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CERTIFICATE 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2
ABSTRACT
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LIST OF FIGURES 5
LIST OF TABLES 6
CHAPTER-1 7.
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT 7
CHAPTER-2 8
INTRODUCTION 8
CHAPTER-3 10
LITERATURE REVIEW 10
CHAPTER-4 12
DESCRIPTON OF COMPONENT USED 12
4.1 DIODE 12
4.1.1 FORWARD BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE 13
4.1.2 REVERSE BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE 13
4.2 ZENER DIODE 14
4.2.1 ZENER DIODE CIRCUIT 15
4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE 16
4.2.3 APPLICATION OF ZENER DIODE 16
4.2.4 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR 16
4.3 RESISTOR 17
4.4 CAPACITOR 18
4.4.1 TYPES OF CAPACITORS 18
4.5 TRANSISTOR 20
4.5.1 DEFINITION OF BJT 20
4.5.2 N-P-N BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 21
4.5.3 P-N-P BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 21
4.5.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BJT 22
4.6 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR 22
4.6.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LDR 23
4.6.2APPLICATIONS OF LDR 23
4.7 LED 24
4.7.1WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED 24
4.8 POTENTIOMETER 25
4.9 DRY CELL 26
4.10 FUSE 27
5.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 28
5.2 COMPONENT USED AND THEIR SPECIFICATION 29
5.3 WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT 30
CHAPTER- 6 37
SCOPE OF POWERING THE CUIRCUIT 37
CHAPTER-7 38
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION 38
CHAPTER-8 39
REFERENCE 39
LIST OF FIGURES
Page no.
Fig.1 Symbol of diode 12
LIST OF TABLES
Page no.
Our objective is to reduce the power consumption and by employing this circuit
Energy consumption can be reduced considerably as the light switches ON or
OFF automatically in appropriate time.
Moreover errors which occurs due to manual operation also can be eliminated
completely.
The systemitself detects whether there is need for light or not. When darkness
rises to a certain value then automaticallystreetlight is switched ON and when
there is other source of light, the street light gets OFF.
The main advantages of this system consist in the reduction of the costs related
to energyconsumption.
CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION
Basically, street lighting is one of the important parts of a city’s infrastructure
where the main function is toilluminate the city’s streets during dark hours of the
day. Previously, the number of streets in the town and city is verysmall.
Therefore, the street lamps are relatively simple but with the development of
urbanization, the number of streetsincreases rapidly with high traffic density.
There are several factors need to be considered in order to design a good street
lighting system such as night-time safety for community members and road
users, provide public lighting at costeffective, the reduction of crime and
minimizing it is effect on the environment. At the beginning, street lamps were
controlled by manual control where a control switch is set in each of the street
lamps. It is called first generation of the original street light. After that, another
method that has been used was optical control method. Thismethod operates by
set up an optical control circuit, change the resistance byusing of light sensitive
device to controlstreet lamps light up automatically at dusk and turn off
automatically after dawn in the morning. Due to thetechnological development
nowadays, road lighting can be categorized according to the installation area,
performanceand their used, for an example, lighting for traffic routes, lighting
for subsidiary roads and lighting for urban center and public amenity areas.
Meanwhile, street lighting technology can be classified according to the type of
lamps used suchas incandescent light, mercury vapour light, metal halide light,
high pressure sodium light, low pressure sodium light,fluorescent light, compact
fluorescent light, induction light and LED light.Over the last few years, LED
street lamps have turned into real products that one can see on the road. They
Make sense for many reasons, such as their compact size, high efficacy (lumens
per watt), longevity, and robustness. LEDsources also allow for interesting new
design forms, often with slimmer profiles than traditional metal halide arclamps.
LED is considered a promising solution to modern street lighting system due to
it is behaviour and advantagesas emphasized. Apart from that, the advantages of
LED are likely to replace the traditional street lamps such as theincandescent
lamp, fluorescent lamp and High Pressure Sodium Lamp in future but LED
technology is an extremelydifficult process that requires a combination of
advanced production lines, top quality materials and high-
precisionmanufacturing process. Therefore, this paper highlights the energy
efficient of street lighting design using LEDlamps through intelligent sensor
interface for controlling and managing.The original contribution of this thesis is
to design of a streetlight node based on which the system can be set to run in
automatic mode, which control streetlight according to Sunrise and Sunset
Algorithm and light intensity. Thiscontrol can make a reasonable adjustment
according to the seasonal variation.
