 1 − ζ 2 = Damped circular natural frequency
v0 ζ
B= + x0
pd 1−ζ 2
negligible. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Unless otherwise indicated the term natural frequency will refer to the ζ
frequency of the undamped system
Logarithmic decrement
xn
Defined as δ = ln (43)
xn +1
It is an alternative measure of damping and is related to ζ by
the equation
ζ
δ = 2π 2πζ (44)
1−ζ 2
For small values of damping,
∆x n (45)
δ≈ = 2πζ
xn
When damping is quite small,
1 x (46)
δ= ln n
N xn + N
For ζ > 1 (Heavy Damping) For ζ = 1
C
Therefore, ζ = (48)
o
Ccr
t
ζ=0
For t t1, solution is the same as before,
This
imag
e
cann
ot…
( xst )o
1 For t ≥ t1, we have a condition of free vibration,
and the solution can be obtained by application of Eq.17a as follows:
0
(t / T) 2
Vi
x(t ) = xi2 + sin ( p(t −t1)+α )
For damped systems it can be shown that: p P(t)
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Po
ζ
x(t ) = ( xst )0 1 − e −ζ pt cos pd t + sin pd t
ζπ
1− ζ 2 xi = ( xst ) (1 − cos pt ) 0
t1 t
−
xmax 1−ζ 2
= 1+ e (56)
Vi = p sin pt1
( xst ) 0
x(t)/(xst)0
2
2
pt t1/T=2 t1/T=1.5
1-cos pt1 2sin 2 1 pt1
tan α = = pt1
2
pt1 = tan 2
sin pt1 2sin cos 0 1 2 0 1 2
2 2 t/T t/T
pt1
α=
x(t)/(xst)0
hence, 1.68 t1/T=1/π
2 2
t1/T=1 1/6
t
So, x(t ) = (1−cos pt1) + sin pt1 ( xst )0 sin p(t −t1 ) + p 1
2 2 (57(a))
2 0 1 2 t/T 0 1 t/T
t pt t
x (t ) = ( xst )0 2(1 − cos pt1 ) sin p t − 1 = 2 ( xst )0 sin 1 sin p t − 1 (57(b))
2 2 2
(Amplitude of motion) In the plots, we have implicitly assumed that T constant and t1 varies;
Results also applicable when t1 = fixed and T varies
(a) Forced response
Free response
0 p
or
1
f t1 = t 1/T
2 3
x(t ) =
( xst ) πt
− 1 T sin 2π t (59)
sin
0
2
t1 2 t1 T
This diagram Is known as the response spectrum of the 1− 1 T
4 t1
system for the particular forcing function considered. for t ≥ t1 ω
2
p
cos pt ( xst )0 sin pt − 1 t
Note that with xmax determined, the maximum spring force x(t ) = 1 1
ω
2 2 2T
Fmax = k xmax
−1
p
or t cos π t
Fmax kxmax xmax (58) 1 1
(60)
In fact, = = x(t ) = T T ( x ) sin 2π t − 1 t
( Fst ) P0 ( xst )
1
t st 0 T 2 T 2
0.25 − 1
0 0 T
• Note that in these solutions, t1 and T enter as a ratio and that
similarly, t appears as the ratio t /T. In other words, f t1 = t1 / T may
be interpreted either as a duration or as a frequency parameter
2πft1 4πft1
πft1
t1
t1
t1
ft1
• For low values of ft1 (say < 0.2), the maximum value of xmax or AF is
dependent on the area under the force pulse i.e, Impulsive-sensitive. Conditions under which response is static:
Limiting value is governed by Impulse Force Response.
On the basis of the spectrum for the ‘ramp pulse’ presented next, it is
• At high values of ft1, rate of application of load controls the AF. The concluded that the AF may be taken as unity when:
rise time for the rectangular pulse, tr, is zero, whereas for the half-sine
pulse it is finite. For all continuous inputs, the high-frequency limit of
ftr = 2 (61)
AF is unity.
