DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE HARDWARE

REALIZATION

Authors

Waleed Wisal CU-371-2014

Muhammad Ilyas CU-354-2014
Muhammad Ali CU-351-2014
Muhammad Sadaqat CU-355-2014

Supervisor

Engr. Zaheer Farooq

Assistant Professor CECOS University Peshawar

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences Hayatabad Peshawar
May 2018
 DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE HARDWARE REALIZATION

Authors

Waleed Wisal CU-371-2014

Muhammad Ilyas CU-354-2014

Muhammad Ali CU-351-2014

Muhammad Sadaqat CU-355-2014

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

B.Sc. Electrical Engineering

Thesis Supervisor:

Engr. Zaheer Farooq

Assistant Professor CECOS University Peshawar

Thesis Supervisor Signature: ___________________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences Hayatabad Peshawar
May 2018

i
 ABSTRACT

In order to further reduce the size of today’s power converters, wide bandgap

semiconductor technologies are being explored. These devices, such as silicon carbide

(SiC), have been shown to outperform their silicon counterparts when used in high

frequency switching, high temperature, and high voltage applications. These properties

make them highly desirable in the bidirectional dual active bridge power converter.

Being an isolated converter topology, the dual active bridge employs a transformer to

provide step-up/step-down functionality and galvanic isolation for the converter.

Transformers, as well as other passive components such as inductors and capacitors may

be reduced in size when higher switching frequencies are employed. SiC devices used in

this application can in turn provide a means to shrink overall system size and increase the

power density of the converter, proving further the viability of power electronic systems in

applications that require compactness and high efficiency.

The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate the performance benefits of SiC MOSFETs in the

dual active bridge topology. A justification for the choice of topology is included in this

work, along with all of the appropriate design considerations and analysis, leading to the

design of a 200W dual active bridge converter. A demonstration of the designed converter

verifies the analysis techniques explained therein.

ii
 UNDERTAKING

I certify that research work titled “Dual Active Bridge Hardware Realization” is my own

work. The work has not been presented elsewhere for assessment. Where material has been

used from other sources it has been properly acknowledged / referred.

Waleed Wisal CU-371-2014

Muhammad Ilyas CU-354-2014

Muhammad Ali CU-351-2014

Muhammad Sadaqat CU-355-2014

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, Countless thanks to most merciful, omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient

“Almighty Allah” worthy of all praise to guided us in difficulties, who blessed us with

courage and power to complete our work in all respects for Holy Prophet Muhammad

(Peace be upon him) for enlightening our conscious with the essence of faith in Allah,

covering all his kindness and mercy upon him

We take pride in acknowledgement to our dearest respected supervisor,

Sir Zaheer Farooq, for his kind behavior, constant attention, valuable suggestions,

encouraging attitude in moral support without which this goal to achieve was not

possible.

We also pleasure to acknowledge Dr. Nasim Ullah, Lecturer: Department of

Electrical Engineering for providing necessary facilities.

We also want to appreciate here the effects of our all family members especially

our parents, who always behind us and give the unlimited support and encouragement.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .....................................................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................................iv

List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... viii

List of Tables............................................................................................................................. x

Chapter I: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Thesis Statement ........................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Approach....................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 Potential Impact ............................................................................................................ 4

1.6 Organization of Thesis ................................................................................................. 4

Chapter II: Proposed System Level Overview ......................................................................... 5

2.1 Smart Green Power Node............................................................................................. 5

Chapter III: Dual Active Bridge Converter .............................................................................. 6

3.1 Topology ....................................................................................................................... 6

3.2 Power Flow Analysis.................................................................................................... 7

3.3 Switching Devices ...................................................................................................... 10

3.4 Gate Driver ................................................................................................................. 11

3.5 Ferrite Core Transformer Design ............................................................................... 12

3.5.1 Area of Transformer ...................................................................................... 12

3.6 Zero Voltage Switching Operation ............................................................................ 13

3.7 Loss Analysis .............................................................................................................. 13

v
Chapter IV: Controlling .......................................................................................................... 14

4.1 Phase Shift Control ..................................................................................................... 14

4.2 Converter Modeling ................................................................................................... 14

4.3 Controller Design ....................................................................................................... 15

Chapter V: Converter Design and PCB.................................................................................. 17

5.1 Dual Active Bridge ..................................................................................................... 17

5.2 Digital Controller........................................................................................................ 21

5.3 Simulation from 12-48V ............................................................................................ 26

5.4 Simulation from 48-12V ............................................................................................ 28

5.5 PCB Layout and Stub ................................................................................................. 30

5.6 Efficiency Calculation of SiC Transistor ................................................................... 32

5.7 Efficiency Calculation of IGBT Transistor ............................................................... 32

Chapter VI: Arduino UNO ..................................................................................................... 34

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 34

6.1.1 Power .............................................................................................................. 34

6.1.2 Memory .......................................................................................................... 35

6.1.3 Input and Output ............................................................................................ 35

6.2 Communication .......................................................................................................... 36

6.3 Programming .............................................................................................................. 37

6.4 Automatic (Software) Reset ....................................................................................... 37

6.5 Specification ............................................................................................................... 38

Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 39

References ............................................................................................................................... 40

vi
Abreactions.............................................................................................................................. 43

Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 44

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1.1 DAB DC-DC Converter ..........................................................................................2