CHAPTER-3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Gustavo W. Denardin deals about a control network for a LED street lighting
system. The use of LEDs is being considered promising solution to modern
street lighting systems, dueto their longer lifetime, higher luminous efficiency
and higherCRI.. In order to meet the system requirements, a wireless sensor
network based on IEEE 802.15.4TM standard is employed. Its network layer is
implemented using geographic routing strategy, which provides slow overhead
and high scalability features. However, due to well-known drawbacks of the
existing techniques, a novel routing algorithm is proposed. Simulations show
that this algorithm leads to a significant improvement of routing performance
when applied to sparse large scale scenarios, which is the case of street lighting
system. Field tests have been performed on IEEE 802.15.4-compliant wireless
control units. The obtained experimental results show that the proposed control
network is able to meet the requirements of a LED street lighting system. It
mainly deals about safer roadways with intelligent light system to reduce power
consumption. This system has automatic street light intensity control based on
the vehicular movement and switching ON and OFF of street lights depending
on the light ambiance. A.C. deal about solar energy based street light with auto-
tracking system for maximizing power output from a solar system is desirable to
increase the efficiency. In order to maximize the power output from the solar
panels, one needs to keep panels aligned with the sun. As such a means of
tracking the sun is required. This is a far most cost effective solution than
purchasing additional solar panels. It has been estimated that the yield from
solar panels can be increased by 30 to 60 percent by utilizing a tracking system
instead of a stationary array. This paper describes an automatic tracking system
which will keep the solar panels aligned with the sun in order to maximize
efficiency.
The sun tracking sensor is the sensing device, which sense the position of the
sun at the time to time continuously and it gives the sensing output to the
amplifier based on light density of the sun. Here the sun tracking sensor is LDR
(light dependent resistor). The amplifier unit is used to amplify the LDR signals,
which makes the low level signal into high level signals and this output is given
to the comparator. The LM324 IC is used as an amplifier. Comparator compares
the signals and gives the command to the AT89C51 microcontroller. The system
presented in this paper will be an efficient method to use the solar energy in
remote areas. This system consumes very low power and high efficient
lightning. We employ the auto sun tracking system; this can improve the energy
stored in battery. This system does not affect the environment because it is
pollution free. Our system also consisting of automatic ON, OFF control of the
LED lamp, so there is no manual operation and it is not required operators S.H.
Jeong describes about the Development of Zigbee based Street Light Control
System which control and monitor status of street lights installed alongside load.
Lights are switched to ON/OFF by this system’s control command. Its local
status information is also monitored by control system via communication
channel. Status information which is monitored are on/off status information,
energy saving mode status, control group status information and safety related
information, etc. To transfer control command and status information between
street light control system and remote street light control terminals which
installed at each light pole, various communication media and communication
protocols are using. As communication media, wireless or power lines are used
generally. Various frequency bands from tens of MHz to Rebrands are used for
wireless case. This Street light control system can save maintenance time and
costs and which can improve safety level.
CHAPTER-4
4.1 DIODE
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts
primarily in one direction ; it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow
Of current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.
Biased i.e. when voltage is applied across the terminals of P-N junction, it is
called diode. Diode is unidirectional device that allows the flow of current in
one direction only depending on biasing.
Figure:-2. Biasing of diode
The circuit symbol of Zener diode is also shown below. For convenience and
understanding, it is used normally
Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look through the graphical
representation of the operation of the zener diode. Normally it is called the V-I
characteristics of a general p - n junction diode.
4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE
The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the zener diode. When the
diode is connected in forward bias, this diode acts as a normal diode but when
the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage zener
breakdown voltage takes place. To make the breakdown voltage sharp and
distinct, the doping is controlled and the surface imperfections are avoided. In
the V-I characteristics above Vz is the zener voltage, we can say. It is also the
knee voltage because at this point the current is the current is very rapid.
4.3 RESISTOR
A resistor offers resistance to the flow of current. The resistance is the measure
of opposition to the flow of current in a resistor. More resistance means more
opposition to current. The unit of resistance is ohm and it is represented as Ω.
