CRIMINALISTIC

Personal Identification
Police Photography
Forensic Ballistics
Legal Medicine
Questioned Document
Examination
Polygraphy (Lie Detection)
 Personal Identification
Alphonse Bertillon - was a French criminologist and anthropologist who
created the first system of physical measurements, photography, and
record-keeping that police could use to identify recidivist criminals.

Ancient Babylon - fingerprints were used in clay tablets for business

transactions. 1000 - 2000 BC

Anthropometry - the first system of personal identification.

Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose(1897) - Two Indian fingerprint

experts credited with primary development of the Henry System of
fingerprint classification (named after their supervisor,
Edward Richard Henry).

Bertillon System - a system of identification which focuses on the

meticulous measurement and recording of different parts and components
of the human body.

Chiroscopy – It is the examination and thorough study fo the palms of

the human hand as a point indentifying persons.

Core - 1. Approximate center of the pattern

2. It is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

Delta - 1. point on a ridge at or nearest to the point of divergence

of two typelines and
2. is located at or directly in front of the point of
divergence.

Dr. Henry P. DeForrest - he accomplished the first fingerprint file

established in the United States, and the first use of fingerprinting
by a U.S. government agency.

Dr. Nehemiah Grew - in 1684, he was the first European to publish

friction ridge skin observations.

Edgeoscopy – the study of the morphological characteristics of

friction ridges; shape or contour of the edges of friction ridges.
Edmond Locard - informally referred to as the Sherlock Holmes of France,
he developed the science of poroscopy, the study of fingerprint pores
and the impressions produced by these pores. He went on to write that
if 12 specific points were identical between two fingerprints, it would
be sufficient for positive identification. This work led to the use of
fingerprints in identifying criminals being adopted over Bertillon's
earlier technique of anthropometry.

Fingerprint - is an impression of the friction ridge of all or any

part of the finger. Fingerprint ridges are formed during the third
to fourth month of fetal development.

Fingerprint Classification Systems

1. The Henry Classification System – developed by Henry in the

late 1800s.
2. Icnofalangometric System – the originalname of the system
developed by Vucetichin 1891
3. Dactiloscopy – the new name of the systemdeveloped by Vucetich.
4. The Oloriz System of Classification – developed by Oloriz.
Identakey – developed in the 1930s by G. Tyler Mairs.
5. The American System of FingerprintClassification – developed
by Parke in1903.
6. The Conley System. The Flack-ConleySystem – developed in 1906
in New Jersey,an improved Conley System.
7. NCIC Fingerprint Classification System.
Collins System – a classification system forsingle
fingerprints
used in Scotland Yard inthe early 1900s.
8. Jorgensen System – a classification systemfor single
fingerprints
used in the early1900s.
9. Battley System – a classification system forsingle
fingerprints used in the 1930s

Gilbert Thompson - He used his thumb print on a document to prevent

forgery. First known use of fingerprints in the U.S.

John Evangelist Purkinje - anatomy professor at the University of

Breslau, in 1823, he published his thesis discussing nine fingerprint
patterns but he made no mention of the value of fingerprints for
personal identification.
Juan Vucetich - In 1892, two boys were brutally murdered in the
village of Necochea, near Buenos Aires, Argentina. Initially,
suspicion fell on a man named Velasquez, a suitor of the children's
mother, Francisca Rojas. Investigators found a bloody fingerprint at
the crime scene and contacted Juan Vucetich, who was developing a
system of fingerprint identification for police use. Vucetich compared
the fingerprints of Rojas and Velasquez with the bloody fingerprint.
Francisca Rojas had denied touching the bloody bodies, but the
fingerprint matched one of hers. Confronted with the evidence, she
confessed—the first successful use of fingerprint identification in a
murder investigation.

Loop - 1. One or more ridges enter upon either side

2. Recurve
3. Touch or pass an imaginary line between delta and core
4. Pass out or tend to pass out upon the same side the ridges
entered.

Three Loop Characteristics

1. A sufficient recurve
2. A Delta
3. A ridge count across a looping ridge

Marcelo Malpighi - in 1686, an anatomy professor at the University of

Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges, spirals and loops in his treatise.
A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer, which is
approximately 1.8mm thick.

Mark Twain - author of the novel Pudd'nhead Wilson where one of the
characters has a hobby of collecting fingerprints.

Paul-Jean Coulier - of Val-de-Grâce in Paris, published his observations

that (latent) fingerprints can be developed on paper by iodine fuming,
explaining how to preserve (fix) such developed impressions and
mentioning the potential for identifying suspects' fingerprints by
use of a magnifying glass.

Poroscopy – refers to the examination of the shape,size and

arrangement of the small opening on friction ridge through which body
fluids are secreted or released.

Podoscopy – a term coined by Wilder and Wentwrth which refers to the

examination of the soles and their significance in personal identification.
Ridgeology – describes the individualization process of any area of
friction skin using allavailable detail.

Ridge Characteristics
1. Ridge Dots - An isolated ridge unit whose length approximates
its width in size.
2. Bifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides
into two friction ridges.
3. Trifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides
into three friction ridges.
4. Ending Ridge - A single friction ridge that terminates within
the friction ridge structure.
5. Ridge Crossing - A point where two ridge units intersect.
6. Enclosures (Lakes) - A single friction ridge that bifurcates and
rejoins after a short course and continues as a single friction
ridge.
7. Short Ridges (Islands) - Friction ridges of varying lengths.
8. Spurs (Hooks) - A bifurcation with one short ridge branching off
a longer ridge.
9. Bridges - A connecting friction ridge between parallel running
ridges, generally right angles.

Sir Edward Richard Henry - he was appointed Inspector-General of Police

of Bengal, India in 1891, he developed a system of fingerprint
classification enabling fingerprint records to be organised and searched
with relative ease.

Sir Francis Galton - He devised a method of classifying fingerprints

that proved useful in forensic science. He pointed out that there were
specific types of fingerprint patterns. He described and classified
them into eight broad categories: 1: plain arch, 2: tented arch,
3: simple loop, 4: central pocket loop, 5: double loop,
6: lateral pocket loop, 7: plain whorl, and 8: accidental

Sir Henry Faulds - his first paper on the subject of fingerprint

was published in the scientific journal Nature in 1880. Examining his
own fingertips and those of friends, he became convinced that the
pattern of ridges was unique to each individual.

Sir William James Herschel - was a British officer in India who used
fingerprints for identification on contracts.

Time Line - Fingerprints

1000-2000 B.C. - Fingerprints were used on clay tablets for
business transactions in ancient Babylon.

3rd Century B.C. - Thumbprints begin to be used on clay seals

in China to “sign” documents.

610-907 A.D. - During the T’ang Dynasty, a time when imperial

China was one of the most powerful and wealthy regions of the
world, fingerprints are reportedly used on official documents.

1st Century A.D. - A petroglyph located on a cliff face in

Nova Scotia depicts a hand with exaggerated ridges and finger
whorls, presumably left by the Mi'kmaq people.

14th Century A.D. - Many official government documents in

Persia have fingerprint impressions. One government physician
makes the observation that no two fingerprints were an exact
match.

1686 - At the University of Bologna in Italy, a professor

of anatomy named Marcello Malpighi notes the common
characteristics of spirals, loops and ridges in fingerprints,
using the newly invented microscope for his studies. In time,
a 1.88mm thick layer of skin, the “Malpighi layer,” was named
after him. Although Malpighi was likely the first to document
types of fingerprints, the value of fingerprints as
identification tools was never mentioned in his writings.

1823 - A thesis is published by Johannes Evengelista Purkinje,

professor of anatomy with the University of Breslau, Prussia.
The thesis details a full nine different fingerprint patterns.
Still, like Malpighi, no mention is made of fingerprints as
an individual identification method.

1858 - The Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in Jungipoor,

India, Sir William Herschel, first used fingerprints to “sign”
contracts with native Indians. In July of 1858, a local
businessman named Rajyadhar Konai put his hand print on the
back of a contract at Herschel’s request. Herschel was not
motivated by the need to prove personal identity; rather, his
motivation was to simply “frighten (Konai) out of all thought
of repudiating his signature.” As the locals felt more bound to
a contract through this personal contact than if it was just
signed, as did the ancient Babylonians and Chinese, Herschel
adopted the practice permanently. Later, only the prints of the
right index and middle fingers were required on contracts. In
time, after viewing a number of fingerprints, Herschel noticed
that no two prints were exactly alike, and he observed that
even in widespread use, the fingerprints could be used for
personal identification purposes.

1880 - Dr. Henry Faulds, a British surgeon and Superintendent

of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, published an article in the
Scientific Journal, "Nautre" (nature). He discussed fingerprints
as a means of personal identification, and the use of printers
ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints. Faulds had
begun his study of what he called “skin-furrows” during the
1870s after looking at fingerprints on pieces of old clay
pottery. He is also credited with the first fingerprint
identification: a greasy print left by a laboratory worker on
a bottle of alcohol. Soon, Faulds began to recognize that the
distinctive patterns on fingers held great promise as a means
of individual identification, and developed a classification
system for recording these inked impressions. Also in 1880,
Faulds sent a description of his fingerprint classification
system to Sir Charles Darwin. Darwin, aging and in poor health,
declined to assist Dr. Faulds in the further study of
fingerprints, but forwarded the information on to his cousin,
British scientist Sir Francis Galton.

1882 - Gilbert Thompson, employed by the U.S. Geological Survey

in New Mexico, uses his own fingerprints on a document to guard
against forgery. This event is the first known use of
fingerprints for identification in America.

1883 - “Life on the Mississippi,” a novel by Mark Twain, tells

the story of a murderer who is identified by the use of
fingerprints. His later book "Pudd'n Head Wilson” includes a
courtroom drama involving fingerprint identification.

1888 - Sir Francis Galton’s began his study of fingerprints

during the 1880s, primarily to develop a tool for determining
genetic history and hereditary traits. Through careful study of
the work of Faulds, which he learned of through his cousin Sir
Charles Darwin, as well as his examination of fingerprints
collected by Sir William Herschel, Galton became the first to
provide scientific evidence that no two fingerprints are
exactly the same, and that prints remain the same throughout
a person’s lifetime. He calculated that the odds of finding
two identical fingerprints were 1 in 64 billion.

1892 - Galton’s book “Fingerprints” is published, the first of

its kind. In the book, Galton detailed the first classification
system for fingerprints; he identified three types
(loop, whorl, and arch) of characteristics for fingerprints
(also known as minutia). These characteristics are to an extent
still in use today, often referred to as Galton’s Details.

1892 - Juan Vucetich, an Argentine police official, had recently

begun keeping the first fingerprint files based on Galton’s
Details. History was made that year when Vucetich made the
first criminal fingerprint identification. A woman named Rojas
had murdered her two sons, then cut her own throat to deflect
blame from herself. Rojas left a bloody print on a doorpost.
After investigators matched the crime scene print to that of
the accused, Rojas confessed. Vucetich eventually developed his
own system of classification, and published a book entitled
Dactiloscopía Comparada ("Comparative Fingerprinting") in 1904,
detailing the Vucetich system, still the most used system in
Latin America.

1896 - British official Sir Edward Richard Henry had been living
in Bengal, and was looking to use a system similar to that of
Herschel’s to eliminate problems within his jurisdiction. After
visiting Sir Francis Galton in England, Henry returned to Bengal
and instituted a fingerprinting program for all prisoners. By
July of 1896, Henry wrote in a report that the classification
limitations had not yet been addressed. A short time later,
Henry developed a system of his own, which included 1,024
primary classifications. Within a year, the Governor General
signed a resolution directing that fingerprinting was to be the
official method of identifying criminals in British India.

1901 - Back in England and Wales, the success of the “Henry

Fingerprint Classification System” in India was creating a stir,
and a committee was formed to review Scotland Yard's
identification methods. Henry was then transferred to England,
where he began training investigators to use the Henry
Classification System after founding Scotland Yard's Central
Fingerprint Bureau. Within a few years, the Henry Classification
System was in use around the world, and fingerprints had been
established as the uniform system of identification for the
future. The Henry Classification System is still in use today
in English speaking countries around the globe.

1902 - Alphonse Bertillon, director of the Bureau of

Identification of the Paris Police, is responsible for the first
criminal identification of a fingerprint without a known suspect.
A print taken from the scene of a homicide was compared against
the criminal fingerprints already on file, and a match was made,
marking another milestone in law enforcement technology.
Meanwhile, the New York Civil Service Commission, spearheaded
by Dr. Henry P. DeForrest, institutes testing of the first
systematic use of fingerprints in the United States.

1903 - Fingerprinting technology comes into widespread use in

the United States, as the New York Police Department, the New
York State Prison system and the Federal Bureau of Prisons begin
working with the new science.

1904 - The St. Louis Police Department and the Leavenworth State
Penitentiary in Kansas start utilizing fingerprinting, assisted
by a Sergeant from Scotland Yard who had been guarding the
British Display at the St. Louis Exposition.

1905 - The U.S. Army gets on the fingerprinting bandwagon, and

within three years was joined by the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps.
In the ensuing 25 years, as more law enforcement agencies
joined in using fingerprints as personal identification methods,
these agencies began sending copies of the fingerprint cards
to the recently established National Bureau of Criminal
Investigation.

1911 - The first central storage location for fingerprints in

North America is established in Ottawa by Edward Foster of the
Dominion Police Force. The repository is maintained by the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police, and while it originally held only 2000
sets of fingerprints, today the number is over 2 million.

1924 - The U.S. Congress acts to establish the Identification

Division of the F.B.I. The National Bureau and Leavenworth are
consolidated to form the basis of the F.B.I. fingerprint repository.
By 1946, the F.B.I. had processed 100 million fingerprint cards;
that number doubles by 1971.

1990s - AFIS, or Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems,

 begin widespread use around the country. This computerized system
of storing and cross-referencing criminal fingerprint records
would eventually become capable of searching millions of
fingerprint files in minutes, revolutionizing law enforcement
efforts.

1996 - As Americans become more concerned with the growing missing

and abducted children problem, and law enforcement groups urge
the fingerprinting of children for investigative purposes in
the event of a child becoming missing, Chris Migliaro founds
Fingerprint America in Albany, NY. The company provides a simple,
at-home fingerprinting and identification kit for parents,
maintaining the family’s privacy while protecting and educating
children about the dangers of abduction. By 2001, the company
distributes over 5 million Child ID Fingerprinting Kits around
the world.

1999 - The FBI phases out the use of paper fingerprint cards with
their new Integrated AFIS (IAFIS) site at Clarksburg, West Virginia.
IAFIS will starts with individual computerized fingerprint records
for approximately 33 million criminals, while the outdated paper
cards for the civil files are kept at a facility in Fairmont,
West Virginia.

Typelines - 1. Two innermost ridges that start or go parallel

2. Diverge and surround or tend to surround the pattern
area

Types of Fingerprints
1. Visible Prints
2. Latent Prints
3. Impressed Prints

Visible Prints - also called patent prints and are left in

some medium, like blood, that reveals them to the naked eye
when blood, dirt, ink or grease on the finger come into
contact with a smooth surface and leave a friction ridge
impression that is visible without development.

Latent Prints - not apparent to the naked eye. They are

formed from the sweat from sebaceous glands on the body or
water, salt, amino acids and oils contained in sweat.
 They can be made sufficiently visible by dusting, fuming or
chemical reagents.

Impressed prints - also called plastic prints and are

indentations left in soft pliable surfaces, such as clay,
wax, paint or another surface that will take the impression.
They are visible and can be viewed or photographed without
development.

Types of Patterns
1. Arch a. Plain Arch
b. Tented Arch
2. Loop a. Radial Loop
b. Ulnar Loop
3. Whorl a. Plain Whorl
b. Central Pocket Loop
c. Double Loop
d. Accidental Whorl

Plain Arch - 1. Ridges enter upon one side

2. Make a rise or wave in the center
3. Flow or tend to flow out upon the
opposite side.

Tented Arch - Possesses an 1. Angle

2. Upthrust
3. Two of The Three basic
characteristics of the loop

Ulnar loop - flow toward the little finger - ulna bone.

Radial Loop - flow toward the thumb - radius bone.

Plain Whorl - 1. Consists of one or more ridges which make

or tend to make a complete circuit
2. With 2 delta's
3. Between which, when an imaginary line is
drawn, at least one recurving ridge within
the inner pattern area is cut or touched.

Central Pocket Loop - 1. Consists of at least one recurving

ridge or
2. An obstruction at right angles to
the line of flow
 3. With 2 delta's
4. Between which, when an imaginary
line is drawn, no recurving ridge
within the inner pattern area is
cut or touched.

Double Loop - 1. Consists of two separate loop formations

2. With two separate and distinct set of
shoulders and
3. Two delta's

Accidental Whorl - 1. Consists of a combination of two

different types of patterns with the
exception of the plain arch
2. With 2 or more delta's or
3. A pattern which possesses some of the
requirements for 2 or more different
types or a pattern which conforms to
none of the definitions.
Police Photography
Reviewer

Forensic Photography Reviewer

Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham) - a great authority on optics in the Middle
Ages who lived around 1000 AD, invented the first pinhole camera,
(also called the Camera Obscura } and was able to explain why the
images were upside down.

Angelo Sala - a self educated chemist, he discovered that when paper

contained powdered silver nitrate it would react with sunlight, causing
it to darken. These pioneering experiments with silver salts were a
crucial step towards the later invention of photography. He published
his findings in a pamphlet in 1614.

Anna Atkins - (1799- 1871) an English Botanist, she is considered

to be the first female photographer.

Aristotle - he observed and noted the first casual reference to the

optic laws that made pinhole cameras possible, around 330 BC, he
questioned why the sun could make a circular image when it shined
through a square hole.

Arthur Fellig - (Weegee) became famous because of his frequent,

seemingly prescient arrivals at scenes only minutes after crimes,
fires or other emergencies were reported to authorities.

Carl William Scheele - (1742-1786) Swedish scientist, self-educated.

He used to work as an assistant in pharmacies and showed a talent in
chemistry from a very young age. In spite an offer made to him to
study in London or Berlin, he operated a pharmacy in Kφping where he
spend the rest of his life and made all his important inventions.
He was especially interest on chemical analysis and worked particularly
with the chemical reactions between silver nitrate and sunlight,
therefore making a break through in the chemistry of photography.
The records from his experiments were of a great importance for the
next generations of scientists.

Digital photography - uses an array of electronic photo detectors to

capture the image focused by the lens, as opposed to an exposure on
photographic film.

Emulsion - is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally

immiscible (nonmixable or unblendable). Emulsions are part of a more
general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids.

Exposure - is the amount of light per unit area (the image plane
illuminance times the exposure time) reaching a photographic film,
as determined by shutter speed, lens aperture and scene luminance.

Film Speed - is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity

to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various
numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system.

Forensic Photography - (forensic imaging)(crime scene photography)

it is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene
or an accident scene using photography for the benefit of a court or
to aid in an investigation.

Frederick Scoff Archer - an English sculptor who invented the wet

plate negative in 1851. Using a viscous solution of collodion, he
coated glass with light-sensitive silver salts. Because it was glass
and not paper, this wet plate created a more stable and detailed negative.

Gelatin - It is used to hold silver halide crystals in an emulsion in

virtually all photographic films and photographic papers.

George Eastman - he invented in 1889 a film with a base that was

flexible, unbreakable, and could be rolled. Emulsions coated on a
cellulose nitrate film base, such as Eastman's, made the mass-produced
box camera a reality.

Hamilton Smith - he patented in 1856 the Tintypes, another medium that

heralded the birth of photography. A thin sheet of iron was used to
provide a base for light-sensitive material, yielding a positive image.

Tintypes - are a variation of the collodion wet plate process.

The emulsion is painted onto a japanned (varnished) iron plate,
 which is exposed in the camera.

Heliographs - (sun prints) were the prototype for the modern photograph.

Henry Fox Talbot - an English botanist and mathematician and The

inventor of the first negative from which multiple postive prints
were made.

Hercules Florence - (1804-1879) Few details are known for his life.
In 1824 goes to Brazil and takes part in a scientific mission at the
Amazon, where he becomes preoccupied with the idea of recording images
from his trip. From 1830 devotes himself to research and
experimentation for photography. The above, gives Brazil the ability
to claim that is one of the places in the world, where photography
was found.

Hippolyte Bayard - (1807-1887) The most unfortunate from the pioneers

of photography. Discovered one direct positive photographic method.
He was the first person to hold a photographic exhibition (for
humanitarian reasons) and the first who combined two negatives to
created one print (called Combination Printing). As a civil servant
and with five hundred franks that received as financial help from
Arago for improving his method, prevented him from presenting the
discovery of photography at the French Academy of Sciences.

History of Photography - Timeline

Ancient Times: Camera obscuras used to form images on walls in

darkened rooms; image formation via a pinhole

16th century: Brightness and clarity of camera obscuras improved by

enlarging the hole inserting a telescope lens

17th century: Camera obscuras in frequent use by artists and made

portable in the form of sedan chairs

1727: Professor J. Schulze mixes chalk, nitric acid, and silver in

a flask; notices darkening on side of flask exposed to sunlight.
Accidental creation of the first photo-sensitive compound.

1800: Thomas Wedgwood makes "sun pictures" by placing opaque objects

on leather treated with silver nitrate; resulting images deteriorated
rapidly, however, if displayed under light stronger than from candles.
1816: Nicéphore Niépce combines the camera obscura with
photosensitive paper

1826: Niépce creates a permanent image

1827: Joseph Nicephore Niepce made the first known photographic

image using the camera obscura. The camera obscura was a tool
used by artists to draw.

1834: Henry Fox Talbot creates permanent (negative) images using

paper soaked in silver chloride and fixed with a salt solution.
Talbot created positive images by contact printing onto another
sheet of paper.

1837: Louis Daguerre creates images on silver-plated copper, coated

with silver iodide and "developed" with warmed mercury; Daguerre is
awarded a state pension by the French government in exchange for
publication of methods and the rights by other French citizens to use
the Daguerreotype process.

1841: Talbot patents his process under the name "calotype".

1851: Frederick Scott Archer, a sculptor in London, improves

photographic resolution by spreading a mixture of collodion
(nitrated cotton dissolved in ether and alcoohol) and chemicals on
sheets of glass. Wet plate collodion photography was much cheaper
than daguerreotypes, the negative/positive process permitted unlimited
reproductions, and the process was published but not patented.

1853: Nadar (Felix Toumachon) opens his portrait studio in Paris

1854: Adolphe Disderi develops carte-de-visite photography in Paris,

leading to worldwide boom in portrait studios for the next decade

1855: Beginning of stereoscopic era

1855-57: Direct positive images on glass (ambrotypes) and metal

(tintypes or ferrotypes) popular in the US.

1861: Scottish physicist James Clerk-Maxwell demonstrates a color

photography system involving three black and white photographs, each
taken through a red, green, or blue filter. The photos were turned
into lantern slides and projected in registration with the same color
filters. This is the "color separation" method.
1861-65: Mathew Brady and staff (mostly staff) covers the American
Civil War, exposing 7000 negatives

1868: Ducas de Hauron publishes a book proposing a variety of methods

for color photography.

1870: Center of period in which the US Congress sent photographers

out to the West. The most famous images were taken by William
Jackson and Tim O'Sullivan.

1871: Richard Leach Maddox, an English doctor, proposes the use of

an emulsion of gelatin and silver bromide on a glass plate, the
"dry plate" process.

1877: Eadweard Muybridge, born in England as Edward Muggridge,

settles "do a horse's four hooves ever leave the ground at once"
bet among rich San Franciscans by time-sequenced photography of
Leland Stanford's horse.

1878: Dry plates being manufactured commercially.

1880: George Eastman, age 24, sets up Eastman Dry Plate Company in
Rochester, New York. First half-tone photograph appears in a daily
newspaper, the New York Graphic.

1888: First Kodak camera, containing a 20-foot roll of paper, enough

for 100 2.5-inch diameter circular pictures.

1889: Improved Kodak camera with roll of film instead of paper

1890: Jacob Riis publishes How the Other Half Lives, images of
tenament life in New york City

1900: Kodak Brownie box roll-film camera introduced.

1902: Alfred Stieglitz organizes "Photo Secessionist" show in

New York City

1906: Availability of panchromatic black and white film and

therefore high quality color separation color photography. J.P.
Morgan finances Edward Curtis to document the traditional culture of
the North American Indian.
1907: First commercial color film, the Autochrome plates,
manufactured by Lumiere brothers in France

1909: Lewis Hine hired by US National Child Labor Committee to

photograph children working mills.

1914: Oscar Barnack, employed by German microscope manufacturer Leitz,

develops camera using the modern 24x36mm frame and sprocketed 35mm
movie film.

1917: Nippon Kogaku K.K., which will eventually become Nikon,

established in Tokyo.

1921: Man Ray begins making photograms ("rayographs") by placing

objects on photographic paper and exposing the shadow cast by a
distant light bulb; Eugegrave;ne Atget, aged 64, assigned to
photograph the brothels of Paris

1924: Leitz markets a derivative of Barnack's camera commercially as

the "Leica", the first high quality 35mm camera.

1925: André Kertész moves from his native Hungary to Paris, where he
begins an 11-year project photographing street life

1928: Albert Renger-Patzsch publishes The World is Beautiful,

close-ups emphasizing the form of natural and man-made objects;
Rollei introduces the Rolleiflex twin-lens reflex producing a 6x6
cm image on rollfilm.; Karl Blossfeldt publishes Art Forms in Nature

1931: Development of strobe photography by Harold ("Doc") Edgerton

at MIT

1932: Inception of Technicolor for movies, where three black and

white negatives were made in the same camera under different filters;
Ansel Adams, Imogen Cunningham, Willard Van Dyke, Edward Weston,
et al, form Group f/64 dedicated to "straight photographic thought
and production".; Henri Cartier-Bresson buys a Leica and begins a
60-year career photographing people; On March 14, George Eastman,
aged 77, writes suicide note--"My work is done. Why wait?"--and
shoots himself.

1933: Brassaï publishes Paris de nuit

1934: Fuji Photo Film founded. By 1938, Fuji is making cameras and
lenses in addition to film.

1935: Farm Security Administration hires Roy Stryker to run a

historical section. Stryker would hire Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange,
Arthur Rothstein, et al. to photograph rural hardships over the next
six years. Roman Vishniac begins his project of the soon-to-be-killed
-by-their-neighbors Jews of Central and Eastern Europe.

1936: Development of Kodachrome, the first color multi-layered color

film; development of Exakta, pioneering 35mm single-lens reflex
(SLR) camera
World War II: Development of multi-layer color negative films
Margaret Bourke-White, Robert Capa, Carl Mydans, and W. Eugene
Smith cover the war for LIFE magazine

1940s - in the early 1940's commercially viable color films

(except Kodachrome, introduced in 1935) were brought to the market.
These films used the modern technology of dye-coupled colors in
which a chemical process connects the three dye layers together
to create an apparent color image.

1947: Henri Cartier-Bresson, Robert Capa, and David Seymour start the
photographer-owned Magnum picture agency

1948: Hasselblad in Sweden offers its first medium-format SLR for

commercial sale; Pentax in Japan introduces the automatic diaphragm;
Polaroid sells instant black and white film

1949: East German Zeiss develops the Contax S, first SLR with an
unreversed image in a pentaprism viewfinder

1955: Edward Steichen curates Family of Man exhibit at New York's

Museum of Modern Art

1959: Nikon F introduced.

1960: Garry Winogrand begins photographing women on the streets of

New York City.

1963: First color instant film developed by Polaroid; Instamatic

released by Kodak; first purpose-built underwater introduced, the
Nikonos

1970: William Wegman begins photographing his Weimaraner, Man Ray.

1972: 110-format cameras introduced by Kodak with a 13x17mm frame

1973: C-41 color negative process introduced, replacing C-22

1975: Nicholas Nixon takes his first annual photograph of his wife
and her sisters: "The Brown Sisters"; Steve Sasson at Kodak builds
the first working CCD-based digital still camera

1976: First solo show of color photographs at the Museum of Modern

Art, William Eggleston's Guide

1977: Cindy Sherman begins work on Untitled Film Stills, completed

in 1980; Jan Groover begins
exploring kitchen utensils

1978: Hiroshi Sugimoto begins work on seascapes.

1980: Elsa Dorfman begins making portraits with the 20x24" Polaroid.

1982: Sony demonstrates Mavica "still video" camera

1983: Kodak introduces disk camera, using an 8x11mm frame (the same
as in the Minox spy camera)

1985: Minolta markets the world's first autofocus SLR system (called
"Maxxum" in the US); In the American West by Richard Avedon

1988: Sally Mann begins publishing nude photos of her children

1987: The popular Canon EOS system introduced, with new

all-electronic lens mount

1990: Adobe Photoshop released.

1991: Kodak DCS-100, first digital SLR, a modified Nikon F3

1992: Kodak introduces PhotoCD

1993: Founding of photo.net (this Web site), an early Internet online

community; Sebastiao Salgado publishes Workers; Mary Ellen Mark
publishes book documenting life in an Indian circus.

1995: Material World, by Peter Menzel published.

 1997: Rob Silvers publishes Photomosaics

1999: Nikon D1 SLR, 2.74 megapixel for $6000, first ground-up DSLR
design by a leading manufacturer.