For the pulse of arbitrary shape, tr should be interpreted as the
horizontal projection of a straight line extending from the beginning of
• The absolute maximum value of the spectrum is relatively insensitive
the pulse to its peak ordinate with a slope approximately equal to the
to the detailed shape of the pulse(2 Vs 1.7), but it is generally larger
maximum slope of the pulse. This can normally be done by inspection.
for pulses with small rise times (i.e, when the peak value of the force
is attained rapidly).
For a discontinuous pulse, tr = 0 and the frequency value satisfying ftr
= 2 is, as it should be, infinite. In other words, the high-frequency value
• The frequency value ft1 corresponding to the peak spectral ordinate
of the AF is always greater than one in this case
is also relatively insensitive to the detailed shape of the pulse. For the
particular inputs investigated, it may be considered to range between
ft1 = 0.5 and 0.8. * AF=Amplification factor
2π tr T 2π tr T +
Differentiating and equating to zero, the peak time is (tr − t )
P0
obtained as: tr
1 − cos ptr 0
tan ptr = tr
0 1 2 3 4
f tr 5
sin ptr
Design Spectrum for Half-Cycle Force Pulses
2 2
t ft1=0.6 ft1= 2
o
ft1
Half-Sine Pulse: x
• Line OA defined by equation.51 (i.e max = 2 π α f t1 = 2 π α t1 )
( xst ) 0 πt 1 T t ( xst )0 T
x (t ) = sin −
2
sin 2π for t ≤ t1
1T t1 2 t1 T • Ordinate of point B taken as 1.6 and abscissa as shown
1− P(t)
4 t1 POsinωt
• The frequency beyond which AF=1 is defined by equation. 61
( xst )0
( ft1 ) cos π ft1 ( f sin ( 2π ft - π ft1 ) )
0.25 − ( ft1 ) 2 • The transition curve BC is tangent at B and has a cusp at C
t1 t
Spectrum applicable to undamped systems.
x(t) I/mp
• For n unequal impulses spaced at the critical spacings noted
Effect of second pulse above, xmax = Σ Ij /(mp) (65)
x(t) 2I/mp (summation over j for 1 to n). Where Ij is the magnitude of the jth
Combined effect of two pulses impulse
t
P(t) = P0 sinωt
where ω = π/ t1= Circular frequency P(t)
of the exciting force
t1 t
Solution:
Response of Damped systems to Sinusoidal Force The Particular solution in this case may be taken as
x(t) = M sinωt + N cosωt (a)
Substituting Eq.(a) into Eq.52, and combining all terms involving sinωt
and cos ωt, we obtain
(x st )0 x(t) 1
= sin(ωt - α ) (69)
ζ
The solution in this case is α (x st ) 0 (1- φ ) 2 + 4ζ 2 φ2
2
(1-φ ) +4ζ φ
2 2 2 2
Effect of damping
AF α
• The greatest reduction is obtained where most needed (i.e., at
and near resonance).
The ratio of the amplitudes of the transmitted force and the applied
force is defined as the transmissibility of the system, TR, and is
given by
F0 1 + 4ζ 2 φ 2
TR = = (78)
P0 (1- φ2 ) 2 + 4ζ 2 φ2
Application
Consider a reciprocating or rotating machine which, due to unbalance
of its moving parts, is acted upon by a force P0 sinωt.
• If the support flexibility is such that is less than the value defined
If the machine were attached rigidly to a supporting structure as by Eq.(79), the transmitted force will be greater than applied, and
shown in Fig.(a), the amplitude of the force transmitted to the structure the insertion of the flexible support will have an adverse effect.
would be P0 (i.e., TR=1).
If P0 is large, it may induce undesirable vibrations in the structure, and
• The required flexibility is defined by Eq.(80b), where TR is the
it may be necessary to reduce the magnitude of the transmitted force.
desired transmissibility.
This can be done by the use of an approximately designed spring-
dashpot support system, as shown in Fig (b) and (c).
P0 sinωt • The value of may be increased either by decreasing the spring
P0 sinωt stiffness, k, or increasing the weight of the moving mass, as shown
m in Fig.(c).