Fig 2.1 Smart Green Power Node System ...........................................................................5

Fig 3.1 Dual Active Bridge Topology .................................................................................7

Fig 3.2 High Frequency Equivalent Dual Active Bridge .....................................................7

Fig 3.3 Dual Active Bridge Waveforms .............................................................................8

Fig 3.4 Dual Active Bridge Power Transfer Characteristics. ............................................10

Fig 3.6 SiC MOSFET Vs SI IGBT I-V Transconductance Curve. ....................................11

Fig 4.1 Closed Loop Feedback Controller. ........................................................................16

Fig 5.1 Inductor Current and Voltage. ...............................................................................19

Fig 5.2 Capacitor Current. .................................................................................................20

Fig 5.3 Output Current, Power and Voltage. .....................................................................21

Fig 5.4 Simulink DAB Simulation ....................................................................................22

Fig 5.5 Simulink DAB Simulation: Switches. ...................................................................22

Fig 5.6 Simulink DAB Simulation: Transformer. .............................................................23

Fig 5.7 Simulink DAB Simulation: H-Bridge-1 Subsystem. .............................................24

Fig 5.8 Simulink DAB Simulation: H-Bridge-2 Subsystem. .............................................25

Fig 5.9 Simulink DAB Simulation: 12-48V Conversion. ..................................................26

Fig 5.10 Simulink DAB Simulation: Input Voltage: 12-48V Converter. ..........................27

Fig 5.11 Simulink DAB Simulation: Output Voltage: 12-48V Converter. .......................28

Fig 5.12 Simulink DAB Simulation: 48-12V Conversion. ................................................29

Fig 5.13 Simulink DAB Simulation: Input Voltage: 48-12V Conversion.........................29

Fig 5.14 Simulink DAB Simulation: Output Voltage: 48-12V Conversion. .....................30

viii
Fig 5.15 DAB: Proteus PCB Design. .................................................................................31

Fig 5.15 DAB: Stub. ..........................................................................................................31

Fig 6.1 Arduino UNO. .......................................................................................................34

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Switching ...........................................................................................................15

Table 5.1 Dual Active Bridge Components and Parameters .............................................18

Table 6.1 Specification of Arduino UNO ..........................................................................38

x
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Recently, investigations in high-power DC-DC conversion have been significantly
increased due to its essential role in electric vehicle applications and battery based energy
storage systems [1], [2]. Among DC-DC converter topologies, bidirectional dual active
bridge (DAB) isolated DC-DC converter [3], [4] shown in Fig. 1.1(a) is often considered
as a preferred candidate for such applications because of its advantages on galvanic
isolation, switching loss reduction, electromagnetic interference (EMI) improvement, and
efficiency gain. Generally, this topology consists of two voltage source active bridges
linked by a galvanically isolated high frequency transformer (HFT). Each bridge is
controlled to produce a high-frequency square wave voltage at its transformer terminals
and the power flow from one DC source to the other is regulated via appropriately
controlling the phase-shifted angle between these two square wave voltages [4]. It is
desirable for a DAB isolated DC-DC converter to operate at high switching frequency to
achieve high-power density and light-weight. However, it is essential that soft switching
techniques with zero or low switching losses are employed. In [4], it was demonstrated that
leakage inductance value of the isolated HFT needs to be carefully selected for zero voltage
switching (ZVS). As leakage inductance under the HFT design is normally minimized for
conducting loss reduction, additional inductors were utilized [4] which results in increase
in HFT size and weight.
On the other hand, based on the primary referred equivalent circuit of the DAB isolated
DC-DC converter shown in Fig. 1.1(b) [3], it is evident that the power transfer via the HFT
in the DC-DC converter relies on both its leakage inductance and the phase-shifted angle
between its terminal square wave voltages. As a result, there is always a trade-off between
the leakage inductance and the phase shifted angle when maximizing the power conversion.
Additionally, at high switching frequency, high AC losses in the HFT windings are
inevitable due to the skin and proximity-effects [5], [6], and [7]. The leakage inductance
and the magnitude of the AC loss are influenced by the transformer geometry and winding
layout. Therefore, the leakage inductance, phase-shifted angle, and the skin and proximity

1
effects need to be taken into consideration in the HFT design procedure for minimizing
electrical losses. In [8], design procedures for high frequency transformer (HFT) were
presented. However, all these proposed methods start with the core dimensions being
determined based on voltage-ampere (VA) rating of the transformer. The winding
arrangement based on selected core dimensions is subsequently suggested. As a result, the
influence of leakage inductance and phase-shifted angle on the design are neglected under
these conventional design methodologies.

Fig. 1.1 DAB DC-DC converter [3]; each switch SXX is implemented by a power MOSFET MXX, a diode
DXX, and a snubber capacitor CXX; iB1-V1 and iB2-V2 are, respectively, the primary and secondary DAB
current-voltage; iT1-vT1 and iT2-vT2 are, respectively, the primary and secondary HFT current voltage. (a)
Topology. (b) Primary referred equivalent circuit.

2
1.2 Problem: Intelligently Interfacing Solar Power and Battery Storage
with Grid
Demand for sustainable electric power has never been higher. In order to meet this
demand, electric power systems must evolve to allow for integration of renewable energy
sources, such as wind and solar, and to also provide high capacity battery backup under
blackout conditions. One proposed solution is the smart green power node (SGPN), a
modular intelligent power flow controller that interfaces solar panels and battery storage
with the utility grid at the residential load level. Not only does the SGPN present a means
for individual households to use solar power, but it also facilitates an unprecedented level
of user control via its intelligent load forecasting and reporting.