2000: Camera phone introduced in Japan by Sharp/J-Phone

2001: Polaroid goes bankrupt

2003: Four-Thirds standard for compact digital SLRs introduced with

the Olympus E-1; Canon Digital Rebel introduced for less than $1000

2004: Kodak ceases production of film cameras

2005: Canon EOS 5D, first consumer-priced full-frame digital SLR,

with a 24x36mm CMOS sensor for $3000; Portraits by Rineke Dijkstra

Infrared Photography - the film or image sensor used is sensitive to

infrared light.

Johann Heinrich Schulze - (1687 - 1744) he was a German professor at

the University of Altdorf. He was the first person to produce
Photograms, which were created by using paper masks in direct contact
with a jar containing a mixture of silver nitrate powder and chalk.
Schulze proved that the darkening of silver nitrate was caused by light
and ruled out the possibility of the change being caused by temperature,
by observing no tonal change to silver nitrate when heated in an oven.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce - made the first photographic image with a

camera obscura.

Latent Image - is an invisible image produced by the exposure to

light of a photosensitive material such as photographic film.

Louis Daguerre - a Frenchman and A professional scene painter, was

able to reduce exposure time to less than 30 minutes and keep the image
from disappearing afterwards. He was the inventor of the first practical
process of photography.

Mugshot - (police photograph)(booking photograph) is a photographic

portrait typically taken after a person is arrested.

Negative - is an image, usually on a strip or sheet of transparent

plastic film, in which the lightest areas of the photographed subject
appear darkest and the darkest areas appear lightest.

Parallax - is a displacement or difference in the apparent position

of an object viewed along two different lines of sight, and is
measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those
two lines.

Photography - It is a method of recording images by the action of light,

or related radiation, on a sensitive material.

Photographic Film - (Film) is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic

film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing
microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals.

Point-and-Shoot Camera - (compact camera) is a still camera designed

primarily for simple operation.[1] Most use focus free lenses or
autofocus for focusing, automatic systems for setting the exposure
options, and have flash units built in.

Rogues Gallery - is a police collection of pictures or photographs of

criminals and suspects kept for identification purposes.

Shutter Lag - is the delay between triggering the shutter and when
the photograph is actually recorded.

Shutter Speed - (exposure time) is the length of time a camera's

shutter is open when taking a photograph.

Silver Halides - The light-sensitive chemicals used in photographic

film and paper.

Single-Lens Reflex Camera (SLR) - typically uses a mirror and prism

system (hence "reflex", from the mirror's reflection) that permits
the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will
be captured, contrary to viewfinder cameras where the image could
be significantly different from what will be captured.

Sir Humphry Davy - (1778-1829) Chemistry genius, friend and assistant

of Wedgwood in his experiments whose results were published at Royal
Society, in 1802 by Davy. The problem of "fixing" the images remained
in spite of Davy's breakthroughs in chemistry.

Sir John F.W. Herschel - a scientist who first used the word photography
in 1839. The word photography was derived from the Greek words Photos,
which means light and Graphein, which means to draw.

Snapshot - is popularly defined as a photograph that is "shot"

spontaneously and quickly, most often without artistic or
journalistic intent.

Thomas Wedgwood - (1771 - 1805) an Englishman who made good ground

creating Photograms and recording images from his Camera Obscura
or pinhole camera, However, he never overcome the problem of fixing
the image and therefore the prints produced had to be viewed for very
short periods of time in a darkened environment.

Twin-Lens Reflex Camera (TLR) - is a type of camera with two objective

lenses of the same focal length.

Viewfinder - is what the photographer looks through to compose,

and in many cases to focus, the picture.
Forensic
Ballistics
Reviewer
ACP - Automatic Colt Pistol

Action - the working mechanism of a firearm. An action is the physical

mechanism that manipulates cartridges and/or seals the breech.

Air Gun - a gun that uses compressed air or gas to propel a projectile
also called air rifle, pellet rifle, pellet gun and gun.

Air Resistance - (Drag) decelerates the projectile with a force

proportional to the square of the velocity.

Ammunition - shall mean loaded shell rifle, muskets, carbine, shotguns,

revolver and pistol from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other
missiles may be fore by means of a gun powder or other explosives.

Anvil - An internal metal component in a boxer primer assembly

against which the priming mixture is crushed by the firing pin blow.

Anvil Marks - A term generally used by the military for a cartridge

with a full metal jacketed bullet or solid metal projectile.

Armalite – occasionally, the home of manufacturing company becomes

almost a generic term. It happens with the colt produced M16, which
has been designed and develop at Armalite. The Armalite business was
form by Charles Dorchester and George Sullivan in 1950. Armalite
employed Eugene Stoner, Chief Engineer and one of the top designer
of the country.

Automatic - when the mechanism is so arrange that it will fire

continuously when the trigger is depressed.

Automatic Action Type – a firearm design that feeds cartridges fires

and ejects cartridge cases as long as the trigger is fully depressed
and there is cartridge available in the feed system.

Barrel - metal tube through which the projectiles travel.

Berthold Schwartz - the inventor of gunpowder. His real name is

Constantin Anklitzen, a Franciscan monk in the town of Freiberg
in Germany.

Blowback - In firearm, an automatic and semi-automatic firearm design,

that directly utilizes the breech pressure exerted on the head of the
cartridge cases to actuate the mechanism. In ammunition, a leakage
of gas re-ward between the case and chamber wall from the mouth of
the case.

Bolt Action Type – a firearm in which the breech closure is

(1) in line with the bore at all times,
(2) manually reciprocated to load, unload and cock
(3) and is locked in place by breech bolt lugs and engaging abutments
usually in the receiver.

Bore - the interior of the barrel of a gun or firearm.

Breechface - is the front part of the breechblock that makes contact

with the cartridge in a firearm. The breech block (or breechblock) in
a gun is what holds a round in the chamber, and absorbs the recoil
of the cartridge when the round is fired, preventing the cartridge
case from moving.

Broach Cutter - used to create a rifling impressions on a barrel.

Broach, Gang – A tool having a series of cutting edges of slightly
increasing height used to cut the spiral grooves in a barrel. All
groves are cut with a single pass of the broach.

Broach, Single – a non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all the

grooves simultaneously, and is in a series of increasing dimensions
until the desired groove depth is achieved.

Browning, J.M. - born in 1855. Started the production of single shot

rifle that was adopted by Winchester.

Buckshot - coarse lead shot used in shotgun shells. Lead pellets

ranging in size from .20 inches to .36 inch diameter normally
loaded in shotshells.

Buffer - in a firearm, any part intended to absorb shock and check

recoil.

Bullet - a projectile propelled from the firearm. A metallic or non

metallic cylindrical projectile. Originated from the French word
“BOULETTE”, a small ball. In common police par lane, a bullet maybe
called “SLUG”.

Two Basic Types of Commercial Bullets in Common Used Today.

1. Lead Bullets - are used in almost all revolver ammunition
and in some low or medium powder rifle cartridges.
Are produced in automatic swedging machine from extruded wire
containing the proper percentage of tin and antimony for
hardening.
2. Jacketed Bullets - are used for automatic pistols ammunition
and medium and high power rifle ammunition. The most common
are those from the blowback- .25 ACP, .380 ACP, 9mm luger,
.45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol) and several types of high
velocity .30s. These are all made automatically by swedging
a cup of metal around a lead core.

Armor-Piercing Bullets - is pointed flat base bullet with

gliding metal jacket. The core is of pointed, boat-tailed shape
and is made of harden tungsten, chrome steel and has a blackened
tip. Used to penetrate armored cars and vehicles.

Tracer Bullet - when fired, emit a light red flame from its base,
there by showing the gunner the trace of flame, the path as well
as the striking point of the bullet, the flame continuing to burn
and trace for about 600 yards. These are intended primarily for
machine gun use and can be seen by day and night. The point of
the bullet colored red is for identification. These are used only
in the military service, and were never sold to individuals.
Should an individual obtain one or more of these cartridges,
he should at once return it to military control or else dispose
of these by throwing into a deep river or lake, as they are
exceedingly dangerous to have around. This should never be
“Monkeyed” with, and particularly no attempt should be made to
unload them for examination, as these may ignite and cause
exceedingly serious burn or fire. The ingredients used in tracer
and igniter mixtures are confidential.

Incendiary Bullet - is similar in construction to a tracer bullet,

but the composition contained in the cavity burns fiercely impact
with a very hot flame which will quite reliably ignite anything
that the bullet strikes. For identification purposes the
incendiary bullet has a light blue color. The same precaution
should be observed as with tracer cartridges.

Dum-Dum Bullet - this word and type of bullet were invented by

British Ordinance force stationed at their arsenal at Dum-Dum,
India. The British army was engaged in extensive Punitive
expedition on the Northwest Frontier of India, fighting against
Afghan and Pathan tribesmen. It soon develop that such a full
jacketed bullet was of no practical effect against primitive
natures. So the English made some of these bullets expanding
by grinding of the nose of the jacketed bullet. These are now
known as Hallow Point bullet and Soft Point Bullet.

Gas Check Bullet - to prevent the melting of the base, lead

bullets intended to be fired at higher velocity have their gases
protected with a small copper cups. The bullet is casts with a
slightly tape-ring base, and the copper gas chock is then pressed
lightly on the bore, the cup remaining on the bullet when it
is fired.

Wad Cutter Bullet - a cylindrical bullet design having a sharp

shouldered nose intended to cut target paper clearly to
facilitate easy and accurate soaring.

Wax Bullet - a bullet made from paraffin and other wax

preparation usually used for short range indoor target shooting.
 Marks Found Of Fired Bullets
1. Landmarks - depressed portion caused by the lands.
2. Groove Marks - raised on elevated portions caused by the
grooves.
3. Skid Marks - when the bullet enters the rifled bore from
a stationary position and is forced abruptly into the
rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight toward
before encountering the regular rifling twist.
4. Slippage Marks - bullets fired from a worn-out barrel,
oily barrels and slightly oversized bullets.
5. Shaving Marks - most commonly these marks are found on the
bullets fires from a revolver due to a poor alignment of
the cylindrical with the bore.

Identification of a Bullet - Principles

1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces
of their bores all possess individual and characteristics
on their own.
2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes
engraved by the riflings and this engraving will vary in
its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens
that the engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel will
be different from that on a similar bullet fired from another
barrel. And conversely the engraving on bullets fired from
the same barrel will be the same.
3. Every barrel leaves its thumb marks on every bullet which
is fired through it, just as every breech face leaves its
thumb marks on the base of every fired cartridge case.

Test Bullet - a bullet fired from a bullet recovery system for

comparison analysis.

Bullet Recovery System - Any method which will allow the undamaged
recovery of a fired bullet. Differing systems are needed for different
cartridges depending upon bullet composition, jacket thickness, and
velocity. Water tanks and cotton boxes are most commonly in use.

Bullet Splash - The spatter and fragmentation of a bullet upon

impacting a hard surface.

Bullet Wipe - The discolored area on the immediate periphery of a

bullet hole, caused by bullet lubricant, lead, smoke, bore debris,
or possible jacket material. Sometimes called "Burnishing" or
"Leaded Edge".
Button – a hardened metal plug, called a button, with a rifled cross
section configuration. It is pushed or pulled through a drilled and
reamed barrel so as to cold form the spiral grooves to the desired
depth and twist. When the carbide button was first introduced it was
described as a SWAGING PROCESS or SWAGED RIFLING.

Caliber - the diameter of the bore of a rifled firearm. The caliber is

usually expressed in hundredths of an inch or millimeters.

Land to Land - the way to determine the caliber of a gun is to

measure the diameter of the bore from land to land.

Cane gun, Knife pistols - many devices primarily designed for another
purposes will have a gun mechanism incorporated in them.
(also known as FREAKISH DEVICE)

Cannelure - a circumferential groove generally of a knurled or plain

appearance on a bullet or cartridge. These three uses including
crimping, lubrication and identification.

Cartridge - a term to describe a complete un-fired unit, consisting

of bullet, primer, cartridge case and gunpowder.

Test Cartridge Case - a cartridge case obtain while test firing

a firearm in a laboratory to be used for comparison or analysis.

Function Of Cartridge Cases

1. It holds the bullet gunpowder and primer.
2. It serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of gases to the rear.

Marks Found on Cartridge Cases

1. Firing pin impression – the indentation in the primer of a
tentative cartridge case or in the rim of a rimface
cartridge case cause when it is struck by the firing pin.
2. Breechface Markings – negative impression of the breechface
of the firearm found on the head of the cartridge case
after firing.
3. Chamber Marks – individual microscope marks placed upon a
cartridge case by the chamber wall as a result of any of
the following:
a. Chambering
b. Expanding during firing
 c. Extraction
4. Extractor Marks – toolmarks produced upon a cartridge case
form contact with the extractor. These are usually found on
or just ahead of the rim.
5. Ejector Marks – toolmarks produced upon a cartridge or
cartridge case on the head, generally at or near the rim,
form contact with the ejector.

Cape Gun – a doubled-barreled shoulder arm with barrel side by side :

one being smooth bore and the other being rifled.

Case Head - The base of the cartridge case which contains the primer.

Cast-Off - the off-set of the butt of a firearm to the right handed

shooter and to the right for a left-handed shooter.

Cast-On - the offset of the butt of a firearm to the left for a

right-handed shooter and to the right for a left handed shooter.

Chamber - the rear part of the barrel bore that has been formed to
accept a specific cartridge. Revolver cylinders are multi-chambered.

Cock - place a firing mechanism under a spring tension. Raise the cock
of (a gun) in order to make it ready for firing.

Full Cock - the position of the hammer or strike when the

firearm is ready to fire.

Compensator - (MuzzleBrake) a device attached to or integral with the

muzzle end of the barrel to utilize propelling gases for counter-recoil.

CETME - Centro dos Studios Technicos de Materiales Especiales. This

is Spanish government weapon development agency, based in Madrid.

Class Characteristics - Are those characteristics which are determinable

only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics
whose existence is beyond the control of man and which have random
distribution. There existence in the firearms is brought about by
the tools in their normal operations resulting through wear and tear,
abuse, mutilation, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous causes.

Classification of Cartridge According to Rim

1. Rimmed Type - the diameter of the rim is greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber
 .38 and caliber .22.
2. Semi-Rimmed Type- the diameter of the rim is slightly
greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
e.g. caliber .25. 32 auto. Super .38.
3. Rimless Type - the diameter of the rim is equal to the body
of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber .5.56mm, .30, .9mm, .45.
4. Rebated Type- the diameter of the rim is smaller than the
body of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber 8mm x 59.
5. Belted Type - there is a protruding metal around the body
of the cartridge case near the rim. e.g. caliber 338 magnum
13.9 x 39

Colt - Samuel Colt was born on July 1814 in was to be instrumental

in making the revolver a practical type of pistol.

Cylinder - storage for ammunition in a revolver, the cylinder rotates

as the action is cocked.

DAMSCUS - an obsolete barrel making process the barrel is formed by

twisting or braiding together steel and iron wires or bars. Sometimes
called LAMINATED BARREL.

Derringer, Henry - born in the beginning of 19th century. Worked at

Philadelphia where he manufactured Pocket Pistol.

Drilling - refers to a combination gun that has three barrels.

Ejector Rod - metal rod used to help with the removal of the cartridges.

Energy Bullet - the capacity of a projectile to do work.

Firearms Identification - a discipline mainly concerned with determining

whether a bullet or cartridge was fired by a particular weapon.

Firing Pin - is a lightweight part, which serves to transfer energy

from a spring-loaded hammer to the primer, while a striker is
usually heavier, and is directly connected to the spring providing
the energy to impact the primer.

Flare guns - used in cases such in sending signals and enabling to

see enemies in the dark.

Forensic Ballistics - A scientific study of firearm identification

with the use of laboratory examination. The subject gives emphasis
on the study of ammunitions, projectiles, gunpowder, primer and
explosives, including the use of the bullet comparison microscope.
It also deals with the principles in the microscopic and
macroscopic examination of firearm evidence and the preparation of
reports for legal proceedings in the solution of cases involving
firearms.

Types of Problems in Forensic Ballistics

1. Given a bullet to determine the caliber and type of firearm
from which it was fire.
2. Given fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and
type of firearm from which it was fired.
3. Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether
or not the bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired cartridge case a suspected firearm, to determine
whether or not the cartridge was fired from the suspected
firearm.
5. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they
were fired from only one firearm.
6. Given two or more cartridge cases, to determine whether or
not they were fired.

Equipments used In A Ballistics Laboratory

1. Comparison Microscope - This valuable instrument is specially
designed to permit the firearm examiner to determine the
similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or
two fired cartridge cases by simultaneously observing their
magnified image. It is actually two microscope couple together
with a single or two eye piece, so that when one looks through
this comparison eye piece, he is seeing one half of what is
under the other – in other words, half of the evidence bullet
and half of the test bullet.
2. Stereoscope Microscope - This is generally used in the
preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells.
To determine the location of the extractor marks and ejector
marks for orientation purposes. It can be used also in one
close-up examination of tampered serial numbers of firearms.
3. Comparison Projector - CP6 This is generally used in the
preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells.
To determine the location of the extractor marks and ejector
marks for orientation purposes. It can be used also in one
close-up examination of tampered serial numbers of firearms.
4. Bullet Recovery Box - For obtaining best fired bullet or
test fired cartridge cases from the suspected firearms
 submitted to the ballistics laboratory. In test firing
suspected firearms, it is standard procedure to used
ammunition that are of the same caliber, make or brand and
manufactured in the same year with that of the evidence
bullet or shell.
Water is one of the means to obtain test bullets and test
shells because the microscope marks on the cylindrical or
peripheral surface of the bullets are preserved for good
used. The same is true with cotton.
5. Measuring Projector - MP6 This projector determines the
width of the lands, width of grooves, diameter and twist
of fired bullets.
6. Verneir Caliper - This instrument determines the bullet
diameter and barrel length.
7. Analytical Balance - This more or less determines the weight
of the bullets, shots and pellets for possible type, caliber
and make for firearm from which they were fired.
8. Taper Gauge - Used for determining the diameter of the bore
of the firearms.
9. Onoscope - For examining the interior surface of the barrel.
10.Helixometer - For measuring the pitch of the rifling. Pitch
of rifling is the distance advanced by the rifling in one
complete turn or a distance traveled by the bullet in one
complete turn.
11.Chronograph - For determining the speed of the bullet or
the muzzle velocity of the bullet.

Fouling - the residual deposits remaining in the bore of a firearm

after firing.

Garand, John C. - was born in North Carolina in 1818. Developed the

hang-ranked machine gun. A development of Duver Gatling type of
machine gun.

Gas Guns – these will be found in all shapes and sizes and used for
firing tear gas and other forms of disabling gases.

Gas Operated - an automatic or semi-automatic firearm in which the

propellant gases are used to unlock the breech bolt and then to
complete the cycle of extracting and expecting.

Gas Port - an opening in the wall of a barrel to allow gas to

operate a mechanism or reduce recoil.
Grip - handle of the handgun.

Gunpowder - any of the various powder used in firearms as propellant

charge.

Types of Gunpowder
1. Black powder - consists of the jet black and rather shiny
grains. Although black powder has been in used for about
six centuries, and although methods of manufactured are
naturally led to greater efficiency in action, its
composition has remained practically the same in all
countries.
2. Smokeless Powder - a mixture of nitrocellulose 60 parts,
nitroglycerine 35 parts and Vaseline 5 parts. These
substances are almost entirely smokeless in action. They are
all given the generic term of nitro powders and are legion in
number. All nitro powders used 2. in rifles, pistols, and
revolvers are a gelatinized powder that is they are made by
forming dough into sticks or grains. The identification of
partially burnt powder grains may become a matter of vital
importance, since such grains maybe found around the entrance
hole of a wound, and it will obviously help if the type of
powder can be identified from these unburnt grains.

Hammer - part that strikes the primer to cause ignition.

Hammerli, Johann Ulrich - hammerli weapons has always been the

epitome of Swiss precision Engineering ability.

Handgun - a revolver or a pistol.

Harpoon Guns - barbed spear in hunting large fish.

Headspace - is the distance measured from the part of the chamber

that stops forward motion of the cartridge (the datum reference) to
the face of the bolt.

Headstamp - numerals, letters and symbols stamped into the head of

the cartridge case or shotshell to identify the manufacture caliber
gauge or give additional information.

Heckler and Kock – Edmond Heckler has been a plant manager with
Mauser, and Alex Siedel a designer with Mauser.
Hook – a cutting tool which cuts has hook shape and only cuts one
grooves at a time.

Keyhole - an oblong or an oval hole in a target that is produced by

an unstable bullet striking the target at an oblique angle to the
bullets. Longitudinal axis.

Leading - the accumulation of lead in the bore of a firearm from the

passage of lead shot or bullet. Also called METAL FOULING.

Lever Action Type – a design wherein the breech mechanism is cycled

by an external lever generally below the receiver.

Liberator – made by the US government for use in occupied countries

in Europe during the recent war and fired the .45ACP cartridge,
single shot and smooth bore.

Lubaloy - is a wrought copper alloy that is composed mainly of copper

and zinc. In 1922, the Western Cartridge Company introduced a
copper-washed bullet jacketing called Lubaloy which stands for
lubricating alloy. Lubaloy replaced standard bullet jacketing which
had been cupro-nickel coated steel or solid cupro-nickel.

Luger, George - was born in Australia in 1849. he did lasting designed

work in connection with 9mm Parabellum cartridge.

Machine Gun Type – primarily used only in military combat and will
seldom be encountered by the firearms technician.

Machine Markings - a cross section of a gun barrel will show small

grooves or striations all along the lands and grooves.

Marlin, John Mahlon - New Haven, Connecticut manufacturer of lever

action rifle, 1800’s.

Mauser - Paul and Wilhelm brothers produced parts of the rifle which
had been adopted by the German government in 1871.

Mossberge, Oscar - born in Sweden in 1866 and went to the United

States. The maker of high quality .22 rifles. Sporting rifles and
pump action shotguns.

Mossin, Sergei - Colonel of Russia Army. Designated in Russian Service

Rifle in 1891.
Multi –Barreled guns – in particular one will find guns having the
three or four barrels are mounted in one receiver. Some may have
a combination of several different gauges of shotguns, or a
combination of shotgun barrels and rifle barrel.

Muzzle - the end of the barrel through which the bullet exits.

Muzzle Energy - is the kinetic energy of a bullet as it is expelled

from the muzzle of a firearm. It is often used as a rough indication
of the destructive potential of a given firearm or load.

Nambu, Kijiro - an army gun officer designer. His first design was
produced by the Kayoba Factory in 1904.

Paradox - an obsolete barrel designed in which the major length of

the barrel is smooth and last few inches are rifled.

Pen Gun - a small caliber firearm shaped like a pen or pencil.

Powder - commonly used term for the propellant in a cartridge or

shotshell.

Pressure - in a firearm, the force developed by the expanding gasses

generated by the combustion of the propellant.

Primer - The ignition components of cartridge primers are used for

igniting prominent. A blow from the firing pin of the firing cup
compresses the priming composition to detonate. This detonation
produces a flame which passes through the vent of flesh hole in the
cartridge case, igniting the gunpowder.

Composition of a Primer
1. Potassium Chlorate - 45%
2. Antimony Sulfide - 23%
3. Fulminate of Mercury - 32%

Proofmark - a distinctive symbol stamped into the metal of the barrel

or other part of a firearm to indicate that testing of the part bearing
the stamp by firing proof loads has been carried out.

Proof Test - is a form of stress test to demonstrate the fitness of a

load-bearing structure. The firing of a deliberate overload to test the
strength of a firearm barrel an action.
Rachet - a notched wheel on the rear of a revolver cylinder to rotate
when a force is applied by a level hold a hand.

Recoil - (often called knockback, kickback or simply kick) is the

backward momentum of a gun when it is discharged. In technical terms,
the recoil caused by the gun exactly balances the forward momentum of
the projectile and exhaust gases (ejecta), according to
Newton's third law.

Reload - a cartridge, which have been reassembled with a new primer,

powder and or other components.

Repeating Arms – this type is loaded with more than cartridge into
the chamber when it is fired rather having to perform this operation
by hand.

Resizing - the reduction in diameter of a fire cartridge case to

unfired diameter by forcing it into die of smaller size than the
fired case.

Ricochet - is a rebound, bounce or skip off a surface, particularly in

the case of a projectile.

Rifling - refers to helical grooves in the barrel of a gun or

firearm, which imparts a spin to a projectile around its long axis.

Types of Riflings
1. Steyr Type - four lands, four grooves, right hand twist and
lands or equal widths ( 4-R-G=L) used in earlier
self-loading pistols.
2. Smith and Wesson Type - five lands and five grooves, right
hand twist and lands of equal width (5-R-G=L)
3. Browning Type- six lands, six grooves, right hand twist,
narrow lands and broad grooves. (6-R-G-2x)
4. Colt Type- six lands and six grooves, left hand twist, narrow
lands and broads grooves. (6-L-G-2x)
5. Webley Type- seven lands, seven grooves, right hand twist,
narrow lands and broad grooves. (7-R-G3x)
6. Army Type- four lands and four grooves, right hand twist,
narrow lands and broad grooves. ( 4-R-G3x)

Round - a military term for a cartridge.

Scrape – a cutting tool which cuts two opposing grooves at a time.

Shocking Power - the ability of a projectile to dissipate its kinetic

energy effectively in a target.

Shot - a small ball or pellet of lead, a number of which are loaded

in a cartridge and used for one charge of a shotgun.

Birdshot - the smallest size of shot for sporting rifles or

other guns.

Shotshell - a cartridge containing projectile designed to be fired

in a shotgun. The cartridge body maybe metal, plastic or paper.

Semi-Automatic Type – A firearm requiring a separate pull of the

trigger for each shot fired, and which uses the energy of discharge
to perform a portion of the operating or firing cycle.

Serial Number - a number applied to a firearm in order to identify the

individual firearm.

Shell - an explosive artillery projectile or bomb.

Identification of Shells - Principles

1. The breech face and striker of every single firearm leave
microscopically individualities of their own.
2. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on
every cartridge case which it fires.
3. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact
that since the breech face of every weapon must be
individually distinct, the cartridge cases which it fires are
imprinted with this individuality. The imprint on all cartridge
cases fired from the same weapon are always the same, those
on cartridge cases fired form different weapons must always
be different.

Shotgun - a smooth-bore gun for firing small shot at short range.

a. Single Barreled shotgun – it is loaded with a single shotgun
cartridge, closed. Fired and then re-loaded by the shooter.
b. Double barreled shotgun – the two barrels may be side by side
or they may be one over the other. Each barrel may have its
own trigger.
c. Pump action shotgun - operates in the same manner as a slide
action rifles, by means of sliding lever under the barrel.
 d. Auto loading shotguns - these are the same as auto-loading or
self-loading rifles in that the recoil action reloads the gun
form the magazine without any effort on the part of the shooter.

SIG - (SCHWEIZERISCHE INDUSTRIE CESSELSHALF) adopted by the Swiss

government as their standard service weapon. The company started to
produced railway engines and carriage in 1853.

Sidelock – A design in which the firing mechanism is attached to a

sideplate rather than being integral with the frame.

Sight - device used for aiming.

Silencer - a device attach to the barrel of the firearm to reduce

the noise of discharge. Also called SOUND SUPPRESSOR.

Single Shot Firearms – those type of firearms that is designated to

shoot only one shot.

Slide Action Type – a firearm which features a movable forearm which

is manually actuated in motion parallel to the barrel by the shooter.
Forearm motion is transmitted to a breech blot assembly which performs
all the function of the firing cycle assigned to it by the design.
Also known as PUMP ACTION.

Sling - a strap fasten to a firearm to assist in carrying or to

steady it during firing. A sling may also refer to a projectile
weapon typically used to throw a blunt projectile such as a stone,
clay or lead "sling-bullet".

Slug - a projectile generally fired from a shotgun either one large

piece of lead or several smaller caliber pieces.

Rifled Slug - a simple projectile in spiral grooves and hollow

base, intended to use in shotgun. The slug will rotate, and
thus, reach its target much more accurate.

Smith and Wesson - Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson formed a

partnership in 1852. They manage by producing what is probably the
best double-action revolver in the world. (Daniel Wesson left the
company to set up his own firearm business).

Smoke Ring - the circular gray deposits around the face of the chamber
of a revolver produce by gun powder residues upon discharge.
Stock - also known as a shoulder stock, a buttstock, or simply a
butt is a part of a rifle or other firearm, to which the barrel and
firing mechanism are attached, that is held against one's shoulder
when firing the gun.

Striations - (Striae) When a bullet is fired through a rifled barrel,

the raised and lowered spirals of the rifling etch fine grooves called
"striations" into the bullet.

Characteristics of Striations Depend Upon The ff: Factors

1. The size and shape of the microscopic irregularities on
the acting tool.
2. The original surface smoothness of the object acted upon.
3. Relative hardness of the two materials.
4. Speed of application or rate of relative motion.
5. Pressure areas involved
6. Texture and uniformity of material acted upon.

Submachine Type – is alight, portable machine gun which uses pistol

size ammunition. It differs from a pistol in it that has a shoulder
stock which may or may not fold but is designed to be fired by the
use of both hands.

Swage – an internal mandrel with rifling configuration which forms

rifling in the barrel by means of the external hammering. Also known
as HAMMER FORGING.

Tattoing - small hemorrhagic marks on the skin produce by the impact

of gun powder particles also called STRIPPLING.