P0 sinωt m
mb
m k c k c
(a)
(b) (c)
Application to Ground-Excited systems Rotating Unbalance
k
m Total mass of machine = M
M m
c unbalanced mass =m
e ωt eccentricity =e
y(t) angular velocity =ω
x(t) x
For systems subjected to a sinusoidal base displacement, y(t) =
d2
y0 sinωt it can be shown that the ratio of the steady state
k/2
( M − m) &&
x+m ( x + e sin ωt ) + cx& + kx = 0
displacement amplitude, xmax, to the maximum displacement of
c k/2 dt 2
the base motion, yo, is defined in Eq.(78).
Thus TR has a double meaning, and Eq.(78) can also be used to
proportion the support systems of sensitive instruments or Mx&& + cx& + kx = meω 2 sin ω t
equipment items that may be mounted on a vibrating structure.
For systems for which ζ ,may be considered negligible, the value
of required to limit the transmissibility TR = xmax/y0 to a
specified value may be determined from Eq.(80b).
I= P (τ )d τ
(c) Duhamel’s Integral The strip of loading shown shaded represents and impulse,
τ =0
0
t1 t
Leading to the following counterpart of Eqn.84
For t ≥ t1 = ( xst )o [1 − cos pt ]
t t1
p −ζ p ( t −τ )
x (t ) = ∫ xst (τ ) e sin pd ( t − τ ) dτ x ( t ) = p ( xst )0 ∫ sin p ( t - τ ) dτ + 0 = ( xst )0 cos p ( t - t1 ) - cos pt
1−ζ 2 0 0
k =
*
generalised stiffness
p* = generalised force
y(x, t ) = ψ(x )q(t )
(a)
c1 c2
a1(x)
(c) c(x)
x1
l
m = ∫ m( x )ψ ( x ) 2 dx + Σmiψ i2 + Σjiψ i′′2
*
(d) k1 k2
P(x,t)
k(x) Pi(t)
(e)
N
l
p = ∫ p( x, t )ψ ( x )dx + Σpi (t )ψ i ( x )
*
l l l
0
k * = ∫ k ( x )ψ 2 ( x )dx + ∫ EI ( x )ψ " ( x ) 2 dx + Σkiψ i2 − ∫ N ( x )ψ ' ( x ) 2 dx
0 0 0
Note: Force direction and displacement direction is same (+ve)
Effect of damping
Effect of damping
Energy dissipated into heat or radiated away
Viscous damping • The loss of energy from the oscillatory system results in the
decay of amplitude of free vibration.
Coulomb damping
• In steady-state forced vibration ,the loss of energy is
balanced by the energy which is supplied by the excitation.
Hysteretic damping
Effect of damping
∫ cxdx
Wd = π cω X = & = ∫ cx& dt = cω X ∫ cos (ωt − Φ)dt = π cω X
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
(b) Equivalent viscous damping:
(a) Viscous damping
π C eqω X 2 = W d
Fd(t) = c x& Wd
Fd+kx ellipse
c - coefficient of damping C eq =
πω X 2
W viscous - work done for one full cycle = cπω X
2
2k 2W s
Cc = where k = , W s = strain energy
ω X2 x
Fd C Wd
ζ = =
C c 4π W s
cωX
X(t)
-X
Linear decay
The motion will cease ,however when the amplitude becomes
less than ∆, at which the spring force is insufficient to overcome
4Fd/k
x1 the static friction.
x2 Frequency of oscillation
∆
x-1 k
pµ =
m
(c) Hysteretic damping (material damping or structural damping):
Equivalent viscous Coefficient
µ -x
π WX
Fy is the yield force xy x 4 Fy µ − 1
b) Hysteretic Ceq=
Kh=elastic
damper
πω X µ
Xy Displacement at which material first yields stiffness
2k s
x c) Structural Ceq=
µ= πω
xy
(d) Structural damping
x&
fD = ζ k x
x&
WD = 2ζ kX 2 = α X 2
Energy dissipated is frequency independent.
Reference
Reading Assignment