BENG (HONS) MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (2+0)

IN COLLABORATION WITH THE UNIVERSITY OF SUNDERLAND

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
EAT227
WORKSHOP TOPIC: MACHINING PROCESS

NAME: STUDENT ID:

MUHAMMAD NAEEM DEEN SCSJ1900164
BIN SONNY
KISHAN RAJ SCSJ1900080
PRASHAN D PATEL SCSJ1900101
DIBAN BRAHMA RAJ SCSJ1900075
AWANGKU SHAFIQ SZAQIF BIN SCSJ1801428
AWANGKU ANNUAR
GHIRRAN SELORAJI SCSJ1900126
KAVINASH SUKUMARAN SCSJ1900071
TITLE PAGE NUMBER
1.0-INTRODUCTION 3
2.0-OBJECTIVE 3
3.0-THEORY 4
4.0-PROCEDURES 5
4.1-APPARATUS 5
4.2-OPERATION REQUIRED 5
4.3-LAB PROCEDURES 6
5.0-RESULTS 7,8
6.0-DISCUSSION 9
7.0-CONCLUSION 10
8.0-REFERENCES 10
9.0 APPENDIX 11,12

Abstract
 Sand casting is a widely used in manufacturing process. It widely used in molded by
pouring molten metal into a cavity. Sand casting is also known as sand molded casting. It is a
process used to create permanent molds that are characterized by using sand as the mold
material. The mold cavity is created by withdrawing the pattern that has been packed around
from the sand. The pattern usually made by wood, plastic or a variety of other material.
By casting, it can produced the product that cannot produced by machining where in
production of complex shapes, irregular curved surfaces and parts made form metal. Besides, the
cost for sand casting also cheaper compared to metal casting. There are six basic requirements to
the casting process:

 Mold Cavity
 Melting Process

 Pouring Technique
 Solidification Process
 Removal Process
 Cleaning and finishing Process

The objectives for this laboratory are:

1. Learn various stage of casting

2. Analyze the quality of mold and casting product

The final products obtained from sand casting during laboratory session shows porosity and
shrinkage cavities. Porosity is caused by the factors of the temperature for melting is too high,
the cooling rate is non-uniform and sand has low permeability. Defects of shrinkage cavities are
due to insufficient amount of molten metal to feed the shrinkage while impurities with the molten
metal, sand and dirt from the mould that not properly cleaned caused inclusion.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Casting is one of the earliest metal shaping methods known to human being. It generally
means pouring molten metal into a refractory mold with a cavity of the desired shape to be made
and allowing it to solidify for some time before taking it out. When solidified, the desired metal
object is taken out from the refractory mold either by breaking the mold or taking the mold apart.
The solidified object is called casting. This process is also called founding. Casting required a lot
of processes and that includes fabrication of pattern, mold constructions and pouring of molten
metal.

In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be casted, used to prepare the cavity into
which molten material will be poured during the casting process. It provide the shape for object
that need to be casted. Typically, patterns used in sand casting may be made of wood, metal,
plastics or other materials. Patterns are made to exacting standards of construction, so that they
can last for a reasonable length of time, according to the quality grade of the pattern being built,
and so that they will repeatably provide a dimensionally acceptable casting.
 The patternmaker or foundry engineer decides where the sprues, gating systems,
and risers are placed with respect to the pattern. Where a hole is desired in a casting, a core may
be used which defines a volume or location in a casting where metal will not flow into.
Sometimes chills may be placed on a pattern surface prior to molding, which are then formed
into the sand mould. Chills are heat sinks which enable localized rapid cooling. The rapid
cooling may be desired to refine the grain structure or determine the freezing sequence of the
molten metal which is poured into the mould. Because they are at a much cooler temperature,
and often a different metal than what is being poured, they do not attach to the casting when the
casting cools. The chills can then be reclaimed and reused.

Mold construction required some criteria. The choice of molding materials is based on
their processing properties. Generally, the properties are refractoriness, green strength, dry
strength, hot strength and permeability. Refractoriness is an ability of molding material to
withstand the high temperature of the metal so that it does not cause fusion.

The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The sand selected
should have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape. In the mean time,
when the moisture in the molding sand is completely expelled, it is called dry sand. While the
strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the mold cavity then is called hot
strength. Finally, the permeability is a term used to measure gas evolution capability during
solidification of a casting.

Pouring of molten metal (melting practice) required a good discipline both from gating
system design and risering system application. Several parameters are applied such as pouring
time, gating elements, gating ratios, and slag trap system, methods of solidification behaviour,
feeding distances and feeding aids.

2.0 RAW MATERIALS AND PROCESS TOOL

2.1 Types of Sand Molds

The three types of sand molds are green-sand, cold-box, and no-bake molds. Green sand
molding is the most common material that consists of a mixture of sand, clay, and water which
has to be moist while the metal is being poured into it. This is the least expensive method of
making molds.