Thompson, John - born in 1860 in Newport, Kentucky. Designed the

Thompson submachine gun in 1920.

Thumb Rest - a ledge in the grip area of a rifle or hand gun in which
to rest the thumb of the trigger hand.

Trailing Edge - the edge of a land or groove impression in a fire

bullet which is opposites the driving edge of the same land or
groove impressions.

Trajectory - the curved path of a projectile from muzzle to target.

Trap Door – An action in which a top hinged breechblock pivots up

and forward to open. Locking on this action is accomplished by a
cam located at the rear of the breechblock that fits into a
mating recess. Also known as a CAM LOCK.

Trigger - is a mechanism that actuates the firing of firearms.

Trigger Guard - trigger guard is a loop surrounding the trigger of

a firearm and protecting it from accidental discharge.

Trigger Pull - the amount of force, which must firearm to cause sear
release.

Tokarev, Fedor - born in Egorlikshaya in 1971. Designed the service

pistol of the Soviet forces.

Tool Marks Identification - is a discipline of forensic science which

has, as its primary concern to determine if a tool mark was produced
by a particular tool.

Two General Type of Tool Marks

1. Impression Type - which as its name implies a little more than
a bent. A pry-bar may leave an impression type-mark on a window
frame to which is applied. The shape and the size of the mark,
plus irregularities cause by nicks or breaks in the pry-bar,
may be such as to permit a positive statement as to its source.
2. Striated Tool Mark- is left by a tool scrapping over an object
or surface softer than him. Thus, a pry-bar which slips during
the application may scraped over the jamb of a door, leaving
striate. Tin Snips or Bolt Cutter have blades which frequently
leave striate on the edges of metal cut. An axe will leave
striate on wood chips, as well as the auger or blade of a
plane. Mechanical tool as a planner, joiner, and lathe all
have blades and edges which leaves striate on chips, shaving
and stock being worked. Many examples should be given but
these are typical if the tool most commonly encountered in
the criminal investigations. Striated marks are often referred
to a “friction marks”, abrasion marks or “scratched marks”.

Tools – there are a number of tools using cartridges which are

designed to drive studs, punch holes or cut tables. Such tools may
be encountered in the investigation of an accident.

Traps – these are designed to be set in the woods and left where
animals will encounter them. They may fire a bullet or a poison
charge, depending on their construction.

Trigger - small lever that is pulled or squeezed to start the firing

process.

Trigger Guard - piece that surrounds the trigger to protect it from

being accidentally squeezed or bumped.

Velocity - the speed of the projectile at a given point along its

trajectory.

Vierling - A four-barreled gun, typically with two identical shotgun

barrels and with two rifle barrels of differing calibres. Built
primarily in Germany and Austria.

Walther, Carl - developed a reliable small caliber automatic pistol

in 1866.

Walker Test - the original chemical test for the detection of spatial
distributions of nitrites in gun powder residue.

Winchester, Oliver - he led the formation of the Winchester Company.

Types Of Cartridge Case According To Location Of Primer

1. Pin-Fire Cartridge - the pin extent radially through the bead of
the cartridge case into the primer. This type of cartridge is no longer use.
2. Rim-Fire Cartridge- the priming mixture is place in the cavity
formed in the rim of the head of the cartridge case.
3. Center-Fire Cartridge- the primer cup is force to the middle
portion of the head of the cartridge case.
4. Percussion - a means of ignition of propellant change by a
mechanical blow against the primer or percussion cap.
a. Low Power - a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of less
than 1850 ft/sec.
b. High Power- a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of between
1925 and 2500 ft/sec.
c. High Intensity- a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity over
2500 ft/sec.

Yaw - the angle between longitudinal axis of a projectile and the

line of the projectile trajectory.

Zip guns - these may be in any form, since the name has been applied
to all homemade guns. A great many of this class will be found to
be exceedingly clever mechanisms and most effective weapon.

Zwilling - European term for a double barreled shoulder arm with one
rifle and one smooth bore barrel.
Legal
Medicine
Reviewer
Abortion - is the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion
from the uterus of a fetus or embryo before viability.

Algor mortis (Latin: algor - coldness; mortis - death) is the reduction

in body temperature following death.

Rigor mortis (Latin: rigor - stiffness, mortis - death") is one

of the recognizable signs of death, caused by chemical changes
in the muscles after death, causing the limbs of the corpse to
become stiff and difficult to move or manipulate.

Importance Of Rigor Mortis

- Rigor mortis is utilized to approximate the time of death.
Generalized muscular contractionsoccur from 3 to 6 hours
until 36 hours.

Autopsy - a post-mortem examination to discover the cause of death or

the extent of disease. Autopsy is derived from the Greek word
"autos" - oneself and "opsis" - sight/view.
 Who are authorized to perform autopsy
1. Health officers
2. Medical officer of law enforcement agencies
3. Members of the medical staff of accredited hospitals

When Autopsy performed

1. Written request of nearest kin to ascertain cause of death
2. Order of competent court, mayor, prosecutor
3. Written request of a law enforcement officer
4. When required by special law
5. Solgen, prosecutor to determine cause of death

Principal Aim Of An Autopsy

1. To determine the cause of death
2. To determine the state of health of the person before he or
she died,
3. To determine whether any medical diagnosis and treatment
before death was appropriate.

Types of Autopsies
1. Medico-Legal Autopsy or Forensic or coroner's - autopsies
seek to find the cause and manner of death and to identify
the decedent.
2. Clinical or Pathological autopsies are performed to diagnose
a particular disease or for research purposes.
3. Anatomical or Academic Autopsies - are performed by students
of anatomy for study purpose only.
4. Virtual or Medical Imaging Autopsies - are performed utilizing
imaging technology only, primarily magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).

Forensic Autopsy - is used to determine the cause and manner

of death.

Anatomy - the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure

of humans, animals, and other living organisms, especially as revealed
by dissection and the separation of parts.

Biochemistry - the branch of science concerned with the chemical and

physico-chemical processes and substances which occur within living
organisms.

Cadaveric Spasm - also known as postmortem spasm, instantaneous rigor,

cataleptic rigidity, or instantaneous rigidity, is a rare form of
muscular stiffening that occurs at the moment of death, persists
into the period of rigor mortis and can be mistaken for rigor mortis.

Cadaveric spasm occurs immediately after death and is useful

to ascertain the circumstances of death.

Cerebral Concussion – there is a brief loss of consciousness and

sometimes memory after ahead injury that doesn’t cause obvious
physical damage.

Cerebral Contusion – they are bruises to the brain, usually caused by

a direct, strong blow to the head. They are more serious than
concussions.

Circulatory System - also called the cardiovascular system, is an

organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients
(such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide,
hormones, and blood cells to and from cells in the body to nourish
it and help to fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and
to maintain homeostasis.

Contempt of Court - any willful disobedience to or disregard of a

court order or any misconduct in the presence of a court action that
interferes with a judge's ability to administer justice or that
insults the dignity of the court. Punishable by fine or imprisonment
or both.

Contusion - also called a bruise, is a type of hematoma of tissue in

which capillaries and sometimes venules are damaged by trauma,
allowing blood to seep, hemorrhage, or extravasate into the surrounding
interstitial tissues.

Death - Complete cessation of all cardio- pulmonary (heart-lungs)

and/or cessation of brain activity.
Death is the termination of all biological functions that sustain a
living organism.

Kinds of Death
1. Somatic or Clinical Death - permanent cessation of all vital
bodily functions.
2. Molecular or Cellular Death - refers to the death of cells.
3 to 6 hours after cessation of life.
3. Apparent death or State of Suspended Animation - a state in
 which the processes of the body (such as blood circulation)
stop or become very slow for a period of time while a person
or animal is unconscious.

Leading Causes of Death In The World

1. Ischaemic heart disease
2. Stroke (cerebrovascular diseases)
3. Lower respiratory infections
4. Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease

Signs Of Death
1. Cessation of heart action and circulation
2. Cessation of respiration
3. Cooling of the body (Algor Mortis) - The temperature of
15–20 degrees Fahrenheit is considered as ascertain sign of
death.
4. Loss of motor power
5. Loss of sensory power
6. Changes in the skin
7. Changes in and about the eye - There is loss of corneal reflex

Declaration of Tokyo - is a set of international guidelines for

physicians concerning torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment in relation to detention and imprisonment,
which was adopted in October 1975 during the 29th General assembly
of the World Medical Association.

Defloration - is the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result

of sexual intercourse.

Dermis - the thick layer of living tissue below the epidermis which
forms the true skin, containing blood capillaries, nerve endings,
sweat glands, hair follicles, and other structures.

Digestive System - digestive system is a group of organs working

together to convert food into energy and basic nutrients to feed the
entire body.

Dr. Pedro P. Solis - Philippines father of Legal Medicine.

Ecchymosis - a discoloration of the skin resulting from bleeding

underneath, typically caused by bruising.

Endocrine System - refers to the collection of glands of an organism

that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be
carried towards a distant target organ.

Epidermis - the outermost layer of the skin of a human or other

vertebrate animal.

Euthanasia - Meaning good death ( well or good ), Refers to the

practice of ending life in a painless manner. Deliberate intervention
undertaken with the express intention of ending life, to relieve
intractable suffering.

Excretory System - is a passive biological system that removes excess,

unnecessary materials from an organism, so as to help maintain
homeostasis within the organism and prevent damage to the body.

Homeostasis -means remaining stable or remaining the same.

Firearm identification - used to determine whether the gun that is

subject of the investigation has the same gun used or fired.

Forensic Medicine - application of medical science to elucidate

legal problems.

Forensic Science - involves the application of the sciences to answer

questions of interest to the legal system.

Four 4 Signs of Inflammation

1. Rubor - redness
2. Calor - heat
3. Tumor - swelling
4. Dulor - pain

Fracture - comes from the Latin word “fractura” which means a break in
the continuity of the bone. It is also a combination of a break in
the bone and soft tissue injury.

Frostbite - injury to body tissues caused by exposure to extreme cold,

typically affecting the nose, fingers, or toes and often resulting
in gangrene.

Frostnip - the initial stages of frostbite.

Gynecology - the branch of physiology and medicine which deals with

the functions and diseases specific to women and girls, especially
those affecting the reproductive system.

Hematoma - is a collection of blood outside of a blood vessel.

Incision - a surgical cut made in skin or flesh.

Injury - is the damage to a biological organism caused by physical

harm.

Coup Injury - injury at the site of application of force.

Contre-Coup Injury - injury opposite the site of application

of force.

Coup-Conre-Coup Injury - injury at the site and opposite the

site of application of force.

Locus Minoris Resistentiae - injury not at the site and not

opposite the site of application of force but at the site
offering least resistance.

Extensive Injury - injury on greater area more than the site

of application of force.

Integumentary system - is the organ system that protects the body

from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or abrasion from
outside. The system comprises the skin and its appendages, including
hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails.

Laceration - a deep cut or tear in skin or flesh. A wound that is

produced by the tearing of soft body tissue. This type of wound is
often irregular and jagged.

Lazarus Syndrome - is also called Lazarus Phenomenon, is the

spontaneous return of circulation after failed attempts at
resuscitation.

Lazarus Sign - or Lazarus reflex is a reflex movement in brain dead

patients, which causes them to briefly raise their arms and drop
them crossed on their chests.

Legal Medicine - Branch of medicine which deals with the application

of medical knowledge to the purpose of law and in the administration
of justice. Application of medicine to legal cases.
Livor Mortis - is a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent)
portion of the body, causing a purplish red discoloration of the skin.
From the latin word "livor" - bluish color and "mortis" - of death.
Also known as post-mortem lividity.

Mayhem - intentional maiming of another person.

Mechanical Trauma - is an injury to any portion of the body from a

blow, crush, cut, or penetrating wound.

Medical Evidence - is the means sanctioned by the rules of court of

ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter
of fact.

Types of Evidence
1. Real Evidence/Autoptic - made known to the senses
2. Testimonial Evidence - oral testimony under oath
3. Experimental Evidence
4. Documentary Evidence

Medical Jurisprudence - knowledge of law in relation to the practice

of medicine.

Medico-Legal officer - (medical examiner) a physician who determines

the cause of injury/death/disease by examining the patient/cadaver
and testify in court to aid in the administration of justice.

Mental Deficiency – or mental retardation, is sub average intellectual

ability present from birth or early infancy. Intelligence is both
determined by heredity and environment. In most cases of mental
deficiency, the cause is unknown.

Classification of Mental Deficiency

1. Idiot – The idiot’s intelligence never exceeds that of a
normal child over 2years old. The IQ is between 0 – 20.
This is usually congenital.
2. Imbecile – the imbecile’s intelligence is compared to a normal
child from 2 –7 years old and the IQ is 20 – 40.
3. Feeble Minded – his mentality is similar to that of a normal
child between 7 – 12 years old and an IQ of 40 – 70.

The Legal Importance of determining the person’s state of mind

are the following:
 1. In Criminal law, insanity exempts a person from criminal
liability.
2. In Civil law, Insanity is a restriction of the capacity of a
natural person to act as provided in Article 38 of the
Civil Code.
3. Insanity modifies or limits the capacity of a natural person
to act as provided in Article 39 of the Civil Code.
4. Insanity at the time of marriage of any or both parties is a
ground for the annulment of marriage.

Mental Health Disorders – include disturbances in thinking, emotion,

and behavior. There is a complex interaction between the physical,
psychological, social, cultural and hereditary influences.

Factors that Contribute to the Development of Mental Disorders

1. Heredity – the most frequent factor that contributes to
insanity and a good history will reveal the ascendants
afflicted with the same.
2. Incestuous Marriage – The mental illness is accentuated when
they are blood relative.
3. Impaired Vitality – Stress, tension, worry,grief may
predispose to insanity.
4. Poor Moral Training and Breeding – Corrupt moral upbringing
in the family due to immorality of the parents.
5. Psychic Factors – Factors like love, hate,rage, anger,
passion disappointments.
6. Physical Factors
a. Non toxic factors – exhaustion resulting from severe
physical and mental strain and traumatic injuries
to the head.
b. Toxic factors – drug addiction,infections of
the brain.

Kinds of Mental Health Disorders

1. Psychosomatic disorders – physical disorders caused by
psychological factors.
2. Somatiform disorders – encompasses several psychiatric
disorders in which people report physical symptoms but deny
having psychiatric problems.
3. Generalized Anxiety Disorders
4. Panic Attacks and Panic Disorder
5. Phobic Disorders
a. Agoraphobia
b. Specific phobias
 c. Social phobia
6. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
7. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
8. Depression and Mania
9. Bipolar Disorder
10.Suicidal Behavior
11.Eating Disorders
a. Anorexia nervosa
b. Bulimia nervosa
c. Binge eating disorder
12.Personality Disorders
a. Paranoid
b. Schizoid
c. Histrionic
d. Narcissistic
e. Antisocial
f. Borderline
g. Avoidant
h. Dependent
i. Obsessive – Compulsive
j. Passive Aggressive
k. Dissociative
13.Schizophrenia – a serious mental disorder characterized by
loss of contact with reality(psychosis), hallucinations,
delusions (false beliefs), abnormal thinking, disrupted
work and social functioning.

Types of Schizophrenia
a. Paranoid - is a mental disorder characterized by
paranoia and a pervasive, long-standing
suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of others.
b. Hebephrenic - it is characterized by disorganized
behavior and speech, as well as disturbances in
emotional expression.
c. Catatonic - does not respond to external stimuli.
characterized by a marked lack of movement,
activity, or expression.

14.Delusional Disorder
15.Psychological Incapacity – a waste basket diagnosis because
it is so broad a term, that it covers all possible Mental
Disorders.

Some Manifestations of Mental Disorders

1. Disorders of Cognition (Knowing)
a. Illusion
b. Hallucination
2. Disorders of Memory
a. Dementia
3. Disorders in the Content of Thought
A. Delusion
a. Delusion of grandeur
b. Delusion of persecution
c. Delusion of reference
d. Delusion of Self – Accusation
e. Delusion of infidelity
f. Nihilistic delusion
g. Delusion of poverty
h. Delusion of control
i. Delusion of depression
B. Obsession
4. Disorders in the trend of thought
Types a. Mania
b. Melancholia
5. Disorders of Emotions or Feelings – a disorder in the state
of mind, fervor, or sensibility, not in accord with reality.
6. Disorders of volition or conation (doing)

Conation - the mental faculty of purpose, desire, or will

to perform an action; volition.

Kinds of Conation
A. Impulsion or Impulse (Compulsion) – a sudden and
irresistible force compelling a person to the conscious
performance of some action without motive or forethought.

Types of Compulsion
a. Pyromania - from the Greek word "pyr" - fire, is an
impulse control disorder in which individuals
repeatedly fail to resist impulses to deliberately
start fires in order to relieve tension or for
instant gratification.
b. Kleptomania - is the inability to refrain from the
urge to steal items and is done for reasons other
than personal use or financial gain.
c. Dipsomania - an uncontrollable craving for alcoholic
liquors.
d. Homicidal impulse - occurs when one person kills
 another suddenly and without premeditation or
planning.
e. Sex impulse - a sudden strong and unreflective urge
or desire to have sex..
f. Suicidal impulse - recurring thoughts of or
preoccupation with suicide.

Mortal Wound - capable of causing death.

Muscular System - is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth

and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains
posture, and circulates blood throughout the body.

Mutilation - or maiming is an act of physical injury that degrades

the appearance or function of any living body.

Nervous System - consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs,

and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the
body.

Obstetrics - branch of medecine that deals with pregnancy, childbirth,

and postpartum period, including care of the newborn.

Paraffin test or Dermal Nitrate test – present on the skin of the

hand or site of the wound of entrance. This test is not
conclusive because fertilizers, cosmetics, cigarettes, urine and other
nitrogenous compounds with nitrates will give a positive reaction.
A negative test is also not conclusive . The test usually gives a
positive result even after a lapse of 3days or even if the hands
are subjected to ordinary washing.

Pathology - the science of the causes and effects of diseases,

especially the branch of medicine that deals with the laboratory
examination of samples of body tissue for diagnostic or forensic
purposes.

Paulus Zacchias - (1584–1659) is the Father of Forensic Medicine.

Petechiae – a circumscribe extravasation of blood in the subcutaneous

tissue.

Physical Injury - is the effect of some stimulus on the body.

Physical injuries - include those caused by mechanical trauma, heat

and cold, electrical discharges, changes in pressure, and radiation.
Mechanical trauma is an injury to any portion of the body from a
blow, crush, cut, or penetrating wound.

Physics - The subject matter of physics includes mechanics, heat,

light and other radiation, sound, electricity, magnetism, and the
structure of atoms.

Physiology - the branch of biology that deals with the normal

functions of living organisms and their parts.

Post-Mortem - (meaning after death) internal examination of the

dead to determine the cause of death.

Ante-Mortem - before death.

Post-Mortem Caloricity - is the rise of temperature of the body after

death due to rapid and early putrefactive changes, usually in the
first two hours.

Post Mortem Lividity - it occurs in most extensive areas of the most

dependent portions of the body.

Puncture Wound - is usually caused by a sharp pointy object such as

a nail, animal teeth, or a tack. This type of wound usually does not
bleed excessively and can appear to close up.

Putrefaction - or decomposition is the final stage following death,

produced mainly by the action of bacterial enzymes, mostly anaerobic
organisms derived from the vowel. Other enzymes are derived from
fungi and sometimes from insects.

Kinds of Putrefaction:
1. Mummification - is the preservation of a body.
2. Saponification – also called Adipocere Formation.
3. Maceration - Softening of the tissues after death by
autolysis.

Reproductive System - or genital system is a system of sex organs

within an organism which work together for the purpose of sexual
reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones,
and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive
system.
Respiratory System - (or ventilatory system) is a biological system
consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process
of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is involved
in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an
organism and the environment.

Scald - is a type of burn injury caused by hot liquids or gases.

Sex Crimes - generally involve illegal or coerced sexual conduct by

one person towards another.

Chaste – An unmarried woman who has had no carnal knowledge

with men or that she never voluntarily had unlawful sexual
intercourse. These also denotes purity of mind and innocence
of heart.

Virgin – A woman who has had no carnal knowledge of man.

Her genital organs have not been altered by carnal connection.

Kinds of Virginity
1. Moral virginity – the state of not knowing the nature
of sexual life and not having experience sexual
relation.
2. Physical Virginity – A condition whereby a woman is
conscious of the nature of sexual life but has not
experienced sexual intercourse.
3. Demi–virginity – This term refers to a condition of
a woman who permits any form of sexual liberties as
long as they abstain from rupturing the hymen by
sexual act. The woman allows sexual intercourse, but
only inter femora or even inter labia, but not to the
extent of rupturing the hymen.
4. Virgo intacta – A truly virgin woman. There is no
structural change in her organ,not withstanding the
fact of a previous sexual intercourse.

Carnal Knowledge - is the act of a man in having sexual bodily

connection with a woman. There is carnal knowledge if there
is the slightest penetration in the sexual organ of the female
by the sexual organ of the male.

Shrapnel - fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object thrown out

by an explosion.
Skeletal System - gives the body its basic framework, providing
structure, protection, and movement.

Subpoena - order issued by the court to a person to appear in court.

Subpoena ad Testificandum´- is a court summons to appear and give

oral testimony for use at a hearing or trial.

Surgery - is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual

and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat
a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve
bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas.

Topinard and Rolet - two french anatomist who devised a formula for
the determination of the height for male and female.

Toxicology - the branch of science concerned with the nature, effects,

and detection of poisons.

Trauma - injury, a physical wound to the body caused by an external

source.

Virginity - A condition of a female who has not experience sexual

intercourse and whose genital organs have not been altered by carnal
connection and whose hymen is still intact.

Virgo Intacta - literally the term refers to a truly virgin woman;

that there are structural changes in her organ to infer previous
sexual intercourse and that she is a virtuous woman.

Virtuous Female - If her body is pure and if she has never had any
sexual intercourse with another though her mind and heart is impure.

Vital Reaction - the response of living body tissues to injury.

Wound - in legal medicine,it means strictly a solution of continuity.

An injury to living tissue caused by a cut, blow, or other impact,
typically one in which the skin is cut or broken.

Open Wound - there is a break in the continuity of the skin.

1. Abrasion - a wound consisting of superficial damage to
the skin. Scratch, friction mark.
2. Bruise - is a common skin injury that results from the
breakage of tiny blood vessels leaking under the skin. Blood
 from damaged blood vessels beneath the skin collects near
the surface of the skin to appear as what we recognize as
a black and blue mark. Cause by a blunt injury to the
tissues which damage blood vessels beneath the surface,
allowing blood to extravasate or leak into the surrounding
tissues.
3. Incised Wound - caused by a clean, sharp-edged object such
as a knife, razor, or glass splinter.
4. Stab Wound - is a specific form of penetrating trauma to
the skin that results from a knife or a similar pointed
object that is "deeper than it is wide".
5. Punctured Wound - is a deep wound caused by something sharp
and pointed, like a nail. The opening on the skin is small,
and the puncture wound may not bleed much. Puncture wounds
can easily become infected.
6. Perforating Wound - a wound with an entrance and exit opening.
7. Lacerated Wound - that occurs when skin, tissue, and/or
muscle is torn or cut open. Lacerations may be deep or
shallow, long or short, and wide or narrow. Most lacerations
are the result of the skin hitting an object, or an object
hitting the skin with force.
8. Bite - is a wound received from the teeth of an animal,
including humans.
9. Gunshot Wound (GSW) - (Ballistic Trauma) is a form of physical
trauma sustained from the discharge of arms or munitions.

Barotrauma - wound/injury caused by a change in atmospheric

pressure.

Defense Wound - or self-defense wound is an injury received by

the victim of an attack while trying to defend against the
assailant. often found on the hands and forearms, where the
victim has raised them to protect the head and face or to fend
off an assault, but may also be present on the feet and legs
where a victim attempts defense while lying down and kicking
out at the assailant.
Questioned
Document
Examination
Reviewer
3rd Century A.D. - The earliest handwriting examination cases reported.

6th Century - the Roman Emperor Justinian dictated guidelines for the
use of handwriting comparisons in Roman courts.

1873 - the year in which the first commercially successful

typewriter was introduced.

Addition - inserting or modifying clause or sentence in a document

to alter its meaning.
 Substitution - replacing original entries or writing with
another.

Albert Sherman Osborn - became the pre-eminent American pioneer in

the field when he authored "Questioned Documents," a seminal work in
scientific document analysis that remains in print and in use. He
founded the American Society of Questioned Document Examiners in 1942.

Alfred Dreyfus - A French army officer, accused of treason through

letters found attempting to sell French secrets to Germany.
Later found that Dreyfus did not write the letters.

Alignment - relation of successive characters or letter of a word,

signature or line of writing to an actual or imaginary base line.

Alphabet - is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols or

graphemes) which is used to write one or more languages based on the
general principle that the letters represent phonemes (basic
significant sounds) of the spoken language.

Alteration - any change made on a document before, during, or after

its original execution.

Methods of Alteration
1. Mechanical
2. Chemical

Arrangement - habitual placing and positioning of letters and words.

Casting - was one method used to produce counterfeit coins in Britain

and America during the colonial period. Basically it consisted of
melting metal and then pouring the molten liquid into a mold having
a reservoir in the shape of a coin.

Class Characteristics - common to a group of people. Learned from

school or from an individual's parent or tutor.
Class Characteristics are similarities between individuals who learned
the same type of writing systems.

Individual Characteristics - highly personal or peculiar to a

particular writer. Influenced by habit, mindset, personal
preference. It identifies an individual from other writers.

Types of Individual Characteristics

1. Skill level - the way a writing looks.
2. Slant - is the angle of writing.
3. Form - is the way a writer makes a letter or movement of
letters. Most basic individual characteristic and is very
important to QDE.
4. Movement - is the way a pen moves in order to make a mark or
form a letter. This can help distinguish the difference in
form. 2 letters can be the same, but made in a different way.
5. Proportions - is the symmetry of an individual letter.
6. Height - is comparing the height of one letter to another.
Height, proportions are usually habits found in a
specific writer.
7. “I” Dot
8. “t” Crossing
9. Loops - are similar to proportions.
10.Pressure - is the difference in ink or pencil in width or
shade. Helps show direction of movement.
11.Baseline Alignment - The value of this show the questioned
writing in correlation to the baseline. Helps QDE examiners
determine whether the writing was altered or is consistent
with the rest of the writing or other examples.
12.Pen Lifts - Pen lifts are when the pen or pencil is lifted
from the paper and reapplied to finish a word or sentence.
13.Speed - The speed of a writer is a key indicator for QDE in
the examination process. Fast and slow speeds are difficult
to duplicate leaving behind inconsistencies in the writing.
14.Embellishments - decorate writing. Usually found in the
beginning of word, but can be seen other places.
15.Entry/Exit Strokes - is the way a writer begins certain
letter or words and can be very specific to an individual.
Also includes the idea of connecting stokes.
16.Retracing - is considered fixing a portion of writing that
is not readable or pleasing to the writer. In some cases,
this can indicate forgery but is very common in normal
handwriting to retrace letters or words.
17.Spelling - is an individual characteristic because of
education or habits and can be an easy fix to eliminate or
pin point suspects.
18.Spacing - is the area between letters or words and is usually
specific to the writer.
19.Format - is the habit in which a writer uses to depict simple
things like; Dates, numbers, abbreviations.
Example: The way people write checks
20.Case - is a characteristic of a writer who might use upper
 case letters where a lower case should be present.

Coin Clipping - shaving off a small portion of a precious metal coin

for profit.

Coin Mutilation - cutting a portion of a coin.

Collected Standard - (Procured Standard)obtained from files executed

in the course of everyday routine.

Requested Standard - document requested by an investigator for

the purpose of comparative examination.

Color Shifting Ink - ink that changes color when viewed in different
angles.

Connections - links which connect a letter with the one following it.

Counterfeiting - imitate fraudulently for gain. To make a copy of,

usually with the intent to defraud; forge: counterfeits money.

Cuneiform - denoting or relating to the wedge-shaped characters used

in the ancient writing systems of Mesopotamia, Persia, and Ugarit,
surviving mainly on clay tablets.

Cutting - skillful cutting away of some portions and then inserting

new one to fill the gap.

Disguised Writing - is any deliberate attempt to alter one's

handwriting to prevent recognition.

Document - any material that contains marks, symbols, or signs either

visible, partially visible or invisible that may present or ultimately
convey a meaning or message to someone.

Document May Be Questioned With Respect To Its

1. Authenticity
2. Identity
3. Origin
4. Relation among its parts
5. Relation to other things

Types of Document Examination

1. Handwriting Comparisons
 2. Ink Examinations
3. Indented Writing
4. Alterations
5. Paper Analysis
6. Photocopy Analysis
7. Typewriting

Instrument Used In A Questioned Document QD Laboratory

1. Stereo Microscope - The stereo or stereoscopic or dissecting
microscope is an optical microscope variant designed for low
magnification observation of a sample, typically using light
reflected from the surface of an object rather than
transmitted through it.
2. Light Microscope - light microscope works like a refracting
telescope except that the object is very close to the
objective lens.
3. Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) - is an apparatus which can:
a. Analyse and compare inks: reveal alterations on a document;
b. Visualize security features printed into papers;
c. Use the spectrometer and various built-in light sources for
U.V., visible spectrum and I.R. examinations of ink and
documents to visualise fluorescence; examination with
transmitted light or low angle light, and recording/comparing
differences in reflectance, and absorption under variable
wavelengths of light and with various filters which will
discriminate between different inks.
4. Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA) - is an apparatus
which can:
a. Produce an evidential record of any indentations (writing
impressions) which are present upon a page, resulting from
previous pages of over-writing in a writing pad, notebook,
or upon a letter placed inside an envelope which was
then addressed.
b. Visualise and record any other transmitted impression, such
as from a machine postal stamp upon an envelope; or
visualise and record any paper edge impressions of a
page-portion that was torn from a page within a note-pad,
even if the page was removed some time later.