1.3 Thesis Statement

At the heart of the SGPN are the power electronic systems, which enable the employment
Solar panels and battery storage elements. Prior research has been conducted on such
power converters using silicon semiconductor devices, and found to be quite large do to
their excessive losses and relatively low switching frequency. Modern wide bandgap
semiconductor devices, such as silicon carbide (SiC), present many desirable dynamic
characteristics that apply to medium and high power switching converter systems. This
research seeks to demonstrate the size and efficiency benefits of SiC based converter
systems as they are applied to the SGPN technology. This will be validated through the
development of the system’s bidirectional dc-dc converter, which acts as the interface
between residential dc loads, a solar and battery fed low voltage bus, and a high voltage
DC bus feeding a grid-tied inverter. Results will be presented that either support or refute
the claim for potential of next generation SiC devices to replace pre-existing silicon based
converter systems as the norm.

1.4 Approach
In developing modern power electronic converters, several design considerations come
into play. System level specifications must first be identified based on power rating and
bus voltages, which coincide with ancillary power electronic systems (i.e. grid-tied

3
inverters, battery charge converters, etc.). A converter topology must then be selected and
designed to meet the aforementioned requirements. Advanced modeling techniques must
be applied in order to develop appropriate control schemes, which stabilize the converter
and enable intelligent power flow.
Finally, a working system must be constructed and tested using selected components and
a digital controller.

1.5 Potential Impact

Operating switching converters at higher frequencies will reduce overall system size,
which will make new applications for such converters more feasible. However, current
silicon based designs are limited in their frequency of operation capabilities due to the
excessive losses they incur during hard switching phases. Silicon carbide semiconductor
devices exhibit material properties, which make them an optimal choice when high
frequency operation is desired. When these devices are employed, higher density power
converters can be realized. Applications for such converters include distributed generation
in the future smart grid, plug-in electric vehicles, space exploration, and various extreme
environment electronic systems.

1.6 Organization of Thesis

Our work is organized into six chapters. The first chapter is an introductory chapter
that introduces the thesis topic and includes reasoning behind the proposed research. The
second chapter briefly introduces the smart green power node system model and discusses
which subsystems are at play, specifically the bidirectional dc-dc converter that will be
explored in more depth. The third chapter develops the fundamental principles of operation
of the dual active bridge, the selected dc-dc converter, and its related design considerations.
The fourth chapter covers the controller design for the dual active bridge, which will
include the construction of an optimal system model, controller type selection, load
disturbance considerations, and digital implementation. These subsystems include
feedback sensors and signal conditioning, power supplies, and signal isolators.

4
 CHAPTER 2
PROPOSED SYSTEM LEVEL OVERVIEW

2.1 Smart Green Power Node

The proposed smart green power node (SGPN) as shown in fig. 2.1 interfaces battery
storage and solar power elements with residential dc loads and the utility grid. The system
consists of several interconnected power electronic converters, such as those that connect
the batteries and solar panels with a low voltage bus, the isolated dc-dc converter that steps
up the low voltage bus and controls power flow, and the grid-tied inverter.
The work of this thesis will be centered on the design of the isolated dc-dc converter that
interconnects the low voltage and high voltage busses. The dual active bridge is selected
based upon its desirable characteristics, such as its symmetry, reduced filter size, and its
ability to more easily realize soft switching [1][2]. Additionally, because the DAB utilizes
eight switching devices, as opposed to the 4-switch Dual-Half Bridge converter, it’s
effective power rating can be pushed much higher.

FIGURE 2.1: SMART GREEN POWER NODE SYSTEM

5
 CHAPTER 3
DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE CONVERTER

3.1 Topology
The dual active bridge is a bidirectional, controllable, dc-dc converter that has high
power capabilities comprised of eight semiconductor devices, a high frequency
transformer, energy transfer inductor, and dc-link capacitors. The converter can be more
simply described as a more common full-bridge with a controllable rectifier. Due to the
symmetry of this converter, with identical primary and secondary bridges, it is capable of
bidirectional power flow control, and the reason why it is selected for the smart green
power node application.
The topology is shown in Fig. 3.1, where 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 are the dc-link voltages,
𝐿𝑘 is the leakage inductance of the transformer plus any necessary external energy transfer
inductance, and 𝑆1−8 are the controllable semiconductor switches. The dual active bridge
has been studied extensively previously in similar applications [1],[2],[3].
In previous years, in order to accommodate high dc-link voltages, insulated gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs) have been commonplace [3]. As such, 𝑆1−8 switching cells
have been traditionally implemented with antiparallel diodes and snubber capacitors in
order to direct current commutation on switching events and to allow for zero voltage
switching (ZVS) through the snubber capacitor and energy transfer inductance resonance.
The motivation for developing high voltage MOSFETs is because these devices host an
intrinsic body diode and drain-to-source output capacitance, which take the place of these
external components and reduces the part count of the converter.
Wide bandgap materials, such as silicon carbide (SiC), have been topics of research
in the areas of power electronics because of their higher voltage and thermal ratings, as
well as their lower turn on energy, making them ideal for high frequency switching
converter applications.