When one volt potential difference is applied across a resistor and for that one
ampere of current flows through it, the resistance of the resistor is said to be one
Ω Resistor is one of the most essential passive elements in electrical
and electronics engineering. It is some time required to introduce
electrical resistance in different circuit to limit the current through it.
Resistor is an element of circuit which does the same. Such as series
connected resistor limits the current flowing through the light emitting
diode (LED). In addition to that resistors serve many other purposes in
electrical and electronic applications.
The most essential requirement of a resistor is that its value of electrical
resistance should not vary with temperature for a wide range. That means
resistance variation with temperature must be as minimal as possible for a wide
range of temperature. In other word the temperature coefficient of resistance of
must be minimum for the materials by which a resistor is made of.
4.4 CAPACITOR
Capacitor is a passive element that stores electric charge statistically and
temporarily as a static electric field. It is composed of two parallel conducting
plates separated by non-conducting region that is called dielectric, such as
Vacuum, ceramic, air, aluminum, etc.
The capacitance formula of the capacitor is represented by,
C is the capacitance that is proportional to the area of the two conducting plates
(A) And proportional with the permittivity ε of the dielectric medium. The
capacitance decreases with the distance between plates (d). We get the greatest
capacitance with a large area of plates separated by a small distance and located
in a high permittivity material. The standard unit of capacitance is Farad, most
commonly it can be found in micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads.
4.4.1TYPES OF CAPACITORS
There are mainly two types of capacitor-
A) CERAMIC CAPACITOR
Construction of ceramic capacitor is quite simple. Here, one thin ceramic disc
is placed between two metal discs and terminals are soldered to the metal discs.
Whole assembly is coated with insulated protection coating.
B) ELECTROLYTE CAPACITOR
Very large value of capacitance can be achieved by this type of capacitor. But
working voltage level of this electrolyte capacitor is low and it also suffers from
high leakage current. The main disadvantage of this capacitor is that, due to the
use of electrolyte, the capacitor is polarized. The polarities are marked against
the terminals with + and – sign and the capacitor must be connected to the
circuit in proper polarity. A few micro meter thick aluminium oxide or tantalum
oxide film is used as dielectric of electrolyte capacitor. As this dielectric is so
thin, the capacitance of this type of capacitor is very high. This is because; the
capacitance is inversely proportional to thickness of the dielectric. Thin
dielectric obviously increases the capacitance value but at the same time, it
reduces working voltage of the device. Tantalum type capacitors are usually
much smaller in size than the aluminium type capacitors of same capacitance
value. That is why, for very high value of capacitance, aluminium type
electrolyte capacitors do not get used generally. In that case, tantalum type
electrolyte capacitors get used. Aluminium electrolyte capacitor is formed by a
paper impregnated with an electrolyte and two sheets of aluminium. These two
sheets of aluminium are separated by the paper impregnated with electrolyte.
The whole assembly is then rolled up in a cylindrical form, just like a simple
paper capacitor. This roll is then placed inside a hermetically sealed aluminium
canister. The oxide layer is formed by passing a charging current through the
device, and it is the polarity of this charging process that determines the
resulting terminal polarity that must be subsequently observed. If the opposite
polarity is applied to the capacitor, the oxide layer is destroyed.
4.5 TRANSISTOR
From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter,
base and collector. JE and JC represent junction of emitter and junction of
collector respectively. Now initially it is sufficient for us to know that emitter
based junction is forward biased and collector base junctions is reverse biased.
The next topic will describe the two types of this transistor.
4.5.2N-P-N BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB and
VCB are emitter base voltage and collector base voltage respectively. According
to convention if for the emitter, base and collector current IE, IB and ICcurrent
goes into the transistor the sign of the current is taken as positive and if current
goes out from the transistor then the sign is taken as negative.
Figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region (See transistor
biasing), the BE junction is forward biased whereas the CB junction is reversed
biased. The width of the depletion region of the BE junction is small as
compared to that of the CB junction. The forward bias at the BE junction
reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to flow from the emitter to
base. As the base is thin and lightly doped it consists of very few holes so
someof the electrons from the emitter (about 2%) recombine with the holes
present in the base region and flow out of the base terminal. This constitutes the
base current, it flows due to recombination of electrons and holes (Note that the
direction of conventional current flow is opposite to that of flow of electrons).