Erasure - the removal of writing, recorded material, or data.

EURion Constellation - is a pattern of symbols incorporated into a

number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996. It is added
to help imaging software detect the presence of a banknote in a
digital image.

Exemplars - Handwriting used as a standard for comparison with the

document in question. Known authentic writing samples.

Two Types of Exemplars

1. Requested Writings - (Dictated) are writing samples taken
from someone for the purpose of comparison with a questioned
document.
2. Non-Requested Writings - (Undictated)(Collected) these are
examples of the subject's writings that are taken in the
normal course of business or personal transactions.

Forensic Document Examination - the practice of the application of

document examination to the purposes of the law.

Graphology - is the study of handwriting to identify the writer's

personality traits.

Graphologist - Profiles character or personality by drawing conclusions

from certain types of characteristics in the handwriting sample.

Handwriting - refers to a person's writing created with a writing

utensil such as a pen or pencil.

Handwriting Comparison Characteristics

1. Spacing between letters
2. Spacing between words
3. Relative proportions between letters and within letters
4. Individual letter formations
5. Formations of letter combinations
6. The overall slant of the writing
7. Connecting strokes
8. Pen lifts
9. Beginning and ending strokes
10.Unusual flourishes
11.Pen pressure

Character of handwriting
1. No single handwriting characteristic can in itself be taken
as the basis for a positive comparison.
2. The final conclusion must be based on a sufficient number
of common characteristics between the known and questioned
writing samples.
 3. There are no hard and fast rules for a sufficient number of
personal characteristics; it is a judgment call made by the
expert examiner in the context of each case.

Henry Mill - was an English inventor who patented the first typewriter
in 1714.

Hieroglyph - (Greek for "sacred writing") is a character of the ancient

Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are pictographic in
form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also sometimes
called "hieroglyphs".

Hologram - a three-dimensional image formed by the interference of

light beams from a laser or other coherent light source.

Indented Writing - (second page writing), is the impression from the

writing instrument captured on sheets of paper below the one that
contains the original writing.

Electrostatic Detection - indented writing may be recovered

using this method.

Ink - a coloured fluid or paste used for writing, drawing, printing,

or duplicating.

Microspectrophotometer - A nondestructive approach to comparing

ink lines. It is accomplished with a visible-light
microspectrophotometer.

Thin-layer chromatography is also suitable for ink comparisons.

Interlineation - insertion between lines or paragraphs.

Juxtaposition - an act or instance of placing close together or side

by side, especially for comparison or contrast.

Lindbergh Baby Case - a sensational case of kidnapping for ransom

resulting in murder of a baby where questioned document examination is
the center piece of the investigation and the reason for the arrest
of the perpetrator.

Manuscript - is any document written by hand, as opposed to being printed

or reproduced in some other way.
Microprinting - is one of many anti-counterfeiting techniques used
most often on currency and bank checks, as well as various other
items of value. Microprinting involves printing very small text,
usually too small to read with the naked eye, onto the note or item.

Obliteration - obscuring a document by a series of x-types, haphazard,

lines, blots, and smears.

Offset printing - or web offset printing is a commonly used printing

technique in which the inked image is transferred (or "offset") from
a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface.

Letterpress printing - is a technique of relief printing using a

printing press. A worker composes and locks movable type into the
bed of a press, inks it, and presses paper against it to transfer
the ink from the type which creates an impression on the paper.

Pellegrino Turri - an Italian inventor, invented a mechanical typing

machine, one of the first typewriters in 1801 for his blind lover
Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano. He also invented carbon
paper to provide the ink for his machine.

Pen Lift - is the practice of lifting the tip of a pen from a writing
surface. It comes in the form of a disconnection between letters and
letter combinations.

Pen Pressure - the proportions of strokes to each other in width as

affected by shading and by unconscious emphasis.

Penmanship - is the technique of writing with the hand using a

writing instrument. The art or practice of writing with the pen.

Pictograph - a pictorial symbol for a word or phrase. Pictographs

were used as the earliest known form of writing, examples having been
discovered in Egypt and Mesopotamia from before 3000 BC.

Questioned Document - is any signature, handwriting, typewriting, or

other mark whose source or authenticity is in dispute or doubtful.

Most Common Questioned Document

1. Letters
2. Checks
3. Drivers License
4. Contracts
 5. Wills
6. Voters Registration
7. Passports
8. Petitions
9. Threatening Letters
10.Suicide Notes
11.Lottery Tickets

Rules in Collecting Questioned Documents

1. Original Document Preferred
2. QDE must mark all evidence - initial and date.
If document cannot be marked it should be placed in enveloped
and sealed with initial and date.
3. Maintain chain of custody.

Questioned Document Examination - The scientific methods of

identification and examination of questionable documents, handwriting
examination, detection of forgery, falsification and counterfeiting of
documents which stress the procedures of restoring and deciphering
erasures and obliteration's; examination of documents by means of
visible light, ultra-violet light and ultra-red radiation and colored
powders; recognition and selection of standards; and examination of
questionable typewriting, computerized documents and other forms of
modern printing.

Retracing - any writing stroke which goes back over another writing
stroke.

Rhythm - the balanced quality of movement, producing a natural result

not constrained nor artificial.

Rubric and Embellishment - the additional and unnecessary stroke

incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.

Samuel Willard Soulé - (January 25,1830-July 12,1875) along with

Christopher Sholes and Carlos Glidden invented the first practical
typewriter at a machine shop located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
in 1869.

Security fibers - are embedded in the paper during manufacture and

are non-reproducible.

Security Thread - is a security feature of many banknotes to protect

against counterfeiting, consisting of a thin ribbon that is threaded
through the note's paper.

Shading and Pen Position - the increase in width of stroke brought by

variations in writing pressure.

Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer - the first commercially successful

typewriter.

Signature - a person's name written in a distinctive way as a form of

identification in authorizing a cheque or document or concluding
a letter. From the latin word "signare" which means "to sign".

Kinds of Signature
1. Formal Signature - signature used on official documents such
as will or deed of sale.
2. Informal Signature - signature used in routine correspondence
such as personal letters and other documents where you want
the reader to recognize the signature but the exact spelling
of the name isn’t important.
3. Stylistic Signature - signature used in signing checks, credit
card receipts, etc. This is also like the famous “physician’s
signature” on a prescription. It is often highly stylistic
and looks like a scribble with little that would be
recognizable as a signature.

Signature Forgery - refers to the act of falsely replicating the

signature of another person.

Popular Methods of Forging Signature

1. Freehand Method - whereby the forger, after careful practice,
replicates the signature by freehand. Although a difficult
method to perfect, this often produces the most convincing results.
2. Trace-Over Method - the sheet of paper containing the genuine
signature is placed on top of the paper where the forgery is
required. The signature is traced over, appearing as a faint
indentation on the sheet of paper underneath. This indentation
can then be used as a guide for a signature.

Methods of Signature Tracing

1. Carbon Outline Method - carbon paper inserted between
original and false document.
2. Indentation Process - original document is placed over
false one under it, to be traced later using a pen or
pencil.
 3. Transmitted Light Process - a light source is placed
under a light, the original document is placed under the
false one. The light source will illuminate both
documents so that the writings on the original document
will be seen and traceable on the false one.

Characteristics That May Suggest Presence of Forgery

1. Shaky handwriting
2. Pen lifts
3. Signs of retouching
4. Letter proportions
5. Very close similarity between two or more signatures

Kinds of Forgery of Signatures

1. Simple Forgery - (spurious forgery) signing of a document in
his own or in a modified handwriting. Easy to detect once
standards of genuine signatures are obtained.
2. Simulated Forgery - (freehand forgery) the copying or imitation
of a signature.

Indicators of Forgery
1. Blunt starts and stops
2. Pen lifts and hesitations
3. Tremor
4. Speed and Pressure
5. Patching

Slant - slope of writing in relation to the base line.

Spacing - is a blank area devoid of content, serving to separate words,

letters, numbers, and punctuation.

Striking - (stamping) making an impression of a coin on a metal blank

by pressure using steel dies.

Superimposition - placing or laying of one document over another

in a way that it appears as a single image. The placement of an
image or video on top of an already-existing image or video, usually
to add to the overall image effect, but also sometimes to
conceal something.

Terminal - The end of a writing stroke.

Initial Stroke - the beginning of a writing stroke.

Tremor - deviation from uniform stroke brought about by lack of
smoothness.

Kinds of Tremors
1. Genuine Tremors - caused by age, illiteracy, weakness.
2. Tremor of Fraud

Typebar - one of the bars on a typewriter that bears type for printing.

Typewriter - is a mechanical or electro-mechanical machine for writing

in characters similar to those produced by printer's movable type
by means of keyboard-operated types striking a ribbon to transfer
ink or carbon impressions onto the paper.

Carriage Return - referred to a mechanism or lever on a typewriter.

It was used after typing a line of text and caused the assembly
holding the paper (the carriage) to return to the right so that
the machine was ready to type again on the left-hand side of
the paper (assuming a left-to-right language).

Typeface - the printing surface of the type block. The most

popular type are pica and elite.

Pica - 10 characters per inch

Elite - 12 characters per inch

Types of Typewriters
1. Keyboard typewriter - is the simplest kind of typewriter,
functioning from the QWERTY formation of letters and having
a type (a metallic cast with letters molded into it) that's
attached by a bar or rod.
2. Single-element typewriter - enable the user to print data in
different languages or fonts. Instead of using a bar mold for
the type (called a type bar), single-element typewriters use
type wheels, type sleeves or type shuttles for molds. The
most popular single-element was the Hammond type-shuttle
typewriter produced in 1884.
3. Type-bar typewriters, as the name suggests, use type bars,
or molds of iron shaped like bars, for their types. Type bars
are the most common kind of typewriter and the original
invented by Sholes, Glidden and Soule was a type-bar
typewriter.
 4. Index typewriters - were far less costly in the pre-modern
era, but also less useful. An index typewriter required that
users first input what key they would like, and then perform
another action (usually pressing a lever) to print the letter
to a page. Usually these didn't use type bars, but instead
type wheels, type shuttles, type plates and even more novel
types. Examples of the index typewriter are the American
Visible, first manufactured in 1901, and the French Virotyp
of 1914.
5. Teletype Typewriters - (Teleprinters) came on the scene in
the mid-1950s and peaked in popularity in the 1960s. They
were used mostly for communicating information from point
to point, much as modern fax machines are used. Most non-IBM
computers had teletype terminals. Teletypes were completely
mechanical and thus required regular lubrication; they didn't
have type bars in the strictest sense and instead used
plastic gears to print messages.
6. Electric Typewriters - The most modern typewriter, still
used today, is the electric typewriter, most notably IBM
models such as the Selectric. The electric typewriter
minimized the force necessary to print out a message by
using a motor and type ball to print letters on paper.

Vignette - a small illustration or portrait photograph which fades

into its background without a definite border.

Watermark - a faint design made in some paper during manufacture that

is visible when held against the light and typically identifies
the maker.

Writing - is a medium of communication that represents language

through the inscription of signs and symbols.

Cursive Writing - also known as script, joined-up writing,

joint writing, running writing, or handwriting is any style of
penmanship in which the symbols of the language are written in
a conjoined and/or flowing manner, generally for the purpose of
making writing faster.

Writing Speed - Classified Into 4 Divisions

1. Slow and Drawn
2. Deliberate
3. Average
4. Rapid
Polygraphy (Lie
Detection) Reviewer
1875 - The earliest attempt at a scientific approach to the development
of diagnostic instrumentation for lie detection, when the Italian
physiologist, Angelo Mosso (1846-1910), began studies of fear and its
influence on the heart and respiration. The fear of being detected was
considered an essential element of deception. Through his research
Mosso demonstrated that blood pressure, blood volume, and pulse
frequency changed depending on changes in emotions of a tested
subject. From records of pulsation, Mosso was able to distinguish
persons who were afraid from those who were tranquil.

1915 - the year Dr.Marston developed the discontinuous systolic blood

pressure test which would later become one component of the modern
polygraph.

1992 - the polygraph made its official entrance into the computer age.

1997 - considered the year of birth of lie detection in Ukraine.

18th Century - the era conducive to developing technical means of

detecting deception, subsequently named: lie detector, variograph,
polygraph, emotional stress monitor, deceptograph, to name a few.

African Tribes - have utilized their own method of detecting a guilty

person. While performing a special dance around a suspected individual,
a sorcerer intensely sniffed him. The "investigator" made a conclusion
whether the suspect committed the crime based upon the intensity of
his body odor.

Alexander R. Luria - (1902-1977) a Soviet neuropsychologist, who

initiated the research on the psycho-physiological diagnostic
instrumentation methods in criminal investigations which began in
the 1920s. He used reaction time measures to study thought processes
and developed a psychodiagnostic procedure he referred to as the
"combined motor method" for diagnosing individual subject's thought
processes. He did not use an instrument in his study.

Ancient Methods of Lie Detection

Ancient Rome - bodyguard candidates were asked provocative

questions. Those who blushed were selected for the job. It was
believed that if a person blushed in response to provocative
questions, he would not participate in plots.
 Ancient Sparta - Before being admitted to certain schools Spartan
young men were required to pass the selection criteria. The
young men were ordered to stand on the edge of a cliff, and were
asked if they were afraid. The answer was always negative;
however its integrity was determined by the men’s complexion.
It was concluded that the pale young men lied and they were
pushed from the cliff.

Nervous Behavior - if the subject look down and moved his toe
in a circular motion while being interrogated, he was thought
to be deceptive. This was later diagnosed as nervous behaviorism.
Nervous individuals were stereotyped as being deceptive.

The Ordeal of Rice - was commonly utilized as a lie detector in

ancient China. Suspect was required to chew a mouthful of dry
rice and then spit it out. If the rice was moist, the suspect
was judged innocent. If the rice was dry, the suspect was judged
guilty. The tension of guilt supposedly caused a cessation of
salivary glands secretion of fluids.

The Ordeal of the Hot iron - in Africa, the suspect had a hot
iron placed on his tongue, if the suspect's tongue was not
burned, he was judged innocent, if the suspect's tongue was
burned, he was judged guilty. The tension of guilt supposedly
caused a cessation of salivary secretions which would allow the
tongue to be burned.

The Ordeal of the Sacred Donkey - around 1500 BC in India,

Indian priests paints a donkey's tail with carbon residue from
an oil lamp and placed the animal in a dark tent. The suspects
were sent into the tent and told that pulling the "magic"
donkey's tail would reveal the liar (if a guilty man pulls his
tail, the donkey will bray). When the suspects came out, the
priests examined their hands. Those with clean hands had not
touched the donkey's tail. It was assumed that this was due
to the suspects’ fear of their guilt being discovered, proving
they were liars.

Angelo Mosso - an Italian Physiologist, he used an instrument called

plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear in subjects
undergoing questioning and he studied the effects of these variables
on their cardiovascular and respiratory activity.

Plethysmograph - from the Greek word "Plethysmos" - increase or

 enlargement and "grapho" - write or record, is an instrument for
recording and measuring variation in the volume of a part of
the body, especially as caused by changes in blood pressure.

Anti–Climax Dampening - The principle of psychological focus which

holds that a person will establish an emotional priority for that
stimulus which he perceives to represent the greatest threat to his
well being.

Anxiety - A state of mental uneasiness or concern. Abnormal apprehension

or fear, often accompanied by psychological signs, behavior symptoms or
doubt concerning the nature and reality of a threat; real or imagined.
Unfounded self–doubt.

Apnea - The transient cessation of breathing which follows forced

breathing. On a polygraph chart, apnea is generally represented by
a blocking pattern in the pneumograph tracing.

Applied Stimulus - An intentionally applied external stimulus,

normally in the form of a question, directed to a person under going
a polygraph examination. An applied stimulus may be employed for the
purpose of demonstrating a persons response capabilities at the time
the stimulus is applied.

Associated Research Inc. - in Chicago, manufactured the 1st commercial

polygraph instrument for Leonarde Keeler.

Autonomic Nervous System - That part of the peripheral nervous system

consisting of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Axon - The central core which forms the essential conducting part of
a nerve fiber. An extension from and a part of the cytoplasm of some
nerve cells.

Backster Zone Comparison Technique - a polygraph technique which

primarily involved an alteration of the Reid question sequencing.

Basic Polygraph Examination Requirements

1. The Examining Room - Polygraph examinations should be conducted in
a quiet. private room. Under normal circumstances only the
polygraphist and examines are permitted in the examining room.
2. Pre-Test Interview - The examination actually begins with the first
contact between the examinee and the polygraphist. The pre- test
interview is vital to a proper polygraph examination. and no
 examination will be administered by any AzPa member without an
adequate pre-test interview.
3. Question Formulation - Question formulation should be conduced in
accordance with established standards and techniques. Unless
specifically required by the nature of the issue being resolved,
no questions regarding morals or the intimate details of a person’s
personal life will be asked.
4. Test Construction - The use and placement of test questions within
the question sequence must adhere to and be in accordance with
those techniques generally recognized and widely accepted within
the polygraph profession.
5. Stimulation Test - The “stim” test is optional. It may be
conducted either as the first polygraph chart or inserted between
polygraph charts. The fact that an individual has been previously
examined, perhaps even by the same polygraphist], does not negate
the use of the “stim” test.
6. Review of Test Questions - Under no circumstances will any test
be administered without a prior, thorough review of all test
questions with the examinee.
7. Administering The Polygraph Charts
a. After applying pressure to the blood pressure cuff at the
time of the test, the polygraphist should be able to announce
the beginning of the test with minimum delay.
b. Test questions should be usually spaced at not less than
15 second intervals.
c. The administering of the polygraph examination shall be
conducted in accordance with established standards and
techniques which are taught by the accredited schools.
8. Chart Interpretation - Chart interpretation is the final key to
a valid polygraph examination. Under no circumstances is it
permitted that a AzPa polygraphist overlook or ignore the
established, basic concepts of chart interpretation taught in
all accredited polygraph schools.

Behavior Symptoms - Those subjectively observable non-verbal

manifestations of a person at the time of an applied stimulus which
may or may not be indicative of that person’s veracity.

Blood Pressure Change - The visual representation of an increase or

decrease in blood pressure or volume on a polygraph chart by the
cardio component of a polygraph instrument.

Cardio-Sphygmo-graph - Heart/pressure/recording. The tracing on a

polygraph chart, made by a pen moved by a bellows device in connection
with a closed air pressurized circuit and an in-line
cardiosphygmomanometer, which reflects blood pressure and radial pulse
in response to an applied stimulus.

Cardiosphygmomanometer - An in-line pressure dial in a closed air

pressurized circuit capable of representing the pressure in that
circuit in units of millimeters of mercury.

Cardiovascular System - Those portions of an organism which contain

the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. The functional means by
which blood is transported throughout the body.

Cerebellum - That portion of the brain which projects over the medulla
and is especially concerned with the coordination of muscular activity
and body equilibrium.

Cerebrum - The enlarged front and upper part of the brain which contains
the higher nervous centers.

Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) was the first in 1895 to experiment with a

device, measuring blood pressure and pulse, to detect deception in
criminal suspects and noted increased blood pressure following
relevant questions when put to some subjects. He called it a
Hydrosphygmograph.

Chart - The graphic recorded representations of a persons

psychophysiological responses to a set of carefully controlled
stimuli presented to him in the form of a valid and reliable question
structure.

Christian Hans Stoelting - founded the stoelting company, now a

Manufacturer and distributor of research instrumentation including
physiology and biofeedback for scientific research plus psychological
and educational tests.

Stoelting Company - Stoelting invented the first modern

polygraph in 1935.

Chart Identification - Any information placed on a polygram which

identified the person examined, the polygraphist conducting the
examination as well as any other data, time and place of the
examination, including the signature of the examinee, if obtainable.

Cleve Backster - he founded the CIA's polygraph unit shortly after

World War II. He also founded the longest running polygraph school
in the world. He developed the Backster Zone Comparison Technique
(ZCT).

Control Stimulation Test - A modified peak of tension test used to

relax the non-deceptive examinee and stimulate the deceptive examinee
by empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the polygraph technique.

Control Question - That question within a structured technique which

is broad in scope and depth, generally limited by mutually exclusive
time parameter, which relates to a wrong doing of the same general
nature as the one under investigation, and one to which the examiner
will, in all probability, lie or to which his answer will be of
dubious validity in his own mind.
- A question to which the examinee’s answer will be a known lie
or a probable lie. This question is similar in nature but not related
to the issue being resolved, and should be of slightly less weight
than the relevant questions.

Control Question Technique (CQT) - a polygraph technique that

incorporated control questions (comparison) which were designed to be
emotionally arousing for non-deceptive subjects and less emotionally
arousing for deceptive subjects than the relevant questions
previously used.

Counter Measures - Deliberate chemical, mental or physical, attempts

by an examinee to affect the polygraph tracings or the final outcome
of a polygraph examination.

Cuff pressure - The air pressure in the inflatable bladder in the

blood pressure cuff as indicated on the sphygmomanometer of the
polygraph instrument in units of millimeters of mercury.

Daniel Defoe - a British novelist who in 1730 wrote an essay entitled

"An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies
and Suppressing all Other Disorders of the Night", wherein he
recommended that taking the pulse of a suspicious fellow was a
practical, effective and humane method for distinguishing truthfulness
from lying.

Deception - the act of making someone believe something that is

not true.

Dendrites - An extension or process of a neuron which serves to conduct

impulses toward the cell body.

Dick Arther - refined the Reid Control Question Technique with his
known Lie and Probable Lie Question Technique and the Guilt Complex
Question. This Became known as Arther's Technique.

Dicrotic Notch - graphic representation within the cardio tracing on

a polygraph chart caused by a backward surge of blood against the
semi-lunar valve in the left ventricle of the heart.

Distortion - change in polygraph tracings caused by artifact stimulus.

A disturbance of normal polygraph tracings not attributable to an
intended stimulus within a test structure.

Dr. Joseph F. Kubis - of Fordham University in New York City, was the
first researcher to use potential computer applications for the
purpose of polygraph chart analysis in the late 1970's.

Dr. Marie Gabriel Romain Vigouroux (1831-1911) a French electrotherapy

specialist was first to discover in 1879 the phenomenon we now know
as Electrodermal Response.

Electrodermal Response - human body phenomenon in which the body,

mainly the skin, involuntarily changes resistance electrically
upon the application of certain external stimuli.

Scientists Who Contributed to the electrodermal response research

1. Ivan R. Tarchanoff (1846-1908) Georgian
2. Charles Samson Fere (1852-1907) French
3. Georg Sticker (1860-1960) German
4. Otto Veraguth (1870-1944) Swiss

Dyspena - Abnormal breathing characterized by either labored breathing,

shortness of breath, suppression or serrated exhalation.

Efferent Nerve Fibers - Those neural fibers which carry impulses away
from the central nervous system.

Ego Defense Mechanism - Those psychological defenses used by a person

to shield himself against that which he perceives to represent a
threat to his immediate well-being.

Endocrine Glands - Those ductless glands which discharge their

secretions directly into the blood stream. In general, the endocrine
glands coordinate and control body activities at a slower rate than
the nervous system and thus promote long term adjustments.

Enveloping Question - A question used at the beginning and end of a

searching peak of tension test which deals with an issue or subject
which is beyond the realm of possibility of the information being
sought.

Eupnea - Regular or normal breathing.

Examinee - An individual who has volunteered for and undergoes a

polygraph examination.

Excitability - The potential ability of a neuron to respond to any

given stimulus.

Expert Opinion - A statement reflecting the results of the evaluation

of a polygraph chart.

Extrasystole - A premature contraction of the heart which is

independent of the normal rhythm and which arises in response to an
impulse in some part of the heart other than the sino-auricular node,
or from some abnormal stimulus. An extra systole appears in the cardio
tracing of a polygraph chart as a break in the normal rhythm of
the heart.

Fight or Flight Syndrome - The activation of involuntary sympathetic

neural activity upon conscious recognition of a threat to the
immediate well-being of an organism. A group of neural symptoms which
enable an organism to cope with a stressful or threatening situation
by taking that organism from a normal relaxed state to an emergency
state of preparedness for the sake of survival.

Forensic Psychophysiology - Modern term for polygraph examination.

Galvanograph - elecrtrical Current recording, known as the GSR, galvanic

skin response and galvanic skin conductance.

Galvanometer - measures the small differences in electrical

resistance and any shifts in a subject’s anxiety.

Ganglia - Groups of nerve cell bodies found in the autonomic plexuses

composed primarily of sympathetic postganglionic neurons.
Guilt Complex - A group of associated ideas or attitudes which have a
common emotional tone of feelings of universal responsibility. these
ideas or attitudes may be conscious or unconscious; however, they
may significantly influence an individuals behavior or
psychophysiological responses when confronted with an accusation.

Guilt Complex Question - A question included in a structured

polygraph test designed to identify a person who may be
inappropriately responding to relevant and control questions
due to a guilt complex. This question is usually one which
concerns a nonexistent crime or circumstance which an examinee
is led to believe did exist in which he is suspect but which
he knows he could not have committed.

Guilt Complex Question - A question about a fictitious incident

of individual. and of a similar nature and weight as the issue
being resolved.

Sticker - one of the first to suggest the use of EDA, galvanic

skin response as an indicator of deception.

Hidden Key - An item of evidence known only to the victim, perpetrator,

investigator and polygraphist.

Homestasis - The tendency of an organism to maintain a state of

equilibrium between interrelated psychological and psysiological stimuli.

Hydrosphygmograph - (water pressure recording) a device consisting

of a cylinder containing water and connected with a registering tube,
used to record the amount of blood forced with each pulsation into a
limb in cased in the apparatus.

Hypnosis - alteration of consciousness and concentration, subject

manifest heightened suggestability, not admissible in court.

Hypothalamus - That portion of the brain which contains centers for

the regulation of body temperatures, sleep and water balance. It
also appears to be the center for the integration of emotions,
visceral activity and neural impulses which trigger the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system.

Irrelevant Question - is intended to be an innocuous. harmless

question, having no particular relationship to the issue being
resolved and which can unequivocally be answered truthfully.
 Primary Relevant Question - The key question regarding the direct
act of committing an offense.

Secondary Relevant Question - A question pertaining to pertinent

aspects of the issue. to which a guilty or knowledgeable person
would be expected to respond significantly.

Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval (June 8,1851–December 31,1940) was a French

physician, physicist, and inventor of the moving-coil D'Arsonval
galvanometer and the thermocouple ammeter. D'Arsonval was an important
contributor to the emerging field of electrophysiology, the study of
the effects of electricity on biological organisms, in the
19th century.

John Augustus Larson - was a Police Officer for Berkeley, California,

United States, and famous for his invention of modern polygraph used
in forensic investigations. He was the first American police officer
having an academic doctorate and to use polygraph in criminal
investigations.

John E. Reid - a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois, developed the Control

Question Technique (CQT) in 1947. Also called the "father of Controls".

Reid Control Question Technique - inserted a surprise control

question in the relevant/irrelevant technique.

Keeler Polygraph - It became the most widely used polygraph in the

world for the next three decades.

Known Peak of Tension Test - This is a series of similar type questions

containing only one relevant question. known to the polygraphist.

Searching Peak of Tension Test - A series of questions wherein

the relevant questions are not known to the polygraphist.

Kymograph - An instrument for recording variations in pressure, as

of the blood, or in tension, as of a muscle, by means of a pen or
stylus that marks a rotating drum at a constant speed.

Lafayette Instrument Company - founded in 1947 by Max Wastl

(1915-1990), located in Lafayette, Indiana, USA, dominates the
international polygraph market. It is the unconditional global leader
in the manufacture and sale of lie detectors.
Leonarde Keeler - in 1926, modified the polygraph instrument designed
by John Larson by adding a device that measured electrical skin
conductivity or electrodermal response. He also founded the world's
first polygraph school, the Keeler Polygraph Institute in Chicago,
Illinois in 1948. Considered the father of modern polygraph.

Lie - is an intentionally false statement to a person or group made

by another person or group who knows it is not wholly the truth.

Kinds of Lie
1. White or Benign Lie - lie to preserve harmony of relationship.
2. Pathological Lie - can not tell right from wrong.
3. Red Lie - communist propaganda
4. Black Lie - lie to dishonor or to discredit
5. Malicious/Judicial Lie -misleading or lie to obstruct justice.
6. Fabrication - misrepresentation of truth
7. Bold-Face Lie - obviously lying
8. Lying by Omission - omission of important facts
9. Lie to Children - to gain acceptance to children
10.Noble Lie - to maintain law and order
11.Emergency Lie - to prevent harm to third party
12.Perjury - false testimony under oath
13.Bluffing - pretense of capability/intention one does not possess
14.Jocose Lie - meant to be jest, teasing and sarcasm
15.Contextual lie - stating part of truth out of context
16.Promotion lie - incredible advertisements

Type of Liars
1. Panic Liars
2. Occupational Liars
3. Tournament Liars
4. Psychopathic Liars
5. Ethological Liars
6. Pathological Liars
7. Black Liars

Luigi Galvani - an Italian Physician and Physiologist who in 1791,

accidentally discovered that a dissected frog leg would twitch and
contract at the touch of a scalpel charged with electricity. He
discovered that current or galvanic electricity flowed through animal
tissue.