In the cold-box mold process, various organic and inorganic binders are blended into the
sand to bond the grains chemically for greater strength. These are dimensionally more accurate
than green-sand molds but are more expensive.

The no-bake mold process is a synthetic liquid resin, which is mixed with the sand so that
the mixture can be hardened at room temperature.

Some major components of sand molds are:

 The mold itself, which is supported by a flask. The flask consists of two pieces of molds
that are known as the cope located on the top and a drag on the bottom.
 A pouring basin, into which the molten metal is poured.
 A sprue, the part where molten metal flows through.
 A riser, the section that supplies additional metal to the casting while the metal shrinks in
the solidification stage.
 Vents are placed in molds for the main purpose of releasing existing gases when the
molten metal comes into contact with the sand. They also exhaust air from the mold
cavity as the molten metal flows into the mold.

2.2 Process Tools

Sand casting tools:

When working with casting sand the caster needs a few basic tools to achieve good casting
results. Casting tools can be expensive, the hobby metal caster can use home objects or tools
which are as good as professionals ones.
Sand Rammer: this is used to pack all the sand into the flask eliminating air pockets and lose
sand that might ruin the final mould after pouring the molten metal. The rammer comes in
different sizes. Most rammers are made of wood or aluminum, one side flat the other side narrow
to fit into the flask corners. For bigger jobs and more commercial use the electric hand rammer is
ideal. If one does not have a sand rammer a simple block of timber will do to pack the sand well
into the flask.

Metal wire: can be used to create the gas vent holes.

Strike off bar: is used to strike all the extra sand from the flask top or bottom. I for example
used L-shaped metal angle for leveling.

Molder Trowel: could be replaced with a pointy block layer finishing trowel.

Slick: this could be replaced with a simple small kitchen spoon to create for example the pouring
basin or runner or to clear off unwanted sand particles etc'.

Sand Sifter: A sifting tool is used for spreading very fine textured sand directly into contact
with the pattern to get the best finishing results. Mesh size will determine how fine sand grain is
sifted. I used a simple garden mesh with a deep wooden frame to prevent sand falling out of the
sifting mesh.

Parting Powder: is used to release cope from drag and over pattern preventing the molding
sand from sticking and ruin the mould finshing. Talc powder can be used too and will be as
effective.

Sprue and Riser: To create the Sprue and Riser can be done simply by cutting timber to fit the
work flask. For example I used a rounded timber toy to create the Sprue adding the casting sand
around it.

2.3 Sand Casting Terminology

Cope: Is the top part of the flask.

Drag: Is the bottom part of the flask.

Parting line: Is the line where the drag and cope meet.

Pouring cap/basin: This is the hole on top of the cope part made to pour the molten aluminum
into the flask.

Gas vent: This is so when pouring the molten metal the gas will escape from the vent. A gas vent
can be easily made using a straight wire.

Riser: The riser will feed more molten metal into the cavity mould when shrinking accurse.

Sprue: This is under the pouring cup connected to the runner channeling the molten metal into
the mould cavity.

Runner: The horizontal channel feeding the molten metal into the mould cavity.

Mould Cavity: This is where all the molten metal sets creating a duplicate of the pattern.

Pattern: Any objects placed in the casting sand creating an impression of the pattern to be
created. A pattern could be made from steel, wood, plastic and other materials.

3.0 MACHINES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

 Figure 3.0.1: Process of Molten Metal

Furnace: A furnace is a device used for heating. The name derives from Latin fornax. In
my blog I will introduce my home made furnace for melting aluminum. In order to Heat
this DIY type of furnace it could be achieved by using charcoal, propane gas, waste oil or
electric heating element.

4.0 PROCESS SETTING

4.1 Sand Moulding Process

Figure 4.1.1: Sand Moulding Process

1. Pattern is selected and the drag part of the pattern is placed on the center of the flask with
gate and runner is positioned properly according to the flow direction of the molten
metal.

2. A fine parting powder is sprinkled over the pattern as to ensure that the pattern can be
removed easily from the sand without sticking of sand to the pattern.

3. The moulding sand is riddled to a depth of about 2cm in the drag. This sand is packed
carefully around the pattern with fingers.

4. More moulding sand in the drag is heaped and rammed with rammer carefully. The
excess sand is stroked off using strike bar.

5. This complete drag is turned and the cope portion (flask) is placed over it.

6. The cope half of the pattern is placed over the drag pattern matching the guide pins and
parting sand is placed over the parting surface. The sprue pin and riser pin is placed in
proper positions.

7. The moulding sand is sieved to depth of about 2cm in the cope. More sand is added and
compacted using rammer.

8. The sprue and riser pins are removed and a pouring basin was made. The cope and drag is
separated halves, and their parting is faced up.

9. The pattern is removed halves carefully using draw spikes. The cavities in the cut gate
and runner in the drag is repaired and cleaned.