The remaining large number of electrons will cross the reverse biased collector
junction to constitute the collector current. Thus by KCL,
The base current is very small as compared to emitter and collector current.
Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons. The operation of a p-n-p
transistor is same as of the n-p-n, the only difference is that the majority charge
carriers are holes instead of electrons. Only a small part current flows due to
majority carriers and most of the current flows due to minority charge carriers in
a BJT. Hence, they are called as minority carrier devices.
4.6.2Applications of LDR
LDR’s have low cost and simple structure. They are often used as light sensors.
They are used when there is a need to detect absences or presences of light like
in a camera light meter. Used in street lamps, alarm clock, burglar alarm
circuits, light intensity meters, for counting the packages moving on a conveyor
belt, etc.
4.7 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a
p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated.When a suitable voltage
is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) .
Fig:-13.Symbol of LED
4.8POTENTIOMETER
rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals
are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.
rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the
controlled load.
In normal working condition of electrical network, the current flows through the
network is within the rated limit. If fault occurs in the network mainly phase to
phase short circuit fault or phase to ground fault, the network current crosses the
rated limits. This high current may have very high thermal effect which will
cause a permanent damage to the valuable equipments connected in the
electrical network. So this high fault current should be interrupted as fast as
possible. This is what an electrical fuse does. A fuse is a part of the circuit which
consists of conductor which melts easily and breaks the connection when
current exceeds the predetermined value. An electrical fuse is a weakest part of
an electrical circuit which breaks when more than predetermined current flows
through it.
1. A Capacitor 2.2uF,250v, 7
Non electrolytic
B 47uF,25v 1
Electrolytic
C 22uF,25v 1
Electrolytic
2.A Resistor 330k ohm 0.20
B 10 ohm 0.20
C 47k ohm 0.20
D 10k ohm 0.20
E 2.2k ohm 0.20
6 LDR Roboindia 3
7 White LED 5
8 Transistor Bt3904 3
9 Breadboard 80
10 Wires 10
11 Plug 10
This circuits operates with voltage from120 -220 volts .Therefore the
capacitor(C1) of the current input (225) is at least 250 volts and the
rectification condenser (C2) (22 uF) is 350 volt, because if this circuit fed
with 220v AC , when to be ground becomes approximately 330v DC . The
bulb can be up to 100 watt. We can use one for more power as long as change
the triac BT136 for one that supports more amps as BTA08600 , supporting
up to 8 amps . One of the great virtue of this circuit is that no need of
transformer .in this case we use a very simple circuit low voltage and
rectifies , saving money and space. The capacitor (C1) 2.2 uF polyster in
series with the input voltage public network, restricting the flow of current.
The capacitor allows the passage of only approximately 16mA providing
voltage reduction will be done later. 330 k resistor (R1) which is parallel with
capacitor (C1) , is responsible for discharging the capacitor when the circuit
off , preventing the condenser is charged and can send an electric shock ,
when handling the circuit . At the other input cable is a public network 10
ohm resistor (R2) functioning as fuse and helps to limit the current. After the
current passes through the capacitor and resistor, reaches a diode bridge
formed by four rectifying diodes, which are responsible for separating the
positive half cycle of negative, delivering separately and then be rectified by a
capacitor (C2) converting alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC)
recall that to rectify a current the voltage rises , multiplying by root of 2 is
1.414 . And for a 230 AC power, we will have an output voltage of about 325
volts DC approx. For this reason the rectifier capacitor source must be 350
volts, otherwise it will explore when connecting the circuit.
Now that the rectifier and a small current voltage, we must lower the voltage to
10 volts DC. For this we use a Zenor Diode. It is important to note that a Zener
Diode do not connect without there respective wire resistor that limits the
current that feeds the Zener , otherwise the Zener will burn. 39k 5w resistor
(R3) is the polarization resistance of the Zener. It needs to be a 5w, as the effort
we have to do lower the current generates a relatively high heat. The formula
for calculating the resistance is:
Rz = (Vt-Vz)/Iz.
2. The AC voltage from electric grid can be stepped down, rectified and
used for powering the circuit.
CHAPTER-7
REFERENCE
www.ijirset.com
4. www.electrical4u.com