Mechanical Adjustment - The manual centering of the ink pens on a

polygraph instrument in order to maintain the individual component
tracings within their appropriate physical parameters.

Medula Oblongata - The lowest or hindmost part of the brain continuous

with the spinal cord. Contains centers of respiratory, cardio inhibitory,
cardio acceleratory, vasoconstrictor, vasodilator, swallowing, salivary
and vomiting.

Midbrain - The middle segment of the brain containing the centers for
certain visual and auditory reflexes.

Middle Ages - a suspect's pulse rate readings were collected for

determining his or her guilt. This method was employed for exposing
unfaithful wives and their lovers. The testing technique was very
simple. A trained individual placed a finger on a wrist of a woman
suspected of infidelity, while mentioning names of the men, who could
have had an intimate relationship with her. The examinee's pulse
accelerated when she heard and, consequently, reacted to the name
of her lover.

Name Test - A controlled peak of tension test utilized to establish

an examinee’s response capability to a known lie in which the name
of a person upon whom the examinee places emotional significance is
used as a known peak of tension.

Nerves - Those strands of tissue which specialize in the transmission

of impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord and all parts of
the body.

Neuron - A single nerve cell.

Neutral Question - A question which does not pertain to the issue under
investigation the answer to which recognized as universally correct
by both the examinee and the polygraphist. A neutral question is
intended to elicit a minimal response from the examinee and provide
the polygraphist with a valid graphic representation of the
examinee’s non-stress response patterns.

Numerical Evaluation - A valid and reliable system of numerical

evaluation which employs a consistent set of values to describe the
observable physiological responses graphically represented on a
polygraph chart.

Opinion - The expert conclusion expressed by a qualified polygraphist

concerning the veracity of the statements made by examinee.

Otto Veraguth - was a Swiss neurologist. In the 1900s he published a

study of a phenomenon he called "psychogalvanic reflex" associated
with observed changes in the electrical properties of the skin. In
his research he noticed that emotional stimuli caused greater
deflections (higher readings) on a galvanometer that was connected
to the skin via electrodes than did neutral stimuli. He used the
galvanomenter in conjunction with word-association tests.

Psychogalvanic Reflex - also called galvanic skin response, a

change in the electrical properties of the body following noxious
stimulation, stimulation that produces emotional reaction and to
some extent, stimulation that attracts the subject's attention
and leads to an aroused alertness.

Outside Issue - A circumstance unrelated to the primary issue which

poses a greater threat to the immediate well-being of the examinee
than does the primary relevant issue.

Padding Questions - Those questions placed before and after the known
relevant question in a known peak of tension test. Padding questions
are similar in nature to the known relevant question and fall within
the realm of possibility of the information being sought.

Parasysmpathetic Nervous System - That part of the autonomic nervous

system which tends to induce secretion, to increase the tone and
contractibility of smooth muscle and to channel the dilation of
blood vessels. That division of the autonomic nervous system
responsible for the normal “house keeping functions of the body;
i.e. digestion and body temperature.

Peripheral Nervous System - That portion of the nervous system lying

outside the central nervous system.

Plethsysmograph - The tracing on a polygraph chart made by a pen moved

by a photo-optical system controlled by an examinee’s
psychophysiological responses to controlled stimuli.

Pneumograph — breathing/recording, from the Greek word "Pneuma" - air

or breath and "Grapho" - write or record, a device that recorded a
subject's breathing patterns.

Polygram - One or more polygraph charts. The cumulative recorded

representations of an examinee’s psychophysiological responses to a
set of controlled stimuli presented to him in the form of a properly
constructed question technique upon which an expert opinion is formed.

Polygraph - a machine designed to detect and record changes in

physiological characteristics, such as a person's pulse and breathing
rates, used especially as a lie detector.

Polygraph Machine Measure and Record the ff:

1. Blood Pressure
2. Heart Rate
3. Respiration
4. Skin Conductivity

Polygraphist - An individual who, by virtue of his education, training

and experience, is capable of conducting a valid and reliable
polygraph examination for the purpose of determining whether or not
an examinee honestly believes that his own statements and answers
concerning a questioned issue are in fact truthful.

Polygraph Examination - The entire environment within which a

qualified polygraphist renders an expert opinion as to the veracity
of an examinee’s statements concerning the primary issue of the
matter under investigation.

Polygraph Examiner - interpret the charts generated by the polygraph

machine. Polygraph came from the Greek word "polys" - many writings
and "grapho" write.

Polygraph Chart - is one continuous set of test questions recorded on

paper by the polygraph instrument.

PolyScore - a software program which used a sophisticated mathematical

algorithm to analyze the polygraph data and to estimate a probability
or degree of deception or truthfulness in a subject.
- is a computerized polygraph chart scoring algorithm that uses
statistical probability to arrive at truthfulness or deception. It
has been shown that validated algorithms have exceeded 98 percent
in their accuracy to quantify, analyze and evaluate the physiological
data collected from polygraph examinations administered in real
criminal cases.

Dr. Dale E. Olsen and John C. Harris - statisticians at Johns

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, in Maryland,
 completed a software program called PolyScore in 1993.

Pons - A band of nerve fibers in the brain connecting the lobes of the
cerebellum, the medulla and the cerebrum.

Pre-Employment Examination - An examination in which an individual is

tested regarding the truthfulness and accuracy of an employment
application. along with other background areas, which aids the
employer in selecting the most qualified individual for a position
within the organization.

Pre-Examination Interview - That portion of a polygraph examination

during which information is obtained by the polygraphist from the
examinee regarding the facts and circumstances which from the basis
of the examination and from which the polygraphist develops
appropriate questions for the polygraph technique to be employed.

Psychogalvanic Skin Response - The recordable changes of body tissue

polarization (neural discharge), sweat gland activity or circulatory
variations which occur as the result of work, emotion or a combination
of either. In polygraphy, these changes are recorded on a polygraph
chart by a pen attached to a galvanometer driven by the variations
of electrical conductivity introduced into a Wheatstone Bridge by
the body tissues of an examinee.

Psychogalvanometer — a component that measured changes in a subject's

galvanic skin resistance during questioning, and in doing so, thus
signaling the birth of the polygraph as we know it today.

Psychological Set - The theory which holds that a person’s fears,

anxieties and apprehensions will be directed toward that situation
which presents the greatest immediate threat to his self-preservation
or general well-being; generally to the exclusion of all other less
threatening circumstances within his environment.

Psychosis - A form of sever personality disorder involving loss of

contact with reality, generally characterized by delusions and
hallucinations.

Question Spacing - The elapsed time (not less than 15 seconds) between
an answer given by an examinee and the following question asked by
the polygraphist during a polygraph test.

Receptors - Those specialized cells sensitive to incoming stimuli.

Reflex Action - The cumulative product of stimulus, receptor, afferent
nerve, connecting neuron, efferent nerve and effector action. A simple
reflex arc.

Refractory Period - That period of time in which a neuron is unable

to conduct an impulse.

Reid Polygraph - was the first instrument to use a movement sensor to

detect subject movement during the examination. Besides recording
blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR, this new polygraph
recorded muscular activity in the forearms, thighs, and feet thanks
to metal bellows placed under the arms and seat of the polygraph
chair.

Relevant Question - That question within a structured polygraph test

which pertains directly to the matter under investigation.

Irrelevant Question - is intended to be an innocuous, harmless

question, having no particular relationship to the issue being
resolved. and which can unequivocally be answered truthfully.

Primary Relevant Question - The key question regarding the direct

act of committing an offense.

Secondary Relevant Question - A question pertaining to pertinent

aspects of the issue. to which a guilty or knowledgeable person
would be expected to respond significantly.

Control Question - A question to which the examinee’s answer will

be a known lie or a probable lie. This question is similar in
nature but not related to the issue being resolved, and should
be of slightly less weight than the relevant questions.

Guilt Complex Question - A question about a fictitious incident

of individual. and of a similar nature and weight as the issue
being resolved.

Relevant/Irrelevant (R/I) questioning - a mixture of questions relevant

to the crime (for example, Do you own a knife?) and irrelevant questions
are asked (for example, Are you twenty years old?). The basis for this
type of questioning was that an innocent person has a similar physiological
response to both types of questions, but a guilty person would react
more strongly to the crime-relevant questions.
Residual Air - That volume of air which remains in the lungs after the
deepest possible exhalation.

Sacrifice Relevant Question - A question used in the Zone comparison

Test designed for the intended to dissipate initial tension
anticipated by an examinee in response to the target issue.

Searching Peak Of Tension Test - a polygraph test in which a series

of questions, usually similar in nature and scope, are asked and in
which the answer to only one of them may evoke a response from the
examinee.

Screening Examination - is one in which, without any specific

allegation, an individual is examined to verify his/her honesty,
integrity and conduct as an employee.

Specific Examination - is one in which there is one specific issue to

be resolved, ex. theft, burglary, robbery murder, etc.

Sensor - Any attachment made to the human body for the purpose of
measuring and/or recording a psychophysiological response during a
polygraph test.

Specific Response - A deviation from an examinee’s normal state of

homeostasia as evidenced by the tracings on a polygraph chart.
Consideration must be given to overall chart interpretation with
emphasis on the nature of the questions asked, the sequential
position of the question within the structure used and the manner in
which the question was presented to the examinee.

Sphygmomanometer - or blood pressure meter (also referred to as a

sphygmometer) is a device used to measure blood pressure, composed of
an inflatable cuff to restrict blood flow, and a mercury or mechanical
manometer to measure the pressure.

Spot Analysis Technique - A system of chart interpretation whereby

analysis of response capability may be made at each location on a
polygraph chart wherein a relevant question is either preceded by
or followed by a control question.

Super Dampening - The principle of psychological focus which holds

that if a person considers an outside issue to be a greater threat
to his well-being than the main relevant issue, and that if he
anticipates an unreviewed question concerning this outside issue,
he may tune out all relevant and control questions by forcing his
psychological set on the outside issue. The presence of an outside
issue usually results in poor responses or no responses.

Stimulation Test - Verifies for the examiner that the examinee is

testable. and aids in convincing the examinee that the polygraph
instrument works, and will work on him.

Suppression - An involuntary reduction in the amplitude of the

pneumograph and cardiograph tracings in response to a stressful
stimulus.

Sympathetic Nervous System - That part of the autonomic nervous

system which tends to depress secretion, decrease the tone and
contractibility of muscle not under direct voluntary control, and
cause the contraction of blood vessels.

Symptomatic Question - A question contained within a structured

question technique which is designed to identify the presence of
an outside issue upon which a person may be focusing during the
course of a polygraph examination.

Symptomatic Question - A question use to determine it some

outside issue is of such concern to the examinee that it
tends to damage expected responses to relevant questions.

Synapsis - The chemical junctions where nerve impulses pass from one
neuron to another.

System - A group of body organs which combine to form a whole and to

cooperate for the purpose of carrying on some vital function.

Test Technique - A valid and reliable question structure employed

by a qualified polygraphist for the purpose of verifying an
examinee’s statements or answers during a polygraph examination.
The sequential order in which questions are asked during a polygraph
examination. The foundation of expert opinion.

Thalamus - The middle part of the brain through which sensory

impulses pass to reach the cerebral cortex.

Tidal Volume - The volume of air moved in or out of the lungs with
each respiratory cycle.
Veraguth - was one of the first to make word-association tests with
the galvanometer.

Vittorio Benussi - an Italian Psychologist who in 1914 discovered a

method for calculating the quotient of the inhalation to exhalation
time as a means of verifying the truth and detecting deception in
a subject. Benussi measured and recorded breathing by means of an
instrument known as the Pneumograph. He concluded that lying caused
an emotional change within a subject that resulted in detectable
respiratory changes that were indicative of deception.

West Africa - persons suspected of a crime were made to hold and pass
a bird's egg to one another. The person breaking the egg was considered
guilty, based on the notion that his or her tremor-eliciting
nervousness was to blame.

Wheatstone Bridge - A specially devised electronic circuit for the

measurement of electrical resistance in a conductor. The conductor
of unknown resistance is included in the circuit with three known
resistances. when the unknown resistance (RX) is balanced with three
known resistances (R1, R2, R3) it can be calculated mathematically
since it becomes one term in a proportion.

William Moulton Marston - was an American psychologist and the creator

of the systolic blood pressure test, which became one component of
the modern polygraph invented by John Augustus Larson in Berkeley,
California.
- an American attorney and psychologist, is credited with
inventing an early form of the lie detector when, in 1915, he
developed the discontinuous systolic blood pressure test which would
later become one component of the modern polygraph.

Word Association Test - questions answerable by yes or no, concerned

with time of response. Quick answer, no relation to investigation.
Delayed answer, has relation to investigation.
Law Enforcement
Administration
Police Organization And
Administration
Industrial Security Management
Police Patrol Operations with
Police Communications System
Police Personnel and Records
 Management
Comparative Police System
Police Operational Planning
Police Intelligence

Administration of Police
Organization
Police - one of the pillars of the criminal justice system that has the specific responsibility of maintaining
law and order and combating crime within the society.
- comes from Latin "politia"-civil administration which itself derives from the ancient Greek police
"city"

Administration - an organizational process concerned with the implementation of objectives and plans
and internal operating efficiency.

Organization - a group of persons working together for a common goal or objectives.

Police Organization - a group of trained personnel in the field of public safety administration engaged in
the achievement of goals and objectives that promotes the maintenance of peace and order, protection of
life and property, enforcement of the laws and the prevention of crimes.

Enforcement - means to compel obedience to a law, regulation or command.

Law Enforcement Agency - pertains to an organization responsible for enforcing the laws.

Objectives - refer to the purpose by which the organization was created. Refer to the goals of the
organization.

Supervision - means the act of watching over the work or tasks of the members of the organization to
ensure that desired results are achieved.
Management - the process of directing and facilitating the work of people organized in formal groups in
order to achieve objectives. Judicious or wise use of resources (manpower, material,money,equipment,
supplies and time).

Hierarchy - represents the formal relationship among superiors and subordinates in any given
organization. Serves as the framework for the flow of authority downward and obedience upward, through
the department.

Authority - the right to command and control the behavior of employees in lower positions within an
organizational hierarchy. Must be viewed in terms of prescribed roles rather than of individuals.
A particular position within the organization. Carries the same regardless of who occupies that position.

Management/Administrative Functions
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Directing
4. Controlling
5. staffing
6. Reporting
7. Budgeting

Principles of efficient Management

* Division of work - work specialization can increase

efficiency with the same amount of effort.

* Authority and Responsibility- authority includes the

right to command and the power to require
obedience. One can not have authority without
responsibility.

* Discipline - necessary for an organization to function

effectively, however, the state of the disciplinary
process depends upon the quality of its leaders.

* Unity of Command - subordinate should receive

orders from one superior only.

* Scalar Chain - the hierarchy of authority is the order

of ranks from the highest to the lowest levels of the
organization. Shows the vertical hierarchy of the
organization which defines an unbroken chain of
units from top to bottom describing explicitly the
flow of authority.

Organizational Units in the Police Organization

1. Functional Units

Bureau - the largest organic functional unit within a

large department; comprised of several divisions.

Division - a primary subdivision of a bureau.

Section - functional unit within a division that is

necessary for specialization.

Unit - functional group within a section or the

smallest functional group within an organization.

2. Territorial Units

Post - a fixed point or location to which an officer is

assigned for duty.

Route - a length of streets designated for patrol

purpose, also called line beat.

Beat - an area designed for patrol purposes

whether foot or motorized.

Sector - an area containing two or more beat,

route or post.

District - a geographical subdivision of a city for

patrol purposes, usually with its own station.

Area - a section or territorial division of a large city

each comprised of designated districts.

EVOLUTION OF THE POLICING SYSTEM

ORIGIN OF THE WORD “POLICE”

POLITEIA – Greek word which means government of the city

POLITIA – Roman word which means condition of the state or government

POLICE – French word which was later adopted by the English language

THEORIES OF POLICE SERVICE

1. HOME RULE THEORY
 - policemen are regarded as servants of the community, who rely
for the efficiency of their functions upon the express needs of
the people.
- policemen are civil servants whose key duty is the
preservation of public peace and security.

2. CONTINENTAL THEORY
- policemen are regarded as state or servants of the
higher authorities
- the people have no share or have little participation
with the duties nor connection with the police
organization.

CONCEPTS OF POLICE SERVICE

1. OLD CONCEPT
- police service gives the impression of being merely a
suppressive machinery
- this philosophy advocates that the measurement of
police competence is the increasing number of arrests,
throwing offenders in detention facilities rather than
trying to prevent them from committing crimes
2. MODERN CONCEPT
- regards police as the first line of defense of the
criminal justice system, an organ of crime prevention
- police efficiency is measured by the decreasing number
of crimes
- broadens police activities to cater to social services
and has for its mission the welfare of the individual
as well as that of the community in general.

EARLY POLICING SYSTEM

1. KIN POLICING
- the family of the offended individual was expected to
assume responsibility for justice
- the family of the victim was allowed to exact
vengeance
2. EGYPT
- ancient rulers had elite unit to protect them
- created the MEDJAYS, a form of police force whose
duties include guarding of the tombs and apprehending
thieves
- introduced the use of dogs as guards and protectors.
3. ROME
- created the first organized police force called
 VIGILES OF ROME, or VIGILES URBANI (watchmen of the
city), which had the primary task of firefighting and
policing
- the Vigiles acted as night watch, apprehendinng
thieves, keeping an eye out for burglars and hunting
down runaway slaves, and were on occasion used to
maintain order in the streets
- the Vigiles dealt primarily with petty crimes and
looked for disturbances of the peace while they
patrolled the streets
- created a special unit called PRAETORIAN GUARDS, a
special force of guards used by Roman Emperors as the
Emperors' personal guards
- as personal guards of the Emperor, their primary duty
was to protect the Emperor from assassination and
other forms of attack against the Emperor.
4. ENGLAND
a) FRANKPLEDGE SYSTEM/MUTUAL PLEDGE SYSTEM
- required all males aged 12 and above to join a group
of nine to form a TYTHING
- members of the tything are called a TYTHINGMEN
- a CONSTABLE served as a leader of ten tythings
- the primary task of the things was to protect their
village from thieves and animals
- tythings were later organized into SHIRES
- a shire was headed by a leader called SHIRE REEVE,
which is the origin of the word “sheriff”
- their duty was to apprehend offenders
b) PARISH CONSTABLES
- a parish official charged with controlling crimes
- appointed to serve for one year
- duties included organizing watchmen to guard the
gates
- during trouble, the watchman would raise a “HUE AND
CRY”, a call to arms where the rest of the parish
would stop what they were doing and come to the aid
of the constable.

MODERN POLICING SYSTEM

1) ENGLAND
a. BOWSTREET RUNNERS - a group of men
organized to arrest offenders.
- organized by Henry Fielding, a magistrate in
London,in 1749 in London, England.
- the name was adopted from the name of the street
 where the office of Henry Fielding was located.
- when Henry Fielding retired as magistrate, he was
replaced by his blind brother, John Fielding
b. METROPOLITAN POLICE OF ACT 1829
- the law that created the first modern police force in
London England, called the Metropolitan Police
Service.
- this law was passed through the initiative of Sir
Robert Peel, a member of the Parliament
- the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police Service
is the Scotland Yard, now known as the New
Scotland Yard

SIR ROBERT PEEL - recognized as the father of modern policing system.

2. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

a. NEW YORK POLICE DEPARTMENT
- created in 1845 in New York, USA
- recognized as the first modern style police
department in the US.
- the largest police force in the world
- modeled after the Metropolitan Police Service of
London
b. BOSTON POLICE DEPARTMENT
- the oldest police department in the US
- the first night watch was established in Boston in
1631.
- formally founded in May, 1854.

AUGUST VOLLMER - recognized as the Father of Modern Law Enforcement for his contributions in
the development of the field of criminal justice in the US
- author of the book, Police Administration, which
served as the basic guide in the administration of the
police organization in the US
- was the first police chief of Berkeley, California.

Important Personalities in the Evolution of Philippine Policing

Brig.Gen. Rafael Crame - the first Filipino Chief of the Philippine Constabulary in 1917.

Col. Antonio Torres - the first Filipino Chief of Police of the Manila Police Department in 1935.

Col. Lambert Javalera - the first chief of police of the Manila Police Department after the Philippine
Independence from the United States of America in 1946

Dir.Gen. Cesar Nazareno - the first chief of the Philippine National Police.
HIGHLIGHTS OF RA 6975 – THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENT ACT OF
1990, RA 8551 – THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE REFORM AND REORGANIZATION
ACT OF
1998 and RA 9708

A. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR AND LOCAL

GOVERNMENT (DILG)
- formerly Department of Local Government (DLG)
- reorganized under RA 6975

ORGANIZATION: - consist of:

a) the Department proper
b) existing bureaus and offices of the DLG
c) local government units (LGU)
1) provincial governors
2) city and municipal mayors
d) the National Police Commission
e) the Philippine Public Safety College
f) Philippine National Police
g) Bureau of Fire Protection
h) Bureau of Jail Management and Penology

- the PPSC, PNP, BFP and BJMP were created under RA

6975
- headed by the Secretary to be appointed by the
President and who shall serve at the pleasure of the
President
- the Secretary shall be assisted by two (2)
Undersecretaries and three (3) Assistant Secretaries
a) Undersecretary for Local Government
b) Undersecretary for Peace and Order
- No retired or resigned military officer or police
official may be appointed as Secretary within one
(1) year from date of retirement or resignation
- the Secretary is also the ex officio chairman of the
National Police Commission

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE DILG

1. Assist the President in the exercise of general
supervision over local governments;
2. Advise the President in the promulgation of policies,
rules, regulations and other issuances on the general
supervision over local governments and on public
order and safety;
3. Establish and prescribe rules, regulations and other
issuance's implementing laws on public order and
safety, the general supervision over local
governments and the promotion of local autonomy
and community empowerment and monitor compliance
thereof;
4. Provide assistance towards legislation regarding local
governments, law enforcement and public safety;
Establish and prescribe plans, policies, programs and
projects to promote peace and order, ensure public
safety and further strengthen the administrative,
technical and fiscal capabilities of local government
offices and personnel;
5. Formulate plans, policies and programs which will meet
local emergencies arising from natural and man-made
disasters; Establish a system of coordination and
cooperation among the citizenry, local executives and
the Department, to ensure effective and efficient
delivery of basic services to the public;
6. Organize, train and equip primarily for the
performance of police functions, a police force that
is national in scope and civilian in character.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE DILG WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL DEFENSE (DND)

- under RA 6975, the Armed Forces of the Philippines
(AFP) was in charge with external security while the
DILG was in charge with internal security
- under RA 8551, the Armed Forces of the Philippines
is now in charge with both internal and external
security with the PNP as support through information
gathering and performance of ordinary police
functions.

NATIONAL POLICE COMMISSION

- an agency attached to the DILG for policy
coordination
- shall exercise administrative control and
operational supervision over the PNP.

VISION OF THE NAPOLCOM

"We envision the National Police Commission as a
highly dynamic, committed and responsive administering and
controlling body, actively and effectively facilitating the
evolvement of a highly professional, competent,
disciplined, credible and trustworthy PNP"
MISSION OF THE NAPOLCOM
"To administer and control the Philippine National
Police with the end in view of maintaining a highly
professional, competent, disciplined, credible and
trustworthy PNP”

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NAPOLCOM

A. Exercise administrative control and operational
supervision over the Philippine National Police (PNP)
which shall mean the power to:
1. Develop policies and promulgate a police manual
prescribing rules and regulations for efficient
organization, administration, and operation, including
criteria for manpower allocation distribution and
deployment, recruitment, selection, promotion, and
retirement of personnel and the conduct of qualifying
entrance and promotional examinations for
uniformed members;
2. Examine and audit, and thereafter establish
standards for such purposes on a continuing basis,
the performance,activities, and facilities of all police
agencies throughout the country;
3. Establish a system of uniform crime reporting;
4. Conduct annual self-report surveys and compile
statistical data for accurate assessment of the crime
situation and the proper evaluation of the efficiency
and effectiveness of all police units in the country;
5. Approve or modify plans and programs on education
and training, logistical requirements, communications,
records,information systems, crime laboratory, crime
prevention and crime reporting;
6. Affirm, reverse or modify, through the National
Appellate Board, personnel administrative actions
involving the demotion or dismissal from the service
imposed upon members of the Philippine National
Police by the Chief of the Philippine National Police;
7. Exercise appellate jurisdiction through the Regional
Appellate Boards, over administrative cases against
policemen and over decisions on claims for police
benefits;
8. Prescribe minimum standards for arms, equipment,
and uniforms and, after consultation with the
Philippine Heraldry Commission, for insignia of ranks,
awards, medals of honor;
9. Issue subpoena and subpoena duces tecum in
matters pertaining to the discharge of its own
 powers and duties,and designate who among its
personnel can issue processes and administer oaths
in connection therewith;
10. Inspect and assess the compliance of the PNP on
the established criteria for manpower allocation,
distribution and deployment and their impact on the
community and the crime situation, and thereafter
formulate appropriate guidelines for maximization of
resources and effective utilization of the PNP
personnel;

11. Monitor the performance of the local chief

executives as deputies of the Commission; and
12. Monitor and investigate police anomalies and
irregularities.

B. Advise the President on all matters involving police

functions and administration;

C. Render to the President and to Congress an annual

report of its activities and accomplishments during the
thirty (30)days after the end of the calendar year,
which shall include an appraisal of the conditions
obtaining in the organization and administration of
police agencies in the municipalities, cities and
provinces throughout the country, and
recommendations for appropriate remedial
legislations;

D. Recommend to the President, through the Secretary,

within sixty (60) days before the commencement of
each calendar year, a crime prevention program; and

E. Perform such other functions necessary to carry out

the provisions of R.A. 6975, as amended, other
existing laws and Presidential issuance's, and as the
President may direct.

COMPOSITION OF NAPOLCOM
1. One chairperson
2. Four regular commissioner
3. The Chief PNP as ex officio member
Note:
* shall serve a term of office of six (6) years
without reappointment or extension
* three of the four regular commissioners shall come
 from civilian sector and not former members of the
police or military
* the fourth regular commissioner shall come from the
law enforcement sector either active or retired
* at least one (1) of the four regular commissioners
shall be a woman
* from among the three regular commissioners from
the civilian sector, the Vice Chairperson shall be
chosen
* the Vice Chairperson shall act as the Executive
Officer of the Commission
* refer to the organizational structure of the
NAPOLCOM

Important dates in the history of modern Philippine Policing

 1901 - ACT no. 175 of the Philippine Commission established the Philippine constabulary on
august 8, 1901.
 1905 - the Philippine constabulary school was established at the sta.lucia barracks in Intramuros
on February 17, 1905.
 1908 - the Philippine constabulary school was transferred to Baguio City.
 1916 - the Philippine constabulary school was renamed academy for officers of the Philippine
constabulary.
 1917 - on December 17, 1917, Brigadier General Rafael Crame from Rizal Province, became the
first Filipino chief of the Philippine constabulary.
 1926 - the academy for officers of the Philippine constabulary was renamed Philippine
Constabulary Academy.
 1936 - the Philippine Constabulary Academy became the present day Philippine Military
Academy.
 1938 - The Philippine Constabulary became the existing and organized national police force of the
country pursuant to commonwealth act no. 343 dated June 23, 1938 and EO no. 389 dated
December 23, 1950. This decree integrated local police forces into the Philippines constabulary
operational and organizational set up.
 1966 - congress enacted RA no. 4864, the police act of 1966. This law also created the Police
Commission (POLCOM).
 1972 - The POLCOM was reorganized as the National Police Commission.
 1975 - PD 765 was enacted. This law is called the Police Integration Law of 1975. The Integrated
National Police was established with the Philippine Constabulary as nucleus under the Department
of national Defense. The NAPOLCOM, originally under the office of the President was transferred
to the Ministry of National defense.
 1985 - The National Police Commission was returned to the office of the President pursuant to E.O
1040.
 1989 - Executive order 379 placed the Integrated national Police directly under the command,
supervision and control of the President. This order vested the NAPOLCOM with the powers of
administrative control and supervision over the Integrated National Police.
  1990 - RA 6975 was passed on December 13, 1990 establishing the Philippine National Police
under a reorganized Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG). A new National
Police Commission was created under the DILG.
 1998 - congress passed into law RA no. 8551 on February 25, 1998, otherwise known as the
Philippine National Police reform and reorganization act of 1998. This act strengthened and
expanded NAPOLCOM,s authority over the PNP to include administration of police entrance
examination and conduct pre-charge investigation against police anomalies and irregularities and
summary dismissal of erring police members.