6
 FIGURE 3.1: DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE TOPOLOGY

3.2 Power Flow Analysis

Each full-bridge consists of two totem-poled switching devices, which are driven with
complimentary square-wave pulses. The switching frequency of these complimentary
devices is referred to as the switching frequency of the converter (𝑓𝑠). In this application,
in order to reduce the size of passive components and to leverage SiC’s superior physical
properties, high frequency switching will be employed. At high frequencies, the isolation
transformer’s magnetizing inductance becomes negligible and the transformer can be
modeled only by its leakage inductance. Fig. 3.2 reflects an equivalent system, which will
be used to derive the power equation for the converter. The two full bridges invert both dc
bus voltages, represented as square waves 𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑖 and 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐, and apply them to the terminals
of the high frequency transformer.

FIGURE 3.2: HIGH FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE

Power flow in the dual active bridge can be directed by phase-shifting the pulses of one
bridge with respect to the other. This form of control, called phase shift modulation (PSM),
directs power between the two dc busses such that the leading bridge delivers power to the
lagging bridge [4]. This concept is illustrated in Fig. 3.3 in which the applied square waves

7
create a voltage differential across the leakage inductance and direct its stored energy.
Considering the control pulses for switches 𝑆1,4 of the primary bridge and 𝑆5,8 of the
secondary bridge, shifting the secondary bridge pulses by +𝛿 instantiates power delivery
from the primary bridge to the secondary bridge. Similarly, shifting the secondary bridge
by –𝛿, making it the leading bridge, causes power to be delivered to the primary bridge.

FIGURE 3.3: DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE WAVEFORMS

The symmetry of the current waveform 𝑖𝑙𝑘 through the leakage inductance allows for the
following power flow analysis to be developed using a half switching period. The inductor
current waveform can be expressed as:

𝑑𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑖 −𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐

= (3.1)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑘

Each half cycle can be divided into two intervals: Interval 1 occurs between (0 < 𝜃 < 𝛿)
and interval 2 is defined as (𝛿 < 𝜃 < 𝜋). Considering the depiction of the current waveform
in Fig. (4), solving for (1) gives the following expressions during the two time durations.

8
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖1 +𝑖2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 + = 𝐿𝑘 , for 0 < t < dT (3.2)
𝑛 𝑑𝑇

During interval 2, the inductor current is:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖1 +𝑖2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − = 𝐿𝑘 , for dT< t < T (3.3)
𝑛 𝑑𝑇

With 𝑛 being the turns ratio of the transformer, 𝑇 being the duration of a half-cycle of
the period, 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 being the inductor current during switching instances, and 𝑑 being
the phase shift duty percentage of the two bridges, which will be referred to as the duty
cycle of the converter. Averaging (2) and (3), as shown in [5], yields an expression for
the average output current of the converter:
(1−|𝑑|)𝑑𝑇𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (3.4)
𝑛𝐿𝑘

From this the average output power can be derived:

(1−|𝑑|)𝑑𝑇𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (3.5)
𝑛𝐿𝑘

This expression shows a relationship between the power delivered to the output as a
function of the duty cycle (phase shift) between the two bridges, the switching frequency
of the converter, and the energy transfer inductance. Additionally, also indicates that a
negative duty cycle (or phase shift) between bridges will cause power to be drawn from
the output and delivered to the input dc bus. Fig. 3.4 shows the power transfer per unit vs.
the duty cycle of the two bridges. These parameters must be balanced in order to design a
functioning converter to suite a particular application’s needs.

9
 FIGURE 3.4: DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE POWER TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC

3.3 Switching Devices

A key component of the dual active bridge is the switching devices themselves. In order to
operate at such high switching frequencies with minimal switching losses, SiC MOSFETs
must be employed. The SiC material and the process used to manufacture devices from it
yield devices with high band gap energy, high thermal conductivity, and high critical
electric field. These intrinsic device properties make them ideal for high voltage, high
frequency converter applications [7].
Primarily, the relatively low turn on energy of the device gate and the lower output
capacitance are what allows for these SiC devices to be switched at high speeds (>10 kHz)
while remaining power efficient. Additionally, their superior thermal conductivity and
small die size make them ideal for extreme environment and highly dense power converter
applications, of which the dual active bridge for the SGPN must meet high power density
standards.

10
3.4 Gate Driver
SiC gate driver design presents many unique considerations due to the high
transconductance of the devices. As opposed to Si insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
devices, SiC MOSFETs require tight gate regulation to keep the device in the saturation
region [9]. This is made even more difficult to achieve if one is to implement these devices
in high frequency switching circuits, in which parasitic inductances cause excessive ringing
in the gate drive loop. Because of SiC MOSFET’s larger transconductance, the defining
line between the triode and saturation region is blurred, making it act more as a voltage-
controlled resistance than a voltage controlled current source. Fig. 3.6 depicts typical I-V
curve transconductance characteristics of the SiC MOSFET and the Si IGBT. As can be
seen, when the IGBT collector to emitter voltage reaches sufficiently large value, with
different gate to emitter voltages, the device constricts current flow and behaves as a
constant current source. Opposite of this, the SiC MOSFET never reaches a clear saturation
point. This is directly due to its larger intrinsic transconductance, which makes its I-V
characteristic more linear.

FIGURE 3.6: SIC MOSFET VS. SI IGBT I-V TRANSCONDUCTANCE CURVE (CREDIT: CREE [9])

11
Additionally, the gate driver must be capable of providing both a positive turn-on voltage
and negative turn-off voltage (typically +20V/-5V for Cree’s standard line of SiC
MOSFETs) [10]. Finally, the gate driver must be placed as close to the device as possible
in order to minimize trace inductance and excessive ringing in the circuit. These are all key
in ensuring the SiC devices can be turned on and off at will with no issues.

3.5 Ferrite Core Transformer Design

A ferrite core is a type of magnetic core made of ferrite on which the windings of
electric transformers and other wound components such as inductors are formed. It is used
for its properties of high magnetic permeability coupled with low electrical conductivity
(which helps prevent eddy currents). Because of their comparatively low losses at high
frequencies, they are extensively used in the cores of RF transformers and inductors in
applications such as switched-mode power supplies.

3.5.1 Area of Transformer

l=19mm
W=11mm
So the Area becomes equal to 2.09 cm.

For Primary Turns

108
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑉 ∗ 4∗𝑓∗𝐵∗𝐴 (3.6)

As we take frequency “f” for high switching which is 31 kHz and “B” is 1300 (1200-2000
range)
For Primary Turns
108
𝑁𝑝 = 48 ∗ 4∗31000∗1300∗2.09 (3.7)

𝑵𝒑 = 𝟏𝟒 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔

12
For Secondary Turns
𝑉1 𝑁𝑝 12∗14
= 𝑁𝑠 = (3.8)
𝑉2 𝑁𝑠 48

𝑵𝒔 = 𝟒 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔

3.6 Zero Voltage Switching Operation

The principle of zero voltage switching (ZVS), also called soft-switching, is based upon
the resonant relationship between the snubber capacitance across each device and the
equivalent inductance of the circuit during different switching intervals. Essentially, during
switching events, the current through one of the complimentary devices is interrupted, but
due to the energy transfer inductance, current is supplied through the snubber capacitor and
forced through the anti-parallel diode of the device. This is referred to as current
commutation and is a fundamental component of many power electronic converters.

3.7 Loss Analysis

The losses of the dual active bridge are isolated in several categories: transformer/magnetic
losses, switching losses, and conduction losses. The loss incurred in the transformer and
inductor is not within the context of this work, but are explored extensively in several other
papers [11],[12], and [13]. This leaves switching losses and conduction losses for
consideration in this design work, both of which rely heavily on the selection and utilization
of the semiconductor devices in the converter.
Conduction losses are the simplest to understand and predict, as they are a function of the
RMS current (𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆) through each bridge of the converter and the selected device’s drain-
to-source on resistance (𝑅𝑑𝑠). As such, the conduction losses can be calculated by using
Ohm’s Law [14].

13
 CHAPTER 4
CONTROLLING

4.1 Phase Shift Control

A variety of control schemes for the dual active bridge have been studied. Most common
of these is the phase shift modulation (PSM) method, which directs power flow by shifting
the leading edges of each complimentary pair of devices, both high- and low-side switches.
Single phase shift modulation (SPSM) is the most simple to implement and follows exactly
the power flow derivation described in section 3.2. Refer to Fig. 4 again for an illustration
of this method. Other methods, such as dual phase shift modulation, hybrid phase shift
modulation, and triple phase shift modulation have been studied and compared [15] and
[16]. These variations on the PSM method offer many benefits, but their controller design
and implementation are much more sophisticated. This work will utilize the SPSM method,
with measurement and control signal flow provisions made for future control method
comparisons.

4.2 Converter Modeling

Modeling the dynamics of the dual active bridge have been the topic of recent research
[17], through which accurate converter transfer functions are derived. A model developed
around the Fourier expansion of the switching functions is of particular interest because of
its demonstrated ability to accurately model the dual active bridge across a wide range of
power delivery. Developed in [17], this converter model begins with defining the input and
output voltages as functions of the switch states and the primary and secondary voltages.

𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 {𝑆1 − 𝑆2 } (4.1)

𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 {𝑆5 − 𝑆6 } (4.2)

A full model cannot be developed without a current based expression for the output voltage.
Therefore, KCL analysis of the output node of the converter must be completed, wherein

14
the current injected by the output bridge (𝑖𝑑𝑐) and the output capacitor (𝑖𝑐) comprise the
elements of the load current (𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡).

𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖𝑑𝑐 − 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 (4.3)

TABLE 4.1 SWITCHING

STATES OF BRIDGES
𝑆5 𝑆6 𝑖𝑑𝑐
0 0 0
0 1 -𝑖𝑙𝑘
1 0 +𝑖𝑙𝑘
1 1 0

4.3 Controller Design

Switching converter control methods range in capabilities and sophistication. Of these, the
most common are those that monitor and regulate a single input/output or variable via a
negative feedback loop, and are referred to as single-input single-output (SISO) systems.
In the case of the dual active bridge feeding a grid-tied inverter, the output voltage must be
regulated in order to ensure compatibility with other electronic devices, downstream dc
loads, and to avoid backward power flow through the converter when it is undesired.
Additionally, because of the symmetry of the converter and its bidirectional power flow
capabilities, a control system may be developed for one side of the converter and simply
mirrored to the other side when the power flow direction is reversed during battery
charging intervals.
The standard feedback control loop of a power converter is shown in Fig. 4.1, where (𝑠) is
the plant function, or converter model, 𝐶(𝑠) is the controller, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the measured output
voltage, and 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is a reference signal that commands the controller to track. In this case,
the output voltage is the controlled system variable. In the closed loop form, the output is

15
sampled and compared to the reference signal, which generates an error signal. The
controller function forcibly applies control signals to the plant function and is often times
designed to eliminate the error between the sampled output and reference input, effectively
realizing zero steady-state error.

FIGURE 4.1: CLOSED LOOP FEEDBACK CONTROLLER

This is accomplished by deriving the s-domain expression using the Laplace transform.
Initially, the load current disturbance will be ignored. This will greatly simplify the design
of a steady-state tracking controller. Applying the Laplace transform to (38) and
rearranging gives:
𝐵δ
𝐺(𝑠) = (4.4)
𝑠−𝐴

Since the plant function is 1st order, a proportional-integral (PI) controller would be an
ideal controller to implement, as it produces zero steady-state tracking error [18] and [19].
The transfer function of the PI controller is:

𝐾𝑖
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝 + (4.5)
𝑠
where 𝐾𝑝 is the proportional term gain and 𝐾𝑖 is the integral term gain.
Now, with the plant and controller transfer functions defined, the final input-to-
output characteristic can be written as:

𝐾 𝐵δ
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) = (𝐾𝑝 + 𝑖 )( ) (4.6)
𝑠 𝑠−𝐴

16
 CHAPTER 5
CONVERTER DESIGN & PCB
5.1 Dual Active Bridge
Following the analysis outlined in chapter 3, and to meet the converter specifications in
Table I, critical converter parameters/components may be selected. Referring to Fig. 6, it
is shown that the primary reflected energy transfer inductance needed to facilitate a
minimum 2 kW power capacity shrinks drastically in size at frequencies greater than 100
kHz. However, the inductance vs. frequency plot is logarithmic in nature and diminishing
returns in size reduction are seen at frequencies greater than 250 kHz. Therefore, 250 kHz
is tentatively selected as the converter switching frequency, keeping in mind that the design
process is an iterative one. Furthermore, recognizing the importance of leaving the
converter a fair amount of headroom so that the controller may respond to load
disturbances, the optimal phase shift duty percentage is defined at 35%. According to Fig.
6, this would require a total energy transfer inductance less than 2.053 μH (primary
reflected). Selecting the switching devices is less straightforward, in that they require no
mathematical analysis to select, but rather best judgment must be applied. Contributing
factors to switching device include MOSFET’s on resistance, peak voltage and current
ratings, and the stresses they must withstand. Table 5.1 holds values for peak primary and
secondary currents with the selected energy transfer inductor, which puts constraints on the
both the current carrying capabilities of the selected devices and the on resistance that they
must have in order to minimize losses. Naturally, the low voltage side of the converter
conducts higher peak currents and will therefore exhibit higher conduction losses through
each device. Unfortunately, available discrete packaged SiC MOSFETs do not have a low
enough on resistance to conduct these high currents without sustaining losses that would
greatly inhibit the efficiency of the converter. Therefore, a high power Si MOSFET must
be selected, taking care to select a device with the lowest possible turn-on energy and
output capacitance so that it may closely match the performance of the SiC devices.

17
 As a key component in the dual active bridge, the transformer must also be selected
carefully. The design of the transformer is beyond the scope of this work, so its
specifications must be determined for a professional manufacturer to produce. Again,
referring to Table 5.1, the peak primary and secondary currents are approximately 1.20 A
and 0.49 A, respectively. Additionally, its equivalent primary leakage inductance must not
be greater than 2.053 μH, or else the converter will not be able to operate at 2 kW power.
It is also important that it have a turns ratio of 14:4 so that the voltage conversion ratio is
equal to one and ZVS is easier to achieve. Finally, a gate driver for the switching devices
must be selected. The Texas Instruments UCC27531 is chosen based on its ability to source
and sink gate current through two separate IC pins, which allows for separate tuning of
turn-on and turn-off characteristics. Essentially, two separate gate resistances may be
applied; one for turn-on and one for turn-off, allowing the gate driver to source/sink
different peak currents for driving the device. This is desirable for the SiC MOSFETs
because of their high transconductance, which makes their turn-off transition critical to
ensuring that gate jitter does not occur.

Table 5.1. DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE COMPONENTS AND PARAMETERS

Component/Parameter Value/Part
HV/LV Side MOSFET Cree C3M0065090D SiC MOSFET
Transformer Step up/down (12-48/48-12)
DC-link capacitors 33µF and 1000µF
Gate Driver IC IRF 2104
Resistors 1kΩ, 47Ω, 100Ω and 220Ω
Arduino UNO

The design of the dual active bridge and its performance across varying load conditions is
verified through Simulink simulations.

18
FIGURE 5.1: INDUCTOR CURRENT (BLUE) & VOLTAGE (GREEN): 200W LOAD, D= 0.35

19
FIGURE 5.2: CAPACITOR CURRENT: 200W LOAD, D = 0.35

20
 FIGURE 5.3: OUTPUT CURRENT (BLUE), POWER (RED), & VOLTAGE (GREEN): 200W LOAD,
D = 0.35

5.2 Digital Controller

Using the component values listed in Table 4.1 and applying the control scheme developed
in Chapter 4, analysis of the converter operation in closed-loop may be completed.
Matlab/Simulink is utilized to simulate the converter with its appropriate controller.
Additionally, because the optimal selection of controller gains is beyond the scope of this
work, the SISO tool in Matlab is employed to derive the desired controller gains.

21
 FIGURE 5.4: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION

FIGURE 5.5: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: SWITCHES

22
FIGURE 5.6: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: TRANFORMER

23
FIGURE 5.7: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: H-BRIDGE-1 SUBSYSTEM

24
FIGURE 5.8: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: H-BRIDGE-2SUBSYSTEM

25
5.3 Simulation From 12-48V
This simulation shows that when we apply 12V on primary side it will give 48V on
output side so the figure 5.9 shows the conversion.

FIGURE 5.9: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: 12V-48V CONVERSION

Now the figure 5.10 Show the results of the converter of both 12V and 48 V:

26
 FIGURE 5.10: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: INPUT VOLTAGE: 12-48V CONVERSION

This is the input voltage 12V which is shown in above figure 5.10. Now the 48V result is
given below in figure 5.11;

27
 FIGURE 5.11: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: OUTPUT VOLTAGE:12-48V CONVERSION

This results shows the conversion of 12-48V. The curve in the above figure 5.11 is due to
the charging of capacitor.

5.4 Simulation From 48-12V

This simulation shows that when we apply 48V on primary side it will give 12V on
output side so the figure 5.12 shows the conversion.

28
 FIGURE 5.12: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: 48V-12V CONVERSION

Now the figure 5.13 Show the results of the converter of both 48V and 12V:

FIGURE 5.13: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: INPUT VOLTAGE:48-12V CONVERSION

29
This is the input voltage 48V which is shown in above figure. Now the 12V result is
given below:

FIGURE 5.14: SIMULINK DAB SIMULATION: OUTPUT VOLTAGE: 48-12V CONVERSION

This results shows the conversion of 48-12V. The curve in the above figure is due to the
charging of capacitor.

5.5 PCB Layout and Stub

Multi-layer printed circuit boards (PCB) are expensive and can quickly blow a budget when
prototyping as shown in fig 5.15. However, it is possible to create a stack-up of a system,
in which different components or subsystems are placed on different PCBs and stacked on
top of one another. This technique allows for smaller boards to be fabricated, which are
often cheaper. This method also holds the additional benefit of increasing system

30
compactness and power density, though it comes with its own set of challenges. The stub
is clearly show in fig. 5.16 where the all project shown cleared.

FIGURE 5.15: DAB: PROTEUS PCB DESIGN

FIGURE 5.16 DAB: STUB

31
5.6 Efficiency Calculation of SiC Transistor
From 12-48 side
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 1.20𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 12.2𝑉
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 14.64𝑊

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.31𝐴
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 42.1𝑉
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 13.051𝑊
η = 89.14%

From 48-12 side

𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 0.49𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 48.4𝑉
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 23.716𝑊

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1.61𝐴
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 11.4𝑉
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 18.354𝑊
η = 77.390%
5.7 Efficiency Calculation of IGBT Transistor
From 12-48 side
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 2.3𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 12.03𝑉
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 27.669𝑊

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.32𝐴
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 45𝑉
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 14.4𝑊
η = 52.04%

32
From 48-12 side
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 0.71𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 48.8𝑉
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 34.648𝑊

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1.52𝐴
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 10.1𝑉
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 15.35𝑊
η = 44.30%

33
 CHAPTER 6
ARDUINO UNO
6.1 Introduction

Fig. 6.1 Arduino UNO

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has
14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset
button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a
computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

6.1.1 Power
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically.
External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or
battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the
board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers
of the POWER connector.

34
The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The
recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
The power pins are as follows:
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the
power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can
be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector
(5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V
pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
 3.3V: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current
draw is 50 mA.
 GND: Ground pins.

6.1.2 Memory
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of
SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).
6.1.3 Input and Output
Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide
or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by
default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-
to-TTL Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt
on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the
attachInterrupt() function for details.

35
  PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite()
function.
 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI
communication using the SPI library.
 LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts,
though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the
analogReference() function. Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:
 TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the
Wire library.

There are a couple of other pins on the board:

 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a
reset button to shields which block the one on the board.
6.2 Communication
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2
on the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com
port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers,
and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino
software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from
the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being
transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for
serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.

36
The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software
includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details.
For SPI communication, use the SPI library.
6.3 Programming
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select
"Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your
board). For details, see the reference and tutorials.
The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you
to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It
communicates using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).
You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the ICSP (In-
Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these instructions for details.
The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is available.
6.4 Automatic (Software) Reset
Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino
Uno is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected
computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the ATmega8U2/16U2 is
connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this
line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino
software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the upload
button in the Arduino environment. This means that the bootloader can have a shorter
timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer running
Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB).
For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno. While it is
programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it
will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a
sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration or other data when it first
starts, make sure that the software with which it communicates waits a second after opening
the connection and before sending this data.

37
The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side
of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may
also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset
line; see this forum thread for details.
6.5 Specifications
TABLE 6.1 SPECIFICATION OF ARDUINO UNO
Microcontroller ATmega 328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O pin 40mA
DC Current for 3.3V pin 50mA
Flash memory 32 KB
SRAM 2 KB
EEPROM 1 KB
Clock speed 16 MHz

38
 CONCLUSION

A design optimization procedure for the HFT employed in DAB isolated DC-DC converter
has been described and experimentally validated. It has been shown that by considering
leakage inductance, phase-shifted angle together with HFT VA rating, essential design
equations for minimizing total losses of the DAB isolated DC-DC converter can be derived.
It also has been demonstrated that leakage inductance requirement for ZVS operation can
be achieved under the proposed design method without employing an extra inductor.
Comparative study of DAB HFT design with conventional and the proposed design
methods will be performed in the near future.

39
 REFERENCES

[1] Biao Zhao; Qiang Song; Wenhua Liu; Yandong Sun, "Overview of Dual-Active-

Bridge Isolated Bidirectional DC–DC Converter for High-Frequency-Link Power-

Conversion System," in Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.29,

no.8, pp.4091-4106, Aug. 2014

[2] Alonso, A.R.; Sebastian, J.; Lamar, D.G.; Hernando, M.M.; Vazquez, A., "An

overall study of a Dual Active Bridge for bidirectional DC/DC conversion," in

Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), 2010 IEEE , vol.,

no., pp.1129-1135, 12-16 Sept. 2010

[3] Ortiz, G.; Uemura, H.; Bortis, D.; Kolar, J.W.; Apeldoorn, O., "Modeling of Soft-

Switching Losses of IGBTs in High-Power High-Efficiency Dual-Active-Bridge

DC/DC Converters," in Electron Devices, IEEE Transactions on, vol.60, no.2,

pp.587-597, Feb.2013

[4] S. Ang, Power-switching converters. New York: M. Dekker, 1995.

[5] Rodriguez, A.; Vazquez, A.; Lamar, D.G.; Hernando, M.M.; Sebastian, J.,

"Different Purpose Design Strategies and Techniques to Improve the Performance

of a Dual Active Bridge With Phase-Shift Control," in Power Electronics, IEEE

Transactions on , vol.30, no.2, pp.790-804, Feb. 2015

[6] Chenhao Nan; Ayyanar, R., "Dual active bridge converter with PWM control for

solid state transformer application," in Energy Conversion Congress and

Exposition (ECCE), 2013 IEEE , vol., no., pp.4747-4753, 15-19 Sept. 2013

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[7] F. Krismer "Modeling and Optimization of Bidirectional Dual Active Bridge DC-

DC Converter Topologies", 2010

[8] Tayel, M.; El-Shawarby, A., "The Influence of Doping Concentration,

Temperature, and Electric Field on Mobility of Silicone Carbide Materials," in

Semiconductor Electronics, 2006. ICSE '06. IEEE International

Conference on, vol., no., pp.651-655, Oct. 29 2006-Dec. 1 2006

[9] Cree, Appl. Note CPWR-AN08, “Application Considerations for Silicon Carbide

MOSFETs”, pp.2-3.

[10] Cree, “Silicon Carbide Power MOSFET C2MTM MOSFET Technology,” CPM2-

1200-0025B datasheet, 2014

[11] Garcia, R.; Escobar-Mejia, A.; George, K.; Balda, J.C., "Loss comparison of

selected core magnetic materials operating at medium and high frequencies and

different excitation voltages," in Power Electronics for Distributed Generation

Systems (PEDG), 2014 IEEE 5th International Symposium on , vol., no,

pp.1-6, 24-27 June 2014

[12] Karampoorian, H.R.; Gh, P.; Vahedi, A.; Zadehgol, A., "Optimum design of high

frequency transformer for compact and light weight switch mode power supplies

(SMPS)," in GCC Conference (GCC), 2006 IEEE , vol., no., pp.1-6, 20-22

March 2006

[13] Hoang, K.D.; Wang, J., "Design optimization of high frequency transformer for

dual active bridge DC-DC converter," in Electrical Machines (ICEM), 2012

XXth International Conference on , vol., no., pp.2311-2317, 2-5 Sept. 2012

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[14] Krismer, F.; Kolar, J.W., "Accurate Power Loss Model Derivation of a High-

Current Dual Active Bridge Converter for an Automotive Application," in

Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.57, no.3, pp.881-891,

March 2010

[15] Myoungho Kim; Rosekeit, M.; Seung-Ki Sul; De Doncker, R.W.A.A., "A dual-

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June 3 2011

[16] Everts, J.; Van den Keybus, J.; Driesen, J., "Switching control strategy to extend

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[17] D. Segaran, 'Dynamic Modelling and Control of Dual Active Bridge Bi-

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[19] B. Friedland, Control system design. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986.

42
 ABBREVIATIONS

DAB: Dual Active Bridge

HF: High Frequency

SiC: Silicon Carbide

IGBT: Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

43
 APPENDIX

Arduino Coding:
void setup() {

pinMode(LED_BUILTIN, OUTPUT);

pinMode(2, INPUT_PULLUP);

TCCR1B = TCCR1B & B11111000 | B00000001;

TCCR1A = TCCR1A | 0x30;

//TCCR2B = TCCR2B & B11111000 | B00000001;

//TCCR2A = TCCR2A | 0x30;

void loop() {

if(digitalRead(2)){

digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, HIGH);

analogWrite(9,100);

analogWrite(10,255-100);

analogWrite(11,0);

analogWrite(3,0);

else{

44
digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, LOW);

analogWrite(9,0);

analogWrite(10,0);

analogWrite(11,100);

analogWrite(3,255-100);

}}

45