10. The core was placed in position. The two mould halves was assembled and clamped
together.

4.2 Melting and Pouring Process

1. The metal is melted in the furnace. Metal temperature is measured from time to time.

2. The molten metal is poured into the pouring ladle at a higher temperature than the
pouring temperature.
 3. Metal is allowed to have sufficient time for complete solidification. The mould is broke
carefully and casting is removed.

4. The riser and gating system is cut-off from the casting and cleaned from any sand.

5. The casting is inspected visually. Any surface and dimensional defects is observed and
recorded.

6. Finishing process will be carrying out if necessary.

5.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Sand cast mold is designed to have a good collapsibility (the casting shrinks while
cooling) to avoid defects in the casting such as hot tearing and cracking. The following
parameters are taken into account:

Maximum wall thickness: Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle
time (cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume. Uniform wall thickness will ensure
uniform cooling and reduce defects. A thick section often referred to as a hot spot which causes
uneven cooling and can result in shrinkage, porosity and cracking.

Corners: Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture. Inner radius should be at
least the thickness of the walls.
Draft: Apply a draft angle of 2° to 3° to all walls parallel to the parting direction to facilitate
removing the part from the mold.

Parting line: The parting line should be identified on the casting drawing. Determining the
position of the parting line is a critical step in the casting design. Parting line mismatch, parting
line and seam flash extension allowances should not exceed 5mm. The maximum parting line
seam flash extension material is about 0.4mm.

Collapsibility: Determines the readiness with which the molding sand or mold, automatically
gets collapsed after casting solidifies and breaks down in knock out and cleaning operations. If
the mold or core does not collapse, it may restrict free contraction of the solidifying metal and
cause the same to tear or crack.

Durability: Molding sand should possess the capacity to withstand repeated cycles of heating
and cooling during casting operations. Molding sand should be chemically immune to molten
metals. Molding sand should be reusable.
Fineness: Finer sand molds resist metal penetration and produce smooth casting surfaces.
Fineness and permeability can be maintained by using mold coating on highly permeable mold
cavity walls.

Flowability: It is defined as the ability of the molding sand to get compacted to a uniform
density. Flowability assists molding sand to flow and pack all around the pattern and take up the
required shape. Flowability increases as clay and water contents increase.

Green Strength: Adequate green strength will retain its shape, to prevent it from collapsing or
distorting even after the pattern has been removed from the molding box.

Permeability or Porousness: Molding sand should be permeable or porous. Sand which are
coarse or have rounded grains exhibit more permeability. Soft ramming and clay addition in
lesser amount also improves permeability.

Coefficient of Expansion: Molding sands should possess low coefficient of expansion.

6.0 DISCUSSION

6.1 Product defect

There are several defects on our casting product that we are identified. The defects are
porosity and cavities.

Porosity in a casting may be caused by dissolved gases, shrinkage or both. Due to

shrinkage, porous region can be developing in casting of the solidified metal. This happened
when the thin section in a casting solidify sooner than thicker regions, so the molten metal flows
into the thicker regions that have not yet solidified. The porous regions may develop at their
centers because of contraction as the surfaces of the thicker region begin to solidify first.
Porosity is detrimental to the ductility and strength of a casting and its surface finish, potentially
making the casting permeable, thus affecting the pressure tightness of a cast pressure vessel. The
factors that caused the porosity happened are:

 Melt temperature is too high

 Non-uniform cooling rate
 Sand has low permeability

Figure 6.1.1: Porosity of a Metal

For the cavities defect occurred in the form of shrinkage cavities. Due to internal area of
the casting was remained molten the shrinkage void occurred. A void occurs as the material
solidifies forming a shrinkage cavity when there is no sufficient amount of molten metal to feed
the shrinkage.

Figure 6.1.2: Shrinkage Cavities

 There are several ways to prevent the defect in the casting. For the first defect which is
porosity it can be prevent by melt the metal with the suitable temperature, uniform the cooling
rate and use the sand that has a good permeability. The other defect is cavities that occurred
caused by the shrinkage. One way to fix this problem is to add padding to the area of the casting
that is experiencing shrinkage. It promotes directional solidification back to the molten sprue or
riser. As this casting cool, there is still a molten path open that will feed the liquid and
solidification shrinkage, which give a part with minimal shrinkage defects.
Another method of reducing the shrink-age cavity is adding a riser near to the shrinkage
defect. Risers require additional metal for the casting process, removal and additional finishing.
All of which tend to increases the cost of the finished casting.

7.0 CONCLUSION
The product is casted successfully based on the proper techniques and methods
which started from the making of the mould using sand, the removal of the pattern,
melting of the aluminium metals and pouring it to the mould through the sprue and
pouring cup. The finishing work should be done to remove the gate and runner.
However, there are some defects that occurred on our product which are porosity
and cavities.But, there are some defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design
and preparation of the mould, and pouring procedures. The examples of defects occurs
are blow, scar, blister, scab, wash, misrun, cold shut and etc.

8.0 REFERENCES

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Saxena, P. (2013, September 1). Green Sand Mould. Retrieved Mac 18, 2015, from Slide Share:
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