FUNCTIONS IN A POLICE ORGANIZATION

1. PRIMARY OR LINE FUNCTIONS

- functions that carry out the major purposes of the
organization, delivering the services and dealing
directly with the public
- the backbone of the police department
- examples of the line functions of the police are
patrolling, traffic duties, crime investigation

2. STAFF/ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS
- functions that are designed to support the line
functions and assist in the performance of the line
functions
- examples of the staff functions of the police are
planning, research, budgeting and legal advice

3. AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS
- functions involving the logistical operations of the
organization
- examples are training, communication, maintenance,
records management, supplies and equipment management

ORGANIC UNITS IN A POLICE ORGANIZATION

1. OPERATIONAL UNITS
- those that perform primary or line functions
- examples are patrol, traffic, investigation and vice
control,
2. ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS
- those that perform the administrative functions
examples are personnel, finance, planning and
training.
3. SERVICE UNITS
- those that perform auxiliary functions
- examples are communication, records
 management,supplies.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
- the systematic arrangement of the relationship of the members, positions,departments and
functions or work of the organization
- it is comprised of functions, relationships,
responsibilities and authorities of individuals within
the organization

KINDS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES

1. LINE
- the oldest and simplest kind; also called military
- defined by its clear chain of command from the
highest to the lowest and vice versa
- depicts the line functions of the organization
- orders or commands must come from the higher l
level of authority before it can be carried out
- involves few departments

2. FUNCTIONAL
- structure according to functions and specialized units
- depicts staff functions of the organization
- responsibilities are divided among authorities who
are all accountable to the authority above.

3. LINE AND STAFF

- a combination of the line and functional kind
- combines the flow of information from the line
structure with the staff departments that service,
advise, and support them
- generally more formal in nature and has many
departments

ORGANIZATIONAL PRINCIPLES

FOUR PRIMAL CONDITIONS OF AN ORGANIZATION

1. AUTHORITY
- the supreme source of government for any
particular organization
- the right to exercise, to decide and to command
by virtue of rank and position
2. MUTUAL COOPERATION
- an organization exists because it serves a
purpose.
3. DOCTRINE
- provides for the organization’s objectives
- provides the various actions, hence, policies,
procedures, rules and regulations of the org.
are based on the statement of doctrines
4. DISCIPLINE
- comprising behavioral regulations

ELEMENTS OF POLICE ORGANIZATION

1. UNITY OF COMMAND
- dictates that there should only be ONE MAN commanding
the unit to ensure uniformity in the execution of
orders

2. SPAN OF CONTROL
- the maximum number of subordinates that a superior can effectively supervise

Factors affecting the span of control:

a) Leadership qualities of the supervisors
b) Nature of the job and work conditions
c) Complexity of task
d) Education and skill of the employees

3. DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
- conferring of an amount of authority by a superior
position to a lower-level position.

4. HIERARCHY OF AUTHORITY
- the relationship between superiors and
subordinates
- serves as the framework for the flow of authority
downward and obedience upward through the
department

HIERARCHY - represents the formal relationship

among superiors and subordinates in any given
organization

5. SPECIALIZATION
- the assignment of particular personnel to particular tasks

SPECIALIZATION OF JOBS (AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION)

- the designation of certain activities or tasks as
ones that must be performed in a highly.
technological,scientific or precise manner
- areas of police specialization include undercover
works, crime scene operations, legal advising,
 computer work, SWAT operations and others

SPECIALIZATION OF PEOPLE (SPECIALISTS)

- the designation of particular persons as having
expertise in a specific area of work
- signifies the adaptation of an individual to the
requirements through extensive training

6. CHAIN OF COMMAND
- the arrangement of officers from top to bottom
on the basis of rank or position and authority.

7. COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY
- dictates that immediate commanders shall be
responsible for the effective supervision and
control.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINE POLICING SYSTEM

The institution of police in the Philippines formally

started during the Spanish period. The establishment of
the police force was not entirely intended for crime
prevention nor peacekeeping. Rather, it was created as an
extension of the colonial military establishment.

Ancient Roots

The forerunner of the contemporary police system was the practice of barangay chieftains to select
able-bodied young men to protect their barangay
during the night and were not required to work
in the fields during daytime.Among the duties of
those selected were to protect the properties
of the people in the barangay and protect their
crops and livestock from wild animals.

Spanish Period

Carabineros de Seguridad Publica – organized in 1712 for the purpose of carrying the regulations
of the Department of State; this was armed
and considered as the mounted police; years after, this kind of police organization discharged the duties of
a port, harbor and river police.

Guardrilleros/Cuardillo – this was a body of rural police by the Royal Decree of 18 January 1836, this
decree provided that 5% of the
able-bodied male inhabitants of each province were to be enlisted in this police organization for
three years
Guardia Civil – this was created by a Royal Decree issued by the Crown on 12 February 1852
to partially relieve the Spanish Peninsular troops of
their work in policing towns,it consisted of a body
of Filipino policemen organized originally in each
of the provincial capitals of the central provinces
of Luzon under the Alcalde Mayor

American Period

The Americans established the United States Philippine

Commission headed by General Howard Taft as its first
governor-general. On January 9, 1901, the Metropolitan
Police Force of Manila was organized pursuant to Act No 70of the Taft Commission. This has become the
basis for the
celebration of the anniversary of the Manila’s Finest every January 9th.

ACT NO 175 – entitled “An Act Providing for the

Organization and Government of an Insular Constabulary”,enacted on July 18, 1901.

Henry T. Allen - Captain of the 6th US cavalry, a graduate of West Point class 1882. Father of the
Philippine Constabulary.The first chief of the Philippine Constabulary in 1901.

ACT NO 183 - created the Manila Police Department, enacted on July 31, 1901.

CAPT GEORGE CURRY - the first chief of police

of the Manila Police Department in 1901.

Act No 255 – the act that renamed the Insular Constabulary into Philippine Constabulary,
enacted on October 3, 1901

Executive Order 389 – ordered that the Philippine Constabulary be one of the four services
of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, enacted on
December 23, 1940.

Post-American Period

RA 4864 – otherwise known as the Police Professionalization Act of 1966, enacted on September 8, 1966;
created the Police Commission
(POLCOM) as a supervisory agency to oversee the
training and professionalization of the local
police forces under the Office of the President; later POLCOM was renamed into National Police
Commission (NAPOLCOM).

Martial Law Period

PD 765 – otherwise known as the Integration Act of 1975,enacted on August 8, 1975;
established the Integrated National Police (INP)
composed of the Philippine Constabulary (PC)
as the nucleus and the integrated local police forces
as components, under the Ministry of National
Defense
- transferred the NAPOLCOM from the Office of the
President to the Ministry of National Defense

Post Martial Law Regime

Executive Order No 1012 – transferred to the city and municipal government the operational
supervision and direction over all INP units assigned within their locality; issued on July 10, 1985

Executive Order No 1040 – transferred the administrative control and supervision of the INP
from the Ministry of National Defense to the National Police Commission

RA 6975 – otherwise known as the Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990,
enacted on December 13,1990; reorganized the
DILG and established the Philippine National Police,
Bureau of Fire Protection, Bureau of Jail
Management and Penology and the Philippine Public Safety College.

RA 8551 – otherwise known as the Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization Act
of 1998, enacted on February 25, 1998; this law
amended certain provisions of RA 6975.

RA 9708 - law amending the provisions of RA 6975 and RA 8551 on the minimum educational
qualification for appointment to the PNP and
adjusting the promotion system; approved on 12 August 2009.
- An Act extending for five (5) years the reglementary period for complying with the minimum
educational qualification for appointment to the PNP and adjusting the promotion system
thereof,amending for the purpose pertinent provisions of RA 6975 and RA 8551 and for other purposes.
Police Operational Planning
Police Operational Planning
Police Operational Planning - the act of determining policies and guidelines for police activities and
operations and providing controls and safeguards for such activities and operations in the department.
Involves strategies or tactics, procedures, policies or guidelines.

Operational Planning - the use of rational design or patten for alldepartmental undertakings rather than
relying on chance in an operationalenvironment. The preparation and development of procedures and
techniques in accomplishing each of the primary tasks and functions of an organization.

Police Planning - an attempt by police administrators in trying to allocate anticipated resources to meet
anticipated service demands. The systematic and orderly determination of facts and events as basis for
policy formulation and decision making affecting law enforcement management.

Planning - the determination in advance of how the objectives of the organization will be attained;
involves the determination of a course of action to take in performing a particular function or activity. The
process of developing methods or procedures or an arrangement of parts intended to facilitate the
accomplishment of a definite objective. The process of deciding in advance what is to be done and how it
is to be done.

Plan - an organized schedule or sequence by methodical activities intendedto attain a goal or objectives
for the accomplishment of mission or assignment. A method or way of doing something in order to attain
objectives and provides answers to the 5Ws and 1H.

Strategy - a broad design or method or a plan to attain a stated goal or objective.

Tactics - are specific design, method or a course of action to attain a particular objective in consonance
with strategy.
Procedures - are sequences of activities to reach a point or to attain what is desired.

Policy - a course of action which could be a program of

actions adopted by an individual, group, organization or government or the set of principles on which
they are based.

 case operational plan (COPLAN) - a definite target - specific activity conducted in relation to an
intelligence project under which it is affected. Several case operations may fall under one
intelligence project.- refers to a preparatory plan on how to carry out a case operation which is the
last resort to pursue intelligence objectives when normal police operations fail.

 command post/holding area - area where case conferences, briefings and debriefings are being
conducted by the responding agencies.
 dragnet operation - is a police operation purposely to seal off the probable exit points of fleeing
suspect from the crime scene to prevent their escape.

Management or Administrative Functions

1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Directing
4. Controlling
5. Staffing
6. Reporting
7. Budgeting

Guidelines in Planning
1. What - mission/objective
2. Why - reason/philosophy
3. When - date/time
4. where - place
5. How - strategy/methods

Characteristics of a Good Plan

1. A Plan must have a clearly defined objective
2. A Plan must be simple, direct and clear
3. A Plan must be flexible
4. A Plan must be attainable
5. A Plan must provide standards of operation
6. A Plan must be economical in terms of resources
needed for implementation.

Types of Plan
1. Procedural/Policy Plan
2. Operational Plan
3. Tactical Plan
 4. Administrative/Management Plan
5. Extra-Departmental Plan

Police Intelligence Reviewer

Accuracy of Information
1 - Confirmed By Other Sources
2 - Probably True
3 - Possibly True
4 - Doubtfully True
5 - Improbable
6 - Truth Can Not Be Judged

Alexander The Great - A Greek Conqueror, was able to identify those

who are disloyal to him by ordering the opening of communication
letter of his men and was successful in uplifting the esprit de corps
and morale of his men.

ASIS - Australian Secret Intelligence Service - Primary responsibility

is gathering intelligence from mainly Asian and Pacific interest
using agents stationed in wide variety of areas. Its main purpose like
other most agencies is to protect the country's political and
economic interest and ensure the safety of its citizens against
national threats.

Bundesnachrichtendienst - BND, Federal Intelligence Service, is the

foreign intelligence agency of the German government, the BND act as
the early warning system to alert the German government against
threats to its interest coming from abroad.

Categories of Intelligence
1. National Intelligence - integrated product of intelligence
developed by all government departments concerning the broad
aspect of national policy and national security.
2. Departmental Intelligence - the intelligence required by the
department or agencies of the government to execute iys mission
and discharge its responsibilities.
3. Military Intelligence - refers to the knowledge by the military
institution essential in the preparation and execution of military
plans, policies and programs.

CIA - Central Intelligence Agency, is the civilian intelligence agency

of the USA. It is the largest intelligence agency in the world.

Classifications of Documents
1. Top Secret - calls for the utmost degree of protection, Unauthorized
revelation of this materials and information will cause extremely
severe damage to the nation, politically, economically, or
militarily.
2. Secret - unauthorized disclosure of this documents or things may
put at risk the national security, cause serious injury to the
reputation of the nation.
3. Confidential - Unauthorized revelation of which may be injurious
to the reputation of the nation or governmental activity or will
cause administrative humiliation or unnecessary injury.
4. Restricted - this are information which should not be published
or communicated to anyone except for official purposes. These
records are daily files, routine in nature even if lost or
destroyed will not affect operation or administration.

Classification of Sources of Information

1. Open Sources - 99% of the information collected are coming from
open sources or obtained from overt operation.
2. Close Sources - only 1% of information are obtained from covert
operation.
 Elements of Clandestine Operation
1. Sponsor - directs the organization conducting the clandestine
activity.
2. Target - person, place or things against which the
clandestine activity is to be conducted.
3. Agent - refers to a person who conducts the clandestine
operations, includes principal agents, action agents,
and support agents.

Principal Agent - leader or management agent in clandestine

operation usually undertaken by the case officer.

Action Agent - one who conducts the clandestine operation

that includes:
a. Espionage Agent - agent who clandestinely procure or
collect information.

b. Propagandist - agents who molds the attitudes, opinions

and actions of an individual group or nation.

Support Agent - agent who is engaged in activities which

supports the clandestine operations that includes the ff:
a. Surveillant - agent who observes persons and places
of operation of interest.
b. Investigator - agent who undertakes to procure
information or things of clandestine operation.

Procurer of Funds - agent who obtains money when needed

for operational use.

Safe House Keeper - agents who manages and maintains a safe

house for clandestine operations like meetings, safe heavens,
training, briefing and debriefing.

Communication Agent - agent who is detailed to secure

clandestine communications.

Coding - the changing of message from plain clear text to unintelligible

form, also known as encrypting.

Decoding - transforming of coded message into plain text, also

known as decrypting.

Counter Intelligence - phase of intelligence covering the activity

devoted in destroying the effectiveness of hostile foreign activities
and the protection of information against espionage, subversion and
sabotage.

Types of Counter Intelligence

1. Passive CI Measures - protection of classified and sensitive
information against unauthorized access through secrecy,
communication security and other safeguards.
2. Active CI Measures - are those measures which seek actively
to block enemies effort to gain information or engage in
espionage, subversion and sabotage.

Categories of Counter Intelligence Operations

1. Military Security - it encompasses the measures taken by a
command to protect itself against espionage, enemy operation,
sabotage, subversion, or surprise.
2. Port Boundary and Travel Security - application of both
military and civil security measures for counter-intelligence
control at point of entry and departure, international borders
and boundaries.
3. Civil Security - active and passive counter-intelligence
measures affecting the non-military nationals permanently
or temporarily residing in an area under military
jurisdiction.
4. Special Operations - counter subversion, sabotage and espionage.

Objectives of Counter-Intelligence
1. It denies information to the enemy
2. It reduces the risk of a command
3. Aid in achieving surprises
4. Increases the security of the command
5. Decrease the ability of the enemy to create information
about he forces.

Functions/Activities of Counter-Intelligence
1. Protection of Information against espionage
2. Protection of personnel against subversion
3. Protection of installations and materials against sabotage

Cryptography - arts and science of codes and ciphers.

Crypto Analyst - refers to those persons who break intercepted codes.

Cryptographer - refers to a person who is highly skilled in converting

message from clear to unintelligible forms by use of codes and ciphers.

Delilah - a biblical personality, she was able to gain information

by using her beauty and charm, she was responsible for the fall of
Samson, a known Israelite leader and enemy of the Philistines.

Frederick The Great - Father of organized military espionage.

FSD - Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, is the main

domestic security agency of the Russian Federation, and the main
successor of the Cheka, NKVD and the KGB.

General Directorate For External Security - France external

intelligence agency, operating under the direction of the french
Ministry of Defense.

Informants - any person who hand over information to the agents which
is relevant to the subject.

Type of Informants
1. Anonymous - unidentified or unknown informants.
2. False Informant - reveals information of no consequences
or value.
3. Frightened Informants - weakest link in criminal chain,
motivated by anxiety.
4. Self-Aggrandizing - moves around the the center of criminals
delight in surprising the police about bits of information.
5. Mercenary - information for sale, needed something for exchange
of information.
6. Double Crosser - wants to get more information from the police
more than what he gives.
7. Women Informant - most dangerous type of informant.
8. Legitimate - operators of business.

Motives of Informants
1. Vanity - conceited act/character of the criminal resulting to
self betrayal or tantamount to guilt, gaining favorable
attention and importance by the police.
2. Civic-Mindedness - sense of duty and obligation to assist
the police.
3. Fear - a person under an illusion of oppression by enemies or
of other impending danger.
4. Repentance - one who has a change of heart and wishes to
report a crime that is preying on his conscience.
 5. Gratitude or Gain - an expression of appreciation to obtain
a privilege or an interest in the welfare of his family
during his detention.
6. Revenge - to settle a grudge due to settle a previous injury.
7. Jealousy - envious of the accomplishments or possessions of
another and wishes to humiliate him.
8. Remuneration - a person who informs solely for the pecuniary
or other material gain he is to receive.

Informers - refers to any person who provides information to the agents

in a regular basis regarding a subject, they are paid either on a
regular or case to case basis.

Intelligence - the organized effort to collect information, to assist

it Little by little, and piece it together until it forms larger and
clear pattern. (intelligence as an activity)
- the end product resulting from the collection,
evaluation, analysis, integration and interpretation of all
available information which may have immediate or potential
significance to the development and execution of plan, policies and
programs of the user.(intelligence as a product)
- an institution composed of person who prepares a plan
or formulating policies.(intelligence as an institution)

Intelligence Cycle
1. Planning
2. Collection
3. Processing
4. Dissemination

Planning - the intelligence officer must have a thorough

knowledge of the available sources of information, the
collecting agencies and type of information the latter can
provide.

Collection - the intelligence officer must have thorough

knowledge of the available sources of information and
collecting agencies and the type of information they can
provide and consider the following:
a. Determine collecting agency
b. Send orders or request
c. Supervise collection efforts
d. Use tools or techniques in collection
e. Ensure timely collection
 Factors in Choosing Collection Agents
a. Capability - agents placement or access to target
b. Multiplicity - more agents
c. Balance

Processing - Five Steps

1. Recording - is the reduction of information in writing
or other form of graphical representation and
arranging the information into groups of related items.
2. Evaluation - is the determination of the pertinence of the
information to the operation, reliability of the source or
agency and the accuracy of the information.
Pertinence - does it holds some value to current
operation.
Reliability - judging the source of information or
agency
Credibility - truth of information
3. Analysis - is the stage in which the collected information
is subjected to review in order to satisfy significant facts
and derive conclusions there from.
4. Integration - the combination of the elements isolated
analysis with other known information related to the
operation.
5. Interpretation - process of determining the significance of
new information and its meaning.

Dissemination - processed information or intelligence data are

disseminated to end users, common methods of disseminating intel
data are conferences, briefing and person to person exchanges.
In this process, consider the factors of timeliness, correctness
and security.

ISI - Inter-Services Intelligence, Pakistan's premier intelligence

agency. It was established in 1948. Its office is located in Islamabad.

Julius Caesar - in his time, the staff of each legion includes ten
speculators who served as an information collecting agency. The
Speculators were the first intelligence personnel to appear in a
military organization. Military success of the Romans was aided by
the communication system. Made use of pigeons as carrier which made
intelligence transmittal very fast.
Karl Schulmeister - known as Napoleon's Eye, he was credited for
establishing counter-intelligence against spies. He is a master of
deceit who used black mail to obtain vital information to identify
the enemy's of Napoleon.

Kinds of Covert Operation

1. Surveillance - is the covert, discreet observation of people and
places for the purpose of obtaining information concerning the
identities or activities of subjects.

Surveillant - is the plainclothes investigator assigned to

make the observation.

Subject - can be a person, place, property and vehicle,

group of people, organization, or object.

Safe house - refers to place where agents meet each other

for purposes of debriefing and reporting.

Live Drop - refers to a place where agents or informants

leave their messages to the other agents.

Decoy - a person or object used by the subject in an attempt

to elude the surveillant.
Convoy - an associate of the subject who follows him to
detect surveillance.

Log - chronological records of activities that took place

in the establishment under surveillance.

Methods of Surveillance
1. Stationary Surveillance - also referred to as Fixed or
Stakeout Surveillance - is used when you know or suspect
that a person is at or will come to a known location, when
you suspect that stolen goods are to be dropped or when
informants have told you that a crime is going to be
committed.

2. Moving Surveillance/Shadowing/Tailing - simply the act

of following a person.

Forms of Shadowing/Tailing
1. Loose Tail - employed where a general impression
of the subject's habits and associates is required.
 2. Rough Shadowing - employed without special
precautions, subject maybe aware of the surveillance,
employed also when the subject is a material
witness and must be protected from harm or other
undesirable influences.

3. Close Tail - extreme precautions are taken against

losing the subject is employed where constant
surveillance is necessary.

2. Casing - it is the careful inspection of a place to determine

its suitability for a particular operational purpose.

3. Elicitation - the process of extracting information from a person

believe to be in possession of vital information without his
knowledge or suspicion.

4. Employment of Technical Means

Bugging - the use of an equipment or tool to listen and

record discreetly conversation of other people.

Wiretapping - a method of collecting information through

interception of telephone conversation.

5. Tactical Interrogation - it is the process or method of obtaining

information from a captured enemy who is reluctant to divulge
information.

6. Observation and Description - it is a method of collecting

information by just merely using the different senses.

Methods and Techniques of Collecting Information

Information - all evaluated materials of every description

including those derived from observation, reports, rumors,
imagery and other sources from which intelligence is produced.

Types of Agents Used in Collecting Information

1. Agent of Influence - agent who uses authority to gain
information.
2. Agent in Place - agent who has been recruited within a highly
sensitive target
 3. Penetration Agent - agent who have reached the enemy, gather
information and able to get back without being caught.
4. Expendable Agent - agent who leaks false information to the
enemy.
5. Double Agent - an enemy agent who has been taken into custody
turned around and sent back where he came from as an agent
of his captors.

MI6 - Secret Intelligence Service, supplies the British government

of foreign intelligence.

MSS - Ministry of State Security, is the security agency of the

Peoples Republic of China.

Mole - also known as sleeper agent. Tasked with monitoring an

organization or individual. A mole can spend years in the same place
only responding to missions when assigned. They are trained to be
visible but to keep their motives unknown.

Mossad - Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations, is

responsible for the intelligence collection and covert operation of
the Israel government, Its Director reports directly to the
Israel Prime Minister. It is one of the entities of the Israeli
intelligence community along with AMAN (Military Intelligence) and
SHIN BET (Internal Security)

Moses - sent 12 scouts to the land of Canaan to survey the land,

the people, their location and the nature of their cities.

NICA - National Intelligence Coordinating Agency, the primary

intelligence gathering arm of the Philippines. Its motto is
Knowledge is Safety. It is headed by a Director General and is
assisted by a Deputy Director General. The Director General reports
directly to the President of the Philippines.

EO 492 issued on February 1, 2006, ordered the NICA to activate

the National Maritime Aerial Reconnaissance and Surveillance
Center or NMARSC. The NMARSC shall serve as the primary intel
provider for the Philippine intelligence community. Under the
supervision and oversight of the National Security Adviser, the
NICA-NMARSC will operate unmanned aerial vehicles or UAV's to
cater to the imagery intelligence demands of various government
agencies.
Police Intelligence - the end product resulting from the collection,
evaluation, analysis, integration and interpretation of all available
information regarding the activities of criminals and other law
violators for the purpose of effecting their arrest, obtaining evidence
and prevent plan to commit crimes.

Categories of Police Intelligence

1. Strategic Intelligence - knowledge pertaining to the
capabilities and vulnerabilities of a foreign nation which
is required by the national planners for the formulation
of an adequate national defense. Intelligence is for long
range.
2. Counter-Intelligence - preparation and execution of plans
and programs to neutralize or prevent any activities
undesirable to the police organization.
3. Line or Tactical Intelligence - intelligence information
directly contributes to the accomplishment of specific
objectives and immediate in nature and necessary for more
effective police planning and operation.

Components of Strategic Intelligence

1. Political Intelligence - deals with domestic and foreign
affairs and relations of government operations.
2. Economic Intelligence - deals with the extent and utilization
of natural and human resources to the industrial potential
of the nation.
3. Transportation and Telecommunication intelligence - concerned
with the operations and facilities of the military and
civilians.

Functional Classification of Police Intelligence

1. Criminal Intelligence - refers to the knowledge essential
to the prevention of crimes and the investigation, arrest
and prosecution of criminal offenders.
2. Internal Security Intelligence - refers to the knowledge
essential to the maintenance of peace and order.
3. Public Safety Intelligence - refers to the knowledge
essential to ensure the protection of lives and properties.

Principles of Intelligence
1. Intelligence and Operation are interdependent
2. Intelligence is continuous
3. Intelligence must be useful
4. Intelligence operation requires imagination and foresight
5. intelligence must be available on time
6. Intelligence must be flexible
7. Intelligence requires continuous security measures

RAW - Research and Analysis Wing is India's external intelligence

agency. Its primary function is collection of external intelligence,
counter-terrorism and covert operations.

Reliability of Information
A - Completely Reliable
B - Usually Reliable
C - Fairly Reliable
D - Not Usually Reliable
E - Unreliable
F - Reliability Can Not Be Judge

Security Clearance - is a certification by a responsible authority

that the person described is clear to access and classify matters
at appropriate levels.

Interim Clearance - effective for 2 years.

Final Clearance - effective for 5 years.

Security Measures and Operations in Relation To Intelligence

1. Physical Security - the broadest type of security that is concerned
with the physical measures designed to safeguard personnel and
prevent unauthorized access to equipment, facilities, materials,
documents and to protect them from espionage, sabotage, damage,
or theft.
2. Communication Security - the protection resulting from the
application of various measures which prevent or delay the enemy
or unauthorized person in gaining information through communication.
This includes transmission, cryptographic and physical security.
3. Documentary Security - protection of documents, classified matters
and vital records from loss, access to unauthorized persons, damage,
theft and compromise through proper storage and procedure.
4. Personnel security - the sum total procedures followed, inquiries
conducted and criteria applied to determine the work suitable to
a particular applicant or the retention or transfer of a
particular employee.

Personnel Security Investigation - is an inquiry into the

character, reputation, discretion, integrity, morals and
loyalty of an individual in order to determine a person's
 suitability for appointment and access to classified matters.

Types of PSI
1. Local Agency Check - refers to the investigation of the
records and files of agency in the area of principal
residence of the individual being investigated: Mayor,
Police, Fiscal where the individual is a resident.
2. National Agency Check - it consist of LAC supplemented by
investigation of the records and files of the following
agencies: PNP. ISAFP, NBI, CSC, Bureau of Immigration
and other agencies.
3. Background Investigation - a check made on an individual
usually seeking employment through subject's records in
the police files, educational institutions, place of
residence and former employers.

Complete Background Investigation - a type of BI which

is more comprehensive, it consist of detailed information
regarding the subject.

Partial Background Investigation - investigation of the

background of an individual but limited only to some of
the circumstances.

Sun Tzu - author of the art of war.

Undercover Operation - also called Roping - is disguising one's

own identity or using an assumed identity for the purpose of
gaining the trust of an individual or organization to learn secret
information or to gain the trust of targeted individuals in order
to gain information or evidence.

Cover - it refers to the changing, forging, or falsifying agent's

real personality including but not limited to things, location,
job and others that will be used in undercover assignments.

Types of Cover
1. Artificial -altering the background that will correspond
to theh operation.
2. Multiple - includes different cover
3. Natural - actual or true background

Hazards of Undercover Operations

1. Reintegration back to normal duty
 2. Maintenance of identity

Uses and Types of Undercover Assignment

1. Residential Assignment - it is related to the neighborhood
of the subject, where the agent will live as a new resident
without making any suspicion. His mission is to make friends
within its neighborhood and gather information regarding
the subject and possibly getting closer to the subject.
2. Social Assignment - the agent will gain access to the subject
by going to the different hangout places of the subject and
gather information like knowing how to drink socially
without getting drunk.
3. Work Assignment - the agent will be employed where the subject
work to acquire information. The agent must know his work and
focus his mind set and habit to his work assignment
4. Subversive Organization - this is the most dangerous of all
the undercover assignment, the agent will join the organization
of the subject itself, he must know the ideologies of the
group and the actions while inside should conform to the
organization to avoid any suspicion.

Intelligence and Secret Service

Definition of Terms:

Intelligence Agency - is a government agency responsible for the collection,analysis or exploitation of

information and intelligence in support of law enforcement,national security,defense and foreign policy
objectives.

Intelligence Officer - is a person employed by an organization to collect,compile and analyze information

which is used to that organization.

Counter Intelligence - refers to effort made by intelligence organizations to prevent hostile or enemy
intelligence organization from successfully gathering and collecting intelligence against them.

Human Intelligence - category of intelligence derived from information collected and provided by human
sources.
Dead Drop/Dead Letter Box - is a method of espionage trade craft used to pass items between 2 individuals
using a secret location and thus not require to meet directly.

Live Drop - 2 persons meet to exchange items or information.

Dead Drop Spike - is a concealment device used to hide money,maps,documents,microfilm and other items.

Cut-Out - is a mutually trusted intermediary,method or channel of communication,facilitating the exchange

of information between agents.

Espionage/Spying - involves a government or individual obtaining information that is considered secret of

confidential without the permission of the holder of the information.

Agent Handling - is the management of agents,principal agents and agent networks by intelligence officers
typically known as case officers.

Case Officer - is an intelligence officer who is trained specialist in the management of agents and agent
network.

Agent - acts on behalf of another whether individual,organization or foreign government, works under the
direction of a principal agent or case officer.

Cryptography - is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third
parties called adversaries.

Eaves Dropping - Is the act of secretly listening to the private conversation of others without their consent.

Propaganda - is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward
some cause or position.

Flip - apprehended criminals who turn informants.

Snitches - jail house informants.

Means of Information Gathering

1.Overt
2.Covert

Intelligence Cycle - is the process of developing unrefined data into polished intelligence for the use of
policy makers.
1. Direction - intelligence requirements are
determined by a decision maker to meet his/her
objective.
2. Collection - is the gathering of raw information
based on requirements.
3. Processing - converting the vast amount of
 information collected into a form usable by
analyst.
4. Analysis - conversion of raw information into
intelligence. It includes:
(1) integrating
(2) evaluating
(3) analyzing data and preparing intelligence
product.
5. Dissemination - is the distribution of raw or
finished intelligence to the consumer whose needs
initiated the intelligence requirement.
6. Feedback - is received from the decision maker
and revised requirement issued.

Evaluation - systematic determination of merit, worth and significance of something or someone using
criteria against a set of standards.

Collation - is the assembly of written information into a standard order.

Crime Triangle
1. the offender
2. the victim
3. the location

Crime Intelligence - information compiled, analyzed and/or disseminated in an effort to anticipate, prevent,
or monitor criminal activity.

Strategic Intelligence - information concerning existing patterns or emerging trends of criminal activity
designed to assist in criminal apprehension and crime control strategies for both short and long term investigative

Tactical Intelligence - information regarding a specific criminal event that can be used immediately by
operational units to further a criminal investigation plan tactical operations and provide for officer safety.

Open Source - refers to any information that can be legitimately obtained e. free on request, payment of a fee.

Source - the place or person from which information is obtained.

Intelligence Assessment - is the development of forecasts of behavior or recommended courses of action to

the leadership of an organization based on a wide range of available information sources both overt and covert.

Intelligence Analysis - is the process of taking known information about situations and entities of strategic,
operational, or tactical importance, characterizing the known and with appropriate statements of probability.
the future actions in those situations and by thoseentities.

Cryptanalysis - from the Greek word Kryptos-hidden and Analyein-to loosen or to unite - is the art of
defeating cryptographic security systems and gaining access to the contents of encrypted messages without
being given the cryptographic key.

Comparative Police System

Reviewer
Comparative Police System Reviewer

1998 - Asean Chiefs of Police (Aseanapol) was estabished.

Members Aseanapol
1. Indonesia
2. Malaysia
3. Philippines
4. Singapore
5. Thailand
6. Brunei Darussalam
7. Vietnam
8. Laos PDR
9. Myanmar
10.Cambodia

Abu Sayyaf - Abu means father and sayyaf means swordsmith, is a

militant Islamist group based in and around Jolo and Basilan,
Philippines.

Al Qaeda - literally means the base, a global militant Islamist

organization founded by Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam, and
several other militants.

Apostasy - is defined as the conscious abandonment of Islam by a

Muslim in word or through deed. It includes the act of converting to
another religion by a person who was born in a Muslim family or who
had previously accepted Islam.

Arvan Tavnii Tsagdaa - The National Police Agency of Mongolia.

Created in 1965 and with its headquarters in the capital Ulaanbaatar.

Asean Police - Comparison

1. Afghanistan - Name of Police Agency - ANP (Afghanistan National Police)
Under What Department - Ministry of the Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
Lowest Ranking Officer - 2nd Patrolman
2. Armenia - Name of Police Agency - Police of the Republic of Armenia
Under What Department - Ministry of Defense
Highest Ranking Officer - Police Colonel General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Junior Sergeant
3. Azerbaijan - Name of Police Agency - National Police of the Republic of
Azerbaijan
Under What Department - Ministry of the Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -
4. Bahrain - Name of Police Agency - Bahrain National Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -
5. Bangladesh - Name of Police Agency - Bangladesh Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
6. Bhutan - Name of Police Agency - Royal Bhutan Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Gagpeon (Chief of Police)
Lowest Ranking Officer - Gagpa
7. Brunei - Name of Police Agency - Royal Brunei Police Force
Under What Department - Home Affairs Ministry
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
8. Myanmar - Name of Police Agency - Myanmar Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Police Major General
 Lowest Ranking Officer - Private
9. Cambodia - Name of Police Agency - Cambodian Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Brigadier General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Officer Cadet
10.Peoples Republic of China - Name of Police Agency - Peoples Armed
Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable 2nd Class
11.Cyprus - Name of Police Agency - Cyprus Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Justice
Highest Ranking Officer - Chief of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
12.East Timor - Name of Police Agency - National Police of East Timor
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -
13.Georgia - Name of Police Agency - Georgian National Police
Under What Department - Department of Public Safety
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
14.Hongkong - Name of Police Agency - Hongkong Police Force
Under What Department - Operations and Support
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
15.India - Name of Police Agency - Indian Police Service
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner
Lowest Ranking Officer -
16.Indonesia - Name of Police Agency - Indonesian National Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
Lowest Ranking Officer - 2nd Bhayangkar
17.Iran - Name of Police Agency - Iranian National Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior and Justice
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -
18.Iraq - Name of Police Agency - Iraqi Police Service
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Chief of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Patrolman
19.Israel - Name of Police Agency - Israeli Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Security
 Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
20.Japan - Name of Police Agency - National Police Agency
Under What Department - National Public Safety Commission
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
21.Jordan - Name of Police Agency - Public security Force
Under What Department - Public Security Directorate of
the Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -
22.Kazakhstan - Name of Police Agency - National Police of Kazakhstan
Under What Department - National Security Committee of
Ministry of internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Procurator General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Ryadovoy
23.North Korea - Name of Police Agency - National Police Agency
Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
Highest Ranking Officer - Daewon (Grand Marshall)
Lowest Ranking Officer - Chonsa (Private)
24.South Korea - Name of Police Agency - Korea National Police Agency (KNPA)
Under What Department - Ministry of Government Administration
and Home Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
25.Kuwait - Name of Police Agency - Kuwait National Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Lieutenant General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
26.Kyrgyzstan - Name of Police Agency - Kyrgyzstan Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
27.Laos - Name of Police Agency - Laos National Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
Highest Ranking Officer - General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
28.Lebanon - Name of Police Agency - International Security Forces
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Gendarme
29.Macau - Name of Police Agency - Macau National Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Superintendent
 Lowest Ranking Officer - Guard
30.Malaysia - Name of Police Agency - Royal Malaysian Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
31.Maldives - Name of Police Agency - Maldives Police
Under What Department - National Security and Defense Branch
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Lance Constable
32.Mongolia - Name of Police Agency - Mongolia Public Security Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Private
33.Nepal - Name of Police Agency - Nepal Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
34.Oman - Name of Police Agency - Royal Oman Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Lieutenant General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Conscript
35.Pakistan - Name of Police Agency - Pakistan Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
36.Papua New Guinea - Name of Police Agency - Royal Papua New Guinea
Constabulary
Under What Department -
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Kiap (Patrol Officer)
37.Philippines - Name of Police Agency - Philippine National Police
Under What Department - Department of Interior and
Local Government
Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer 1
38.Qatar - Name of Police Agency - Qatar National Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer - Shurti
39.Russia - Name of Police Agency - Militsiya
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Police Colonel
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Cadet
40.Saudi Arabia - Name of Police Agency - Departmemnt of Security
 Under What Department -
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -
41.Singapore - Name of Police Agency - Singapore Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Constable
42.Sri Lanka - Name of Police Agency - Sri Lanka Police Service
Under What Department - Defense Ministry
Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of Police
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Constable Class 4
43.Syria - Name of Police Agency - Syria Public Security Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Private
44.Taiwan - Name of Police Agency - National Police Agency
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Police Supervisor General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Rank 4
45.Thailand - Name of Police Agency - Royal Thai Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
46.Turkey - Name of Police Agency - Turkish Police
Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer\
47.Turkmenistan - Name of Police Agency - Turkmenistan National Police
Force
Under What Department - Ministry of State Security
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -
48.UAE Dubai - Name of Police Agency - National Police Forces
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - General Commander
Lowest Ranking Officer -
49.Uzbekistan - Name of Police Agency - Uzbekistan Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
50.Vietnam - Name of Police Agency - Peoples Police of Vietnam
Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
Highest Ranking Officer - General
Lowest Ranking Officer -
51.Yemen - Name of Police Agency - Yemen National Police Force
Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
Highest Ranking Officer -
Lowest Ranking Officer -

Basic Functions of Criminal Justice System

1. Policing
2. Adjudication
3. Correction

Centralized Police - A country with only one recognized police force

which operates entire that country. It uses a centralized system of
policing. Philippines is an example of centralized police because
the Philippine National Police has one central office with many
regional, provincial and local branches throughout the country.

Decentralized police - refers to a system where police

administrations and operations are independent from one state
to another. It is more applicable to countries with federal
government.

Comparative Criminology - Theories (Scheider)

Alertness to crime theory - is that as a nation develops,
people’s alertness to crime is heightened, so they report more
crime to police and also demand the police become moreeffective
at solving crime problems.

Chowkidar - in India, means one who inhabits a "chowki", police station

or guard house.

Economic or migration theory - is that crime everywhere is

the result of unrestrained migration and over population in
urban areas such as ghettos and slums.

Opportunity theory - is that along with higher standards of

living, victims become more careless of their belongings,
and opportunities for committing crime multiply.

Demographic theory - is based on the event of when a greater

number of children are being born, because as these baby booms
grow up, delinquent subcultures develop out of the adolescent
identity crisis. Deprivation theory holds that progress comes
along with rising expectations, and people at the bottom develop
 unrealistic expectations while people at the top don’t see
themselves rising fast enough.

Modernization theory - sees the problem as society becoming too

complex.

Theory of anomie and synomie - (the latter being a term

referring to social cohesion on values), suggests that
progressive lifestyle and norms result in the disintegration
of older norms that once held people together (anomie).

Chusai-san - the rural police officer in Japan.

Comparative Criminal Justice - it is as subfield of the study of

criminal justice systems worldwide. It studies the similarities and
differences in structure, goals, punishment and emphasis on rights
as well as the history and political stature of different systems.

Comparative Police System - it is the science and art of investigating

and comparing the police system of nations. It covers the study of
police organizations, trainings and methods of policing of various nations.

Confucian thought - The belief that social order can be achieved

through moral and political reform because man is by nature good or
capable of goodness.

Countries With Less Or No Crime

1. Switzerland
2. Japan
3. Ireland
4. Egypt - Siwa Oasis

Cybercrimes - are generally defined as any type of illegal activity

that makes use of the Internet, a private or public network, or an
in-house computer system.

Cyberstalking - a technologically based attack on person because

of anger, revenge, or control.

Computer Fraud - altering data or gaining unlawful use of

computer or services.

Identity Theft - using another's personal information to commit

fraud or other crimes.
 Computer Viruses - a program that copies itself and infects a
computer.

Denial of Service Attacks - making service unavailable to users.

Malware - malicious software that interferes with the functioning

of computers and sending data of user over the internet.

Information warfare - attacks on information and computer systems.

Different Police Global Organizations

1. ASEAN Chiefs of Police
2. Europol
3. IACP
4. Interpol
5. UN policing

Drug Trafficking - Drug trafficking is the commercial exchange of drugs

and drug paraphernalia. This include any equipment used to manufacture
illegal drugs or use them.

Elliniki Astynomia - is the national police service of Greece.

EUROPOL - It means European Police Office or Europol. Europol is the

European Union’s criminal intelligence agency. It became fully
operational on July 1,1999. Europol only acts on request at present.

EUROPOL's Mandate
1. llicit drug trafficking
2. Illicit immigration networks;
3. Terrorism; Forgery of money (counterfeiting of the euro)
and other means of payment;
4. Trafficking in human beings (including child pornography);
5. Illicit vehicle trafficking;
6. Money laundering

Gendarmerie Nationale - is the national rural police force of Algeria.

National Gendarmerie - is a branch of the French Armed Forces,

in charge of public safety, with police duties among the
civilian population.

Globalization - is a process of interaction and integration among

the people, companies,and government of different nations, as process
driven by international trade and investment and aided by information
technology.

Hezbollah - literally means "Party of God", is a Shi'a Islamist militant

group and political party based in Lebanon.

Hongkong Police Force - It is the world's second, and Asia's first,

police agency to operate with a modern policing system.

Human Trafficking - the illegal movement of people, typically for the

purposes of forced labor or commercial sexual exploitation.

IACP - (International Association of Chiefs of Police) the world’s

oldest and largest nonprofit membership organization of police
executives, with over 20,000 members in over 80 different countries.
IACP’s leadership consists of the operating chief executes of
international, federal, state and local agencies of all sizes.

Illegal Drug Trade - the term being used in the international scene,
it is a more comprehensive term than drug trafficking as it includes
cultivation and manufacture.

International Crime - Defined as crimes against the peace and security

of mankind.

International Crimes
1. Aggression (by one state against another)
2. Treat of aggression
3. Genocide (destroying a national, ethnic, racial, or
religious group)
4. Terrorism
5. Drug trafficking

International Criminal Justice - It involves the study and description

of one country’s law, criminal procedure, or justice. Comparative
criminal justice system attempts to build on the knowledge of criminal
justice in one country by investigating and evaluating, in terms of
another country,culture, or institution.

Interpol - (International Criminal Police Organization) It began in

1923,and at the same time its name was International Criminal
Police Commission. In 1956, its name became International Criminal
Police Organization. Slowly, the name of this international organization
became famous as Interpol. Now,Interpol is the second biggest
international organization; the United Nations is the first.

Jemaah Islamiyah - (Islamic Congregation) is a Southeast Asian militant

Islamist terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment of a
regional Islamic caliphate in Southeast Asia.

Jolly R. Bugarin - a Filipino former President of the Interpol, from

1980 to 1984. He is the only Filipino who had achieved that feat.

Koban - is a small neighborhood police station found in Japan. Often

translated to English as Police Box. Koban are staffed by a relatively
small number of police officers (usually 3-5 officers).

Chuzaisho - (residential police box) is usually staffed by a

single officer. The Chuzaisho is typically located outside of
urban districts in villages and is operated by one community
officer, who resides with his family in this police facility.

Hashutsusho - (police box) The Hashutsusho is typically placed

in an urban district and is operated by a number of community
police officers who work under a shift system. The community
officers generally live in the jurisdiction served by the
Hashutsusho.

Model System - is used to described the countries being used as

topics of discussion.These countries are chosen not because they are
greater than others but because they are thefocus of comparison
being studied.

Money Laundering - the concealment of the origins of illegally obtained

money, typically by means of transfers involving foreign banks or
legitimate businesses.

Mutawa - religious police in Saudi Arabia whose duty is to ensure

strict adherence to established codes of conduct.

National Public Safety Commission - is the policy making and oversight

body of the national police forces in Japan and South Korea.

Ngā Pirihimana o Aotearoa - it literally means "the policeman", is the

national police force of New Zealand. Policing in New Zealand started
in 1840.
Palermo Protocols - are three protocols that were adopted by the
United Nations to supplement the 2000 Convention against Transnational
Organized Crime. They are:
1. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
Persons, especially Women and Children; and
2. The Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land,
Sea and Air.
3. The Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking
in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition

POLRI - (Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia) Indonesian National Police.

The Chief of Police of Indonesia is called Kapolri.

Police Box - is a British telephone kiosk or callbox located in a public

place for the use of members of the police, or for members of the public
to contact the police. Most are disused at present with the advent of
two way radio and mobile phones.

Polis Diraja - the Royal Malaysia police.

RA 8792 - Electronic Commerce Act of 2000.

RA 9208 - The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003.

RA 9165 - Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002.

RA 9372 - Human Security Act of 2007.

RA 9995 - Anti-Photo and Voyeurism Act of 2009.

Schupo - (Schutzpolizei), the state level police of the German States.

Taliban - means "students", is an Islamic fundamentalist political

movement in Afghanistan.

Terrorism - the unofficial or unauthorized use of violence and

intimidation in the pursuit of political aims.

Transnational Crime - It is a term that has been used in comparative

and international criminal justice study in recent years to reflect
the complexity and enormity of global crime issues. It is defined
by the United Nations (UN) offences whose inception, proportion
and/or direct or indirect effects involve in more than one country.
 Examples of Transnational Crimes
1. Money laundering
2. Drug trafficking
3. Terrorism
4. Human trafficking
5. Cyber crime

Transnational Organized Crime - involves the planning and execution

of illicit business ventures by groups or networks of individuals
working in more than one country. These criminal groups use systematic
violence and corruption to achieve their goal. Crimes commonly
include money laundering; human smuggling; cyber crime; and
trafficking of humans, drugs, weapons,endangered species, body parts,
or nuclear material.

Types of Court Systems of the World

1. Adversarial System - the accused is innocent until proven guilty.
2. Inquisitorial System - the accused is guilty until proven innocent.

Vetting - is the process of performing a background check on someone

to ensure that they are suitable for a job requiring secrecy, loyalty,
or trustworthiness.

Well Known Organized Crime Group

1. Russian Mafia - Around 200 Russian groups that operate in nearly
60 countries worldwide. They have been involved in racketeering,
fraud, tax evasion, gambling, drug trafficking, ransom, robbery
and murder.
2. La Cosa Nostra - Known as the Italian or Italian-American mafia.
The most prominent organized crime group in the world from the
1920’s to the 1990’s. They have been involved in violence, arson,
bombings, torture, sharking, gambling, drug trafficking, health
insurance fraud, and political and judicial corruption.
3. Yakuza - Japanese criminal group. Often involved in multinational
criminals activities,including human trafficking, gambling,
prostitution, and undermining licit businesses.
4. FukChing - Chinese organized group in the United States. They
have been involved in smuggling, street violence, and human
trafficking.
5. Triads - Underground criminal societies based in Hong Kong. They
control secret markets and bus routes and are often involved in
money laundering and drug trafficking.
6. Heijin - Taiwanese gangsters who are often executives in large
corporations. They are often involved in white collar crimes,
 such as illegal stock trading and bribery, and sometimes run
for public office.
7. Jao Pho - Organized crime group in Thailand. They are often
involved in illegal political and business activity.
8. Red Wa - Gangsters from Thailand. They are involved in
manufacturing and trafficking methamphetamine.

Police Personnel and

Records Management
Reviewer
Attrition - refers to the retirement or separation from the police
service of PNP uniformed personnel pursuant to any of the means
mentioned in RA 8551.

Means of Attrition
1. Attrition by attainment of maximum tenure in position
a. Chief PNP - 4 years
b. PNP Deputy Chief for Operation - 4 years
c. PNP Deputy chief for Administration - 4 years
d. PNP Chief of the Directorial Staff - 4 years
e. Regional Directors - 6 years
f. Provincial directors - 9 years
g. City Directors - 9 years
h. Other positions higher than provincial director shall have
the maximum tenure of 6 years.
2. Attrition by Relief
A PNP member who has been relieved for cause and has not been
given an assignment within 2 years from the effective date of
such relief shall be retired or separated.
3. Attrition by Demotion in Position
A PNP member who has been relieved and assigned to a position
lower than what is established for his/her rank in the PNP
 staffing pattern and who shall not be assigned to a position
commensurate to such rank despite the existence of a vacancy
within 18 months after his/her demotion in position shall be
retired or separated.
4. Attrition by Non-Promotion
A PNP member who has not been promoted for a continuous period
of 10 years shall be retired or separated.
5. Attrition by Other Means - a PNP member with at least 5 years
of accumulated active service shall be separated based on any
of the following grounds:
a. Inefficiency based on poor performance during the last 2
successive annual rating periods.
b. Inefficiency based on poor performance for 3 cumulative
annual ratings.
c. Physical and/or mental incapacity to perform police
functions and duties
d. Failure to pass the required entrance examination twice
and/or finish the required career courses except for
justifiable reasons.
e. Refusal to take a periodic PNP Physical fitness test
without justifiable reason.
f. Failure to take PNP physical fitness test for 4 consecutive
periodic tests due to health reasons.
g. Failure to pass PNP physical fitness test for 2 consecutive
periodic tests or 4 cumulative periodic tests.
h. Non-Compliance with the minimum qualification standards for
the permanency of original appointment.

Attrition in Action - refers to the action containing the findings

and evidence on a specific means of attrition filed by a particular
screening committee before the concerned attrition board.

Authority - Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them

this right. Note that responsibility arises wherever authority is
exercised.

Budgeting - with all that goes with budgeting in the form of planning,
accounting and control.

Centralization - Centralization refers to the degree to which

subordinates are involved in decision making. Whether decision making
is centralized (to management) or decentralized (to subordinates) is
a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree
of centralization for each situation.
Coordinating - that is the all important duty of interrelating the
various parts of the work.

Demotion in Position - refers to the designation of a personnel to a

position lower than what is established for his/her rank or not
commensurate to his/her rank in the PNP table of organization.

Directing - that is the continuous task of making decisions and

embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and
serving as the leader of the enterprise.

Discipline - Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the
organisation. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership,
a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the
organisation's rules, and the judicious use of penalties for infractions
of the rules.

Discipline - the practice of training people to obey rules or a

code of behaviour, using punishment to correct disobedience.

Division of labor - Authority and responsibility are clearly defined

and officially sanctioned. Job descriptions are specified with
responsibilities and line of authority. All employees have thus
clearly defined rules in a system of authority and subordination.

Division of Work - This principle is the same as Adam Smith's

division of labour. Specialization increases output by making employees
more efficient.

Equity - Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.

Esprit de corps - Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity
within the organisation.

Field Training Program - refers to the training required to make the

temporary appointment of a new PNP member permanent.

Formal hierarchical structure - An organization is organized into a

hierarchy of authority and follows a clear chain of command. The
hierarchical structure effectively delineates the lines of authority
and the subordination of the lower levels to the upper levels of the
hierarchical structure.
Grievance - a wrong considered as grounds for complaint, or something
believed to cause distress.

Immediate Supervisor - refers to a person authorized to make the

performance evaluation rating of a PNP member.

Initiative - Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans
will exert high levels of effort.

Just Cause - refers to the legal grounds that would warrant the relief
or removal of a PNP member from his present position and designation
in the PNP organization.

Management by rules - A bureaucracy follows a consistent set of rules

that control the functions of the organization. Management controls
the lower levels of the organization's hierarchy by applying established
rules in a consistent and predictable manner.

Managers are salaried officials - A manager is a salaried official

and does own the administered unit. All elements of a bureaucracy are
defined with clearly defined roles and responsibilities and are managed
by trained and experienced specialists.

Mandatory Career Courses - refers to the required training for a PNP

member to be eligible for promotion to the next higher rank.

Max Weber - As a German academic, Weber was primarily interested in

the reasons behind the employees’ actions and in why people who work
in an organization accept the authority of their superiors and comply
with the rules of the organization.

Maximum Tenure of Position - is the maximum cumulative period for a

PNP member to hold a particular position level.

Mental Incapacity - is a condition where a PNP member is unable to

exercise his/her reasoning faculties or incapable of understanding and
acting with discernment his/her duties and responsibilities as a result
of illness or injury as may be determined by the PNP medical screening
committee.

Non-Promotion - refers to the non advancement to the next higher rank

or position beyond the maximum prescribed period.

Order - People and materials should be in the right place at the

right time.

Organic Personnel To A Unit - is a PNP member assigned to a particular

unit covered with appropriate PNP assignment orders.

Original Appointment - refers to the appointment for the initial entry

of PNP member to the uniformed service who meets all the requirements
of the position.

Organizing - that is the establishment of the formal structure of

authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and
coordinated for the defined objective.

Pendency of an Attrition Action - refers to the stage when the

endorsement of the PRO regional director or the NSU director of a
PCO Attrition action has been officially received by the concerned
NHQ PCO attrition board through the NHQ screening committee report
of a PNCO attrition action has been officially received by the NHQ/
PRO/NSU attrition board.

Personnel Action on Attrition - is an action filed before the screening

committee based on a verified statement of an alleged means of
attrition by an initiating person.

Personnel Administration - Recruitment, induction, placement, transfer,

promotion, salary administration of Police personnel.

Personnel hired on grounds of technical competence - Appointment to

a position within the organization is made on the grounds of technical
competence. Work is assigned based on the experience and competence
of the individual.

Personnel Programs - refers to the activities programmed to implement

the organization philosophy or creed and the personnel philosophy of
central managers in relation to people so as to accomplish organizational
objectives.

Planning - that is working out in broad outline the things that need
to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose
set for the enterprise.

Police Appraisal or Performance Rating - is the evaluation of the

traits, behavior and effectiveness of a police officer on the job as
determined by work standards.
Police Compensation - Financial compensation in the form of wages of
salaries constitutes the largest single expenditure for most
organizations. In Metropolitan Manila and other urban centers, wages of
salaries represent the sole source to meet the basic needs of food,
clothing and shelter.

Police Personnel Management - (Human Resources Management) may be

defined as that area of management concerned with human relations in
the police organization.

Police Personnel Planning – is a study of the labor supply of jobs,

which are composed with the demands for employees in an organization
to determine future personnel requirements, which either increase or
decrease.

Police Placement - is the process of making police officers adjusted

and knowledgeable in a new job and or working environment.

Police Recruitment - is the process of encouraging police applicant

from outside an organization to seek employment in an organization.

Recruitment - refers to the overall process of attracting,

selecting and appointing suitable candidates for jobs within
an organisation, either permanent or temporary.

Police Selections (screening) - is the process of determining the

most qualified police applicant for a given position in the police
organization.

Police Training and Development – refers to any method used to improve

the attitude, knowledge, and skill or behavior pattern of an employee
for adequate performance of a given job.

Promotion - is the advancement of an employee's rank or position in

an organizational hierarchy system.

Promotion - means shifting of an employee to a higher position

carrying higher responsibilities, facilities, status and salaries.

Physical Fitness Test - the method of evaluating the physical condition

of PNP members in terms of stamina, strength, speed and agility.

Physical Incapacity - the inability of a PNP member to perform his/her

duties and responsibilities due to physical defect as a result if
disease or injury as may be determined by the PNP medical screening
committee.

Poor Performance - is the poor rating in the promulgated PNP

performance evaluation rating system.

Remuneration - Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.

Reporting - that is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible

informed as to what is going on, which thus includes keeping himself
and his subordinates informed through records, research, and inspection.

Respondent - refers to the PNP member subjected to attrition proceedings.

Retirement - the termination of employment and official relations of a

PNP member who rendered at least 20 years of active service in the
government with payment of corresponding benefits.

Scalar Chain - The line of authority from top management to the lowest
ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this
chain. However, if following the chain creates delays,
cross-communications can be allowed if agreed to by all parties and
superiors are kept informed.

Second Level PCO Ranks - refers to police commissioned officers below

the third level ranks in the PNP.

Second Level PCNO Ranks - refers to all rank for police non
commissioned officers.

Separation - is the termination of employment and official relations

of a PNP member who rendered less than 20 years of active service in
the government with payment of corresponding benefits.

Stability of tenure of personnel - High employee turnover is

inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and
ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies.

Staffing - that is the whole personnel function of bringing in and

training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of work.

Subordination of individual interests to the general interest - The

interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take
precedence over the interests of the organisation as a whole.

Third Level PCO Ranks - refers to police commissioned officers with

the rank of Police Senior Superintendent and higher.

Total Permanent Physical Disability - is any impairment of the body

which renders PNP member indefinitely incapable of substantially
performing the mandated duties and functions of his position.

Transfer - refers to a change in job assignment.

Unity of Command - Every employee should receive orders from only one
superior.

Unity of Direction - Each group of organisational activities that have

the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan.

Waiver Program - refers to the waiver of the minimum age, height,

weight and educational requirements for the initial appointment to
the PNP pursuant to existing laws and policies.

Waiver - the act of choosing not to use or require something

that you are allowed to have or that is usually required.

Welfare - the health, happiness, and fortunes of a person or group.

Written documents - All decisions, rules and actions taken by the

organization are formulated and recorded in writing. Written documents
ensure that there is continuity of the organization’s policies and
procedures.
Police Patrol Reviewer

1842 - the London Metropolitan Police established the first detective

branch.

Bobbies - British police.

Boston Police - first public police force established in 1631.

Bow Street Patrols - a small body of police in London who had been
organized in the mid-18th century by the novelist and magistrate
Henry Fielding and his half brother, Sir John Fielding.

Compurgation - also called Wager Of Law, in early English law, method

of settling issues of fact by appeal to a type of character witness.

Egypt - the first policing organization was created in about 3000 BC.

Emperor Augustus - organized one of the earliest form of organized

policing in Rome in 7 BC. He divided the city of Rome into 14 regiones
(wards), each consisting of vici (precincts) overseen by vicomagistri,
who were responsible for fire protection and other administrative and
religious duties.

New Scotland Yard - the headquarters of the London Metropolitan Police.

New York Police - The first police department in the United States,
it was established in 1844 and it was officially organized in 1845.

Patrol - keep watch over (an area) by regularly walking or travelling

around it.

Patrol Functions (Categories)

1. Crime prevention - pro-active deterrence
2. Law Enforcement - reactive deterrence
3. Order Maintenance - security
4. Social Services - community welfare

Patrol As A Function
1. Constant Movement
2. Prevent/deter crime
3. Eliminate opportunity for crime

Patrol Activities and Purposes

1. Crime Detection and Prevention
2. Apprehension of Criminals & Wanted Suspects
3. Data & Information Collection
4. Report Writing & Documentation
5. Public Assistance
6. Peace Keeping and Order Maintenance
7. Conflict Resolution
8. Traffic Control and Enforcement
9. Parking Enforcement
10.Law Enforcement Reduce Citizens’ Fear of Crime
11.Detect and Enforce Code and Safety Violations
12.Rapid Responses to Emergencies
13.Public Relations
14.Police Visibility
15.Property Protection

Patrol Method
1. Foot Patrol
2. Motorcycle Patrol
3. Motorized Patrol
4. Bike Patrol
5. Horse Patrol
6. Aircraft Patrol
7. Watercraft Patrol
Patrol Officer - is the backbone of the police department.

Patrol Supervision
1. Hands on - supervisor involved in day to day activities.
2. Command - supervisor shows up at incident sites and gives
orders
3. Counsel - supervisor available and when requested shows
up at incident sites.

Patrol Techniques
1. Routine Patrol
2. Directed Patrol
3. D-Runs
4. Saturation Patrol
5. Split Force
6. Suspect-Oriented Patrol

Police Traffic Enforcement Activities

1. Issue Traffic Citations
2. Issue Parking Citations
3. Investigate Traffic Accidents
4. Arrest Drunk Drivers
5. Enforce Seat belt Laws
6. Direct Traffic

Police Traffic Enforcement Purposes

1. Insure Safety of Public
2. Reduce Accidents and Injuries
3. Collect Information
4. Make Criminal Arrests
5. Enforce Laws
6. Facilitate Traffic Flow

Peel's 9 (Nine) Principle

Principle 1. The basic mission for which the police exist is
to prevent crime and disorder.
Principle 2 - The ability of the police to perform their duties
is dependent upon public approval of police actions.
Principle 3 - Police must secure the willing co-operation of
the public in voluntary observance of the law to be able to secure
and maintain the respect of the public.
Principle 4 - The degree of co-operation of the public that can
be secured diminishes proportionately to the necessity of the use
of physical force.
 Principle 5 - Police seek and preserve public favour not by
catering to the public opinion but by constantly demonstrating
absolute impartial service to the law.
Principle 6 - Police use physical force to the extent necessary
to secure observance of the law or to restore order only when
the exercise of persuasion, advice and warning is found to be
insufficient.
Principle 7 - Police, at all times, should maintain a relationship
with the public that gives reality to the historic tradition that
the police are the public and the public are the police; the
police being only members of the public who are paid to give
full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every citizen
in the interests of community welfare and existence.”
Principle 8 - Police should always direct their action strictly
towards their functions and never appear to usurp the powers of
the judiciary.
Principle 9 - The test of police efficiency is the absence of
crime and disorder, not the visible evidence of police action
in dealing with it.

Peeler - a police officer, especially in the United Kingdom and

Australia. Derived from the name of Sir Robert Peel who developed the
Metropolitan Police Act in 1928 which proved to be the foundation for
the modern police force in Britain.

Police Functional Units

1. Bureau - the largest organic functional unit within a large
department. It comprises of numbers of divisions.
2. Division - a primary subdivision of a bureau.
3. Section -functional unit within a division that is necessary
for specialization.
4. Unit -functional group within a section; or the smallest
functional group within an organization.

Police Operations
1. Patrol - 50 % Of Force - 80 % Of Budget
2. Criminal Investigation (Detectives) - Solve 20 % Of Cases Solved
In Depth case screening
3. Traffic
4. Support/Special Services

Police Territorial Units

1. Post - a fixed point or location to which an officer is
assigned for duty, such as a designated desk or office or
 an intersection or cross walk from traffic duty.It is a spot
location for general guard duty.
2. Route -a length of streets designated for patrol purposes.
It is also called Line Beat.
3. Beat - an area assigned for patrol purposes, whether foot
or motorized.
4. Sector - an area containing two or more beats, routes, or post.
5. District-a geographical subdivision of a city for patrol
purposes, usually with its own station.
6. Area- a section or territorial division of a large city each
comprised of designated districts.

Polis - greek word which means city.

Purposes of Criminal Investigation

1. Determine whether or not a crime has been committed.
2. Decide if the crime was committed within the investigator’s
jurisdiction.
3. Discover all facts pertaining to the complaint.
4. Gather and preserve physical evidence.
5. Identify the perpetrator.
6. Develop and follow up all clues.
7. Locate and apprehend the perpetrator.
8. Aid in the prosecution of the offender by providing evidence of
guilt that is admissible in court.
9. Testify effectively as a witness in court.
10.Recover stolen property.

Robert Peel - established the Metropolitan Police Force for London based
at Scotland Yard in 1929. Father of modern policing system.

Specialized Units and Operations

1. Special Weapons & Tactics
2. Vice & Drugs
3. K-9
4. Organized Crime
5. Community Services
6. Crime analysis
7. Domestic Violence
8. Sex Crimes
9. Internal Affairs
10.Crime Prevention
11.Juvenile & School Service
12.Intelligence
Industrial Security
Management Reviewer
Active Security Measures
1. Physical Barriers
2. Security lighting
3. Vaults
4. Locks

Passive Security Measures

1.Those that will deter man from committing such act for fear
of being caught charged in court or get dismissed
2.Security education programs, investigation, fire prevention
seminars, personal security checks.

Company Guard Force – (CGF) a security force maintained and operated

by any private company/corporation utilizing any of its employees to
watch, secure or guard its business establishment premises, compound
or properties.

Duty Detail Order - is a written order/schedule issued by a superior

officer usually the private security agency/branch manager or
operations officer assigning the performance of private
security/detective services duties.

Factors that Bring About Unsecured Conditions

1. Threats - an activity that could lead to a loss.
2. Hazards - a condition that could lead to a loss.
3. Vulnerability - a weakness that can be used to gain access to
an asset.
4. Risk - a potential loss or damage to an asset.
Government Guard Unit – (GGU) a security unit maintained and operated
by any government entity other than military or police, which is
established and maintained for the purpose of securing the office or
compound and/or extension of such government entity.

Government Security Personnel – shall be natural persons which include

government security guards, detectives, security consultants and
security officers except those of the AFP, PNP, or BJMP rendering or
performing security and/or detective services as employed by
government entities.

License to Exercise Profession – shall mean any document issued by

the Chief, PNP or his duly authorized representative recognizing a
person to be qualified to perform his duties as private security or
training personnel.

License to Operate – (LTO) is a License Certificate document, issued

by the Chief, Philippine National Police or his duly authorized
representative, authorizing a person to engage in employing security
guard or detective, or a juridical person to establish, engage, direct,
manage or operate an individual or a private detective agency or
private security agency/company security force after payment of the
prescribed dues or fees.

Note:New applicants for license to operate shall be required

to obtain a minimum capitalization of one million pesos
(P1,000,000.00) with a minimum bank deposit of five hundred
thousand (P500, 000.00) pesos in order to start its business
operation.

No regular license shall be granted to any private security

agency unless it has a minimum of two hundred (200) licensed
private security personnel under its employ.

No regular license shall be granted to any company guard force

or private detective agency unless it has a minimum of thirty
(30) licensed private security personnel under its employ.

The maximum number of private security personnel that a

PSA/CGF/PDA may employ shall be one thousand (1000).

PADPAO – Philippine Association of Detective and Protective Agency

Operators. Is an association of all licensed security agencies and
company security forces in the Philippines.

Person - shall include not only natural persons but also juridical
persons such as corporation, partnership, company or association duly
registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission.
Physical Barrier - any structure or physical device capable of
restricting, deterring, delaying, illegal access to an installation.

PNP - Philippine National Police, under the DILG, organized pursuant

to the provision of RA 6975 otherwise known as the National Police
Act of 1991. The PNP shall exercise general supervision over
the operators of all security agencies and guards.

Powers and Duties of a Security Guard

1. To watch and secure the property of the client. Service shall
not extend beyond the property or compound of client.

Exception:
1. Escort duties
2. Hot pursuit of criminal offenders

2. Security Guard and Private Detective have no police authority.

Private Detective - is any person who does detective work for hire,
reward or commission, other than members of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, guards of the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology,
municipal or city jail guards, and members of the Philippine National
Police or of any other law enforcement agency of the government.

Qualifications of a Private Detective

1. Must be a Filipino citizen
2. Must be a high school graduate
3. Must be physically and mentally fit
4. Must not be less than 21 nor more than 50 years of age
5. Must be at least 5 feet and 4 inches in height
6. Must not be suffering from any of the ff: disqualifications
a. Dishonorably discharged or separated from the AFP
b. Mental incompetent
c. Addicted to the use of narcotic drug or drugs
d. Habitual drunkard
7. Must not be convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude

Private Detective Agency - is any person, who, for hire or reward or

on commission, conducts or carries on or holds himself or itself out
as conducting or carrying on a detective agency, or detective service.

Notes:
1. All person used in a private detective work must be licensed
2. All person employed solely for clerical or manual work need
 no private detective license.
3. License (LTO) shall be displayed at all times in a conspicuous
and suitable place in the agency office or headquarters of
the agency and shall be exhibited at the request of any person
whose jurisdiction is in relation with the business of the
agency or the employees thereof, or of the Chief of the PNP
or his duly authorized representative or any peace officer.
4. The PNP shall exercise general supervision over the operation
of all private detective and privated detective agency.

The rules above applies to a Private Security Agency.

Private Security Guard - (watchman) shall include any person who

offers or renders personal service to watch or secure either a
residence, business establishment, or buildings, compounds, areas,
or property, inspects/monitors bodily checks/searches individuals
and/or baggage and other forms of security inspection, physically/
manually or scientifically electronic, including but not limited to,
logging concessions and agricultural, mining or pasture lands,
transportation, for hire or compensation , or as an employee thereof,
including any employee of the national or local governments or
agencies or instrumentality’s thereof and or government owned or
controlled firm or corporations who is employed to watch or secure
government buildings, compounds, premises and other properties, other
than members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, guards of the
Bureau of Jail management and Penology, Municipal or City jail
guards, and members of the Philippine National Police or of any other
law enforcement agency of the Government.

Qualifications of a Security Guard

1. Must be a Filipino citizen
2. Must be a high school graduate
3. Must be physically and mentally fit
4. Must not be less than 21 nor more than 50 years of age
5. Must be at least 5 feet and 4 inches in height (RA 5487)
6. Must not be suffering from any of the ff: disqualifications
a. Dishonorably discharged or separated from the AFP
b. Mental incompetent
c. Addicted to the use of narcotic drug or drugs
d. Habitual drunkard
7. Must have undergone a pre-licensing training course
8. Must not be convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude

Moral Turpitude - A phrase used in Criminal Law to

 describe conduct that is considered contrary to
community standards of justice, honesty, or good morals.

Crimes involving moral turpitude have an inherent quality

of baseness, vileness, or depravity with respect to a
person's duty to another or to society in general.

Examples of Crime Involving Moral Turpitude

1. Rape
2. Forgery
3. Robbery
4. Prostitution

Private Security Guard Agency - any person, association,

partnership, or corporation, who recruits, trains, muster, furnishes,
solicits individuals or business firms, private or government-owned
or controlled corporations to engage his service or those of its
watchmen.

Who May Organize a Security Agency

1. Any Filipino citizen
2. Corporation
3. Partnership
4. Association

Limitations/Disqualification/Prohibitions In Organizing A
Security Agency
1. Security Agency must be 100% Filipino owned
2. No person shall organize or have an interest in, more than
security agency
3. No agency shall offer, render or accept services in gambling
dens or other illegal business establishments or enterprises.
4. Must not be an elective or appointive government employees
who may be called upon on account of the functions of their
respective offices in the implementation and enforcement of
the Private Security Agency Law and any person related to
such government employees by affinity or consanguinity in
the third civil degree shall not hold any interest, directly
or indirectly in any security guard or watchman agency.
5. The extent of the security guard service being furnished by
the security agency shall not go beyond the compound and/or
property of the person or establishment contracting the
security service except when the security guards is
escorting big amount of money or valuables.
6. Main Office - All agencies shall maintain a main office in
their registered addresses.

Branch offices - may be established and maintained in

other provinces/ cities where the security agency has
deployed security guards.

7. Rules - Authority to operate outside principal offices.

1. No new or moribund but previously licensed private
security agency shall be granted license to operate
unless its business viability is supported by
evidence of assured clientele, adequate
capitalization and the like.

Moribund - (dying)(stagnant)(obsolescent) in
terminal decline; lacking vitality or vigour.

2. Private Security Agency operating at regions

outside its main office shall be required to
register with the nearest Police Provincial Office
and shall submit an authenticated machine copy of
the following documents:
a) License to Operate
b) License of the FA’s to be issued
c) List of the officers and security guards
d) Appointment Order of Branch/Detachment
Manager (if any)
8. All applicants for license to operate shall be required to
attend a private security agency/company guard force
operators and management seminar/workshop.
9. Prohibition on “KABIT SYSTEM” operators
1. No licensed security agency shall operate, promote
and enter into an agreement of “merger“
(kabit system) with any person or a group of persons
for the purpose of organizing a branch unit or
subsidiary under separate control and ownership.
Merger of security and detective agencies shall not
be recognized without prior approval from the SEC
with respect to their Articles of Incorporation and
the DTI, with regards their business name.
2. Any of the following circumstances or a combination
thereof shall be considered prima-facie evidence
of the existence of “Kabit System”.
a) Maintaining a separate branch, unit or
 subsidiary office aside from the main office
of the agency situated within the same locality
b) Receiving direct payments from the agency’s
clientele and issuing officials receipt of
their own distinct from that issued by the
agency concerned
c) Remitting directly Social Security System
premiums, Medicare contributions and other
premium for other policy insurance benefits
d) Existence of an agreement between the licensee
and a branch manager thereof, whereby the
latter obligates himself to pay a certain
percentage of his income to the former on the
condition that the control and supervision of
the guards posted by said branch shall course
on the manager thereof and that the licensee
shall be exempt from liabilities/ obligations
attendant to the operation of said branch.
e) Keeping/maintaining separate payrolls for the
branch employees signed and/or approved by
the branch manager only
f) Absence of record of monthly income remittances
to the main office when said branch is
authorized to make collections from the clients
of the licensee
g) All other similar acts tending to show separate
and distinct relationship/personality/
ownership/ management.

Qualifications of the Operator/Manager of a Security Agency

1. Must be at least 25 years of age
2. Must be a College Graduate and/or No.3 below.
3. Must be a commissioned officer in the inactive service of
the Armed Forces of the Philippines
4. Must be of good moral character
5. Must have no previous record of any conviction of any crime
or offense involving moral turpitude
6. Must not be suffering from any of the following
disqualifications:
a. Dishonorably discharged or separated from the AFP
b. Mental incompetent
c. Addicted to the use of narcotic drug or drugs
d. Habitual drunkard
7. Must have taken a course/seminar on industrial Security
 Management and/or must have adequate training or experience
in security business (IRR)

Note: One can not be a Commissioned officer in the inactive

service of the AFP unless college graduate. The law used the
word and/or.

RA 5487 is a law. In case of conflict between the law and its

implementing rules and regulations promulgated by the chief
PNP, The law shall prevail.

Private Security Industry – shall cover those in the legitimate

business of providing private security and detective services.

Private Security Personnel – shall be natural persons which include

private security guards, private detectives, security consultants,
and security officers rendering/performing security and/or detective
services as employed by private security agencies and/or private firms.

Protective Security System - are those measures taken by an

installation or unit to protect itself against sabotage,
espionage or subversion.

RA 5487 - known as "The Private Security Agency Law."

Restricted Area - is any area in which personnel or vehicles are

controlled for reasons of security. Restricted area is established
to provide security for installation or facilities and to promote
efficiency of security operations and economy in the use of
security personnel.

SAGSD - Security Agency and Guard Supervision Division. SAGSD is

under the PNP Civil Security Group.

Security - is the state or quality of being secured, freedom from

fear or danger;assurance; certainty. To secure is to make safe or
be protected. From the Greek word SECUROS which means safe,
safety or secured.

Security Guard - (watchman) Any person who offers or renders

personal service to watch or secure either residential or business
establishment, or both, or any building, compound, or area including
but not limited to logging concessions, agricultural, mining or
pasture lands for hire or compensation, or as an employee thereof.
Security Hazards - is an act or condition which results in a situation
like a breach of the protection system and the subsequent loss or
compromise of defense information, company secret or damage to
personnel, property or facilities.

Three Major Areas of Security

1. Physical Security - this concern with the physical measures
adopted to prevent unauthorized access to equipment, facilities,
material and document and to safeguard them against espionage,
damage, loss and theft
2. Personnel Security - this is as important as physical security.
Personnel security starts even before the hiring of an employee
and remains to be maintained for as long as the person is employed.
Its purpose is to insure that a firm hires those best suited to
assist the firm in achieving its goals and objectives and once
hired assist in providing necessary security to the work force
while carrying out their functions
3. Document and Information Security - this involves the protection
of documents as classified papers from loss, access by unauthorized
persons, damage, theft and compromise through disclosure

Two Instances When the Chief PNP may deputize any security guard
to assist the PNP in the performance of police duties.
1. In case of emergency
2. In times of disaster or calamities

Types of Security
1. Industrial Security - a type of security applied to business
groups engaged in industries like manufacturing, assembling,
research and development, processing, warehousing and even
agriculture. It may also mean the business of providing security.
2. Hotel Security- a type of security applied to hotels where its
properties are protected from pilferage, loss damage and the
function in the hotel restaurants are not disturbed and troubled
by outsiders or the guest themselves. This type of security
employs house detectives, uniforms guard and supervisor and
insures that hotel guests and their personal effects are safeguarded.
3. Bank Security- this type of security is concern with the bank
operations.
4. VIP Security- a type of security applied for the protection of
top-ranking officials of the government or private entity,
visiting persons of illustrious standing and foreign dignitaries.
5. School Security- a type of security that is concern with the
 protection of the students, faculty members, and school properties.
6. Supermarket or Mall Security- a type of security which is concern
with the protection of the stores, warehouses, storage, its
immediate premises and properties as well as the supermarket
personnel and customers. Security personnel are trained to detect
shoplifter, robbery, and bomb detection and customer relation.
7. Other Types- this includes all other security matters not covered
in the above enumeration.

Criminal Law And

Jurisprudence
Criminal Law (Book 1)
Criminal Law (Book 2)
Special Penal Laws
Criminal Evidence
Criminal Procedure
Criminal Law Book 1
Reviewer

Abberatio Ictus – mistake in blow.

What is the legal effect of aberratio ictus?

a. may result in complex crime or two felonies
b. if complex, apply Art. 48 - penalty for the more or most serious
crime in its maximum period.

Absolutory Causes - where the act committed is a crime but for some
reason of public policy and sentiment, there is no penalty imposed.
Exempting and justifying circumstances are absolutory causes.

Related: Full Reference Material in Criminal Law

Accomplices - Persons who do not act as principals but cooperate in

the execution of the offense by previous and simultaneous acts,
which are not indispensable to the commission of the crime. They act as
mere instruments that perform acts not essential to the perpetration
of the offense.

Act – an overt or external act. Any bodily movement tending to produce

some effect in the external world.

Actus Me Invito Factus Non Est Meus Actus – Any act done by me against
my will is not my act.

Agent - subordinate public officer charged w/ the maintenance of public

order and protection and security of life and property.

Aggravating Circumstances - Those which, if attendant in the commission

of the crime, serve to have the penalty imposed in its maximum period
provided by law for the offense or those that change the nature of
the crime.
Generic - those which apply to all crimes.
Specific - those which apply only to specific crimes.
Qualifying - those that change the nature of the crime.
Inherent - which of necessity accompany the commission of the crime,
therefore not considered in increasing the penalty to be
imposed.
Special - those which arise under special conditions to increase
the penalty of the offense and cannot be offset by
mitigating circumstances.

Alternative Circumstances – Those which must be taken into consideration

as aggravating or mitigating according to the nature and effects of
the crime and the other conditions attending its commission.

Amnesty – is an act of the sovereign power granting oblivion or general

pardon. It wipes all traces and vestiges of the crime but does not
extinguish civil liability.

Astucia – (Craft) involved the use of intellectual trickery or cunning

on the part of the accused. A chicanery resorted to by the accused to
aid in the execution of his criminal design. It is employed as a
scheme in the execution of the crime.

Bill Of Attainder – A legislative act which inflicts punishment

without trial.

Characteristics of Criminal Law

1. General
2. Territorial
3. Prospective

Circumstances That Affect Criminal Liability

1. Justifying circumstances
2. Exempting circumstances
3. Mitigating circumstances
4. Aggravating circumstances
5. Alternative circumstances

Commutation – change in the decision of the court by the chief regarding

the degree of the penalty by decreasing the length of the imprisonment
or fine.

Consummated Felonies - when all the elements necessary for its execution
and accomplishment are present.

Continued Crime – refers to a single crime consisting of a series of

acts but all arising from one criminal resolution. Although there is
a series of acts, there is only one crime committed, so only one
penalty shall be imposed.

Crime – acts and omissions punishable by any law.

Criminal law - A branch of municipal law which defines crimes, treats

of their nature and provides for their punishment.

The Following are not subject to the operation of Philippine

Criminal Law
1. Sovereigns and other heads of state
2. Charges d'affaires
3. Ambassadors
4. Ministers plenipotentiary
5. Ministers resident

Cruelty – there is cruelty when the culprit enjoys and delights in

making his victim suffer slowly and gradually, causing unnecessary
physical pain in the consummation of the criminal act.

Degree – one whole penalty, one entire penalty or one unit of the
penalties enumerated in the graduated scales provided for in Art. 71

Despoblado – (Uninhabited Place) one where there are no houses at all,

a place at a considerable distance from town, where the houses are
scattered at a great distance from each other.

Discernment - mental capacity to fully appreciate he consequences of

the unlawful act, which is shown by the manner the crime was committed
and conduct of the offender after its commission.

Disfraz (Disguise) – resorting to any device to conceal identity.

Duress - use of violence or physical force.

Dwelling - must be a building or structure exclusively used for rest

and comfort (combination of house and store not included), may be
temporary as in the case of guests in a house or bedspacers. It
includes dependencies, the foot of the staircase and the enclosure
under the house.

El que es causa de la causa es causa del mal causado - Spanish maxim

which means: "He who is the cause of the cause is the cause of the
evil caused.

En Cuadrilla – (Band) whenever there are more than 3 armed malefactors

that shall have acted together in the commission of an offense.

Entrapment - ways and means are resorted to for the purpose of trapping
and capturing the lawbreaker in the execution of his criminal plan.

Error in personae – mistake in identity.

What is the legal effect of error in personae?

a. if same crime results, liable for the same crime
b. if different crime results, apply Art. 49 - penalty for lesser
crime in its maximum period

Exempting Circumstances - grounds for exemption from punishment

because there is wanting in the agent of the crime any of the conditions
which make the act voluntary or negligent.

Ex Post Facto Law - An act which when committed was not a crime,
cannot be made so by statute without violating the constitutional
inhibition as to ex post facto laws.

Felonies – acts and omissions punishable by the Revised Penal Code.

Fence – is a person who commits the act of fencing. A fence who

receives stolen property as above- provided is not an accessory but
a principal in the crime defined in and punished by the Anti-Fencing
Law.

Fencing – is an act, with intent to gain, of buying, selling, receiving,

possessing, keeping, or in any other manner dealing in anything of
value which a person knows or should have known to be derived from the
proceeds of the crime of robbery or theft.

Fraud (fraude) – insidious words or machinations used to induce the

victim to act in a manner which would enable the offender to carry
out his design.

Good conduct allowance during confinement – Deduction for the term of

sentence for good behavior.

Habitual Delinquency or Multi-recidivism – Where a person within a

period of ten years from the date of his release or last conviction
of the crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery,
theft, estafa or falsification, is found guilty of the said crimes a
third time or oftener. This is an extraordinary aggravating
circumstance.

Habitual Delinquent - A person who, within a period of ten years

from the date of his release or last conviction of the crimes of
serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery, theft, estafa,
or falsification, is found guilty of any said crimes a third time or
oftener.

Ignominy – is a circumstance pertaining to the moral order, which

adds disgrace and obloquy to the material injury caused by the crime.

Imbecile - one while advanced in age has a mental development comparable

to that of children between 2 and 7 years old. He is exempt in all
cases from criminal liability.

Insane - one who acts with complete deprivation of intelligence/reason

or without the least discernment or with total deprivation of freedom
of will. Mere abnormality of the mental faculties will not exclude
imputability.

Instigation - Instigator practically induces the would-be accused into

the commission of the offense and himself becomes a co-principal.

Insuperable Clause - some motive, which has lawfully, morally or

physically prevented a person to do what the law commands.

Irresistible Force - offender uses violence or physical force to

compel another person to commit a crime.

Justifying Circumstances - where the act of a person is in accordance

with law such that said person is deemed not to have violated the law.

Mala In Se - acts or omissions that are inherently evil.

Mala Prohibita - acts made evil because there is a law prohibiting it.

Misdemeanor - a minor infraction of law.

Mistake of Fact - misapprehension of fact on the part of the person
who caused injury to another. He is not criminally liable.

Mitigating Circumstances - those which if present in the commission

of the crime reduces the penalty of the crime but does not erase
criminal liability nor change the nature of the crime.

Motive - it is the moving power which impels one to action for a

definite result.

Nullum Crimen, Nulla Poena Sine Lege – There is no crime when there is
no law punishing it.

Obscuridad – (Night time) that period of darkness beginning at the end

of dusk and ending at dawn.

Offense - a crime punished under special law.

Omission – failure to perform a duty required by law.

Pardon – an act of grace proceeding from the power entrusted with the
execution of laws, which exempts the individual from the punishment
the law inflicts for the crime.

Parole – consists in the suspension of the sentence of a convict after

serving the minimum term of the indeterminate penalty, without granting
pardon, prescribing the terms upon which the sentence shall be
suspended. In case his parole conditions are not observed, a convict
may be returned to the custody and continue to serve his sentence
without deducting the time that elapsed.
Penalty – suffering inflicted by the State for the transgression
of a law.

Period – one of 3 equal portions, min/med/max of a divisible penalty.

A period of a divisible penalty when prescribed by the Code as a
penalty for a felony, is in itself a degree.

Person In Authority - public authority, or person who is directly

vested with jurisdiction and has the power to govern and execute
the laws.

Plurality Of Crimes – consists in the successive execution by the same

individual of different criminal acts upon any of which no
conviction has yet been declared.

Praetor Intentionem - lack of intent to commit so grave a wrong.

What is the legal effect of praeter intentionem?

- a mitigating circumstance (Art. 13, par. 3)

Prescription Of A Crime – is the loss/forfeiture of the right of the

state to prosecute the offender after the lapse of a certain time.

Prescription Of Penalty - means the loss/forfeiture of the right of

government to execute the final sentence after the lapse of a
certain time.

Probation - a disposition under which a defendant after conviction and

sentence is released subject to conditions imposed by the court and to
the supervision of a probation officer.

Pro Reo - whenever a penal law is to be construed or applied and the

law admits of two interpretations, one lenient to the offender and one
strict to the offender, that interpretation which is lenient or favorable
to the offender will be adopted.

Proximate Cause - the cause, which in the natural and continuous

sequence unbroken by any efficient intervening cause, produces the
injury, without which the result would not have occurred.

Quasi-Recidivism – Where a person commits felony before beginning to

serve or while serving sentence on a previous conviction for a
felony. This is a special aggravating circumstance.

RA 75 - This law penalizes acts which would impair the proper

observance by the Republic and its inhabitants of the immunities, rights,
and privileges of duly-accredited foreign diplomatic representatives
in the Philippines.

Rank - The designation or title of distinction used to fix the

relative position of the offended party in reference to others
(There must be a difference in the social condition of the offender
and the offended party).

Recidivism – Where a person, on separate occasions, is convicted of

two offenses embraced in the same title in the RPC. This is a
generic aggravating circumstance.

Recidivist – one who at the time of his trial for one crime, shall
have been previously convicted by final judgment of another crime
embraced in the same title of the RPC.

Reiteracion or Habituality – Where the offender has been previously

punished for an offense to which the law attaches an equal or greater
penalty or for two crimes to which it attaches a lighter penalty.
This is a generic aggravating circumstance.

Requisites of Dolo or Malice

1. Freedom
2. Intelligence
3. Intent

Requisites of Culpa
1. Freedom
2. Intelligence
3. Negligence, Imprudence, Lack of Foresight, Lack of Skill

Negligence - it indicates a deficiency of perception; failure to pay

proper attention and to use diligence in foreseeing the injury or
damage impending to be caused; usually involves lack of foresight.

Imprudence - it indicates a deficiency of action; failure to take the

necessary precaution to avoid injury to person or damage to property;
usually involves lack of skill.

Rules on jurisdiction over private or merchant vessels while in the

territory of another country
1. French Rule
2. English Rule

Stand Ground When in The Right - the law does not require a person
to retreat when his assailant is rapidly advancing upon him with a
deadly weapon.

Stages In The Execution Of A Crime

1. Attempted Stage - a stage in the execution of a crime where the offender
 commences commission of a felony directly by over acts, and does
NOT perform all acts of execution which should produce the felony
by reason of some cause or accident other his spontaneous desistance.
2. Frustrated Stage - a stage in the execution of a crime where the offender
performs all the acts of execution which would produce the felony
as a consequence but which, nevertheless, do not produce it due to
some cause independent of the will of the perpetrator.
3. Consummated Stage - a stage in the execution of a crime where all
the elements necessary for its execution and accomplishment
are present.

Treachery – when the offender commits any of the crimes against the
person, employing means, methods or forms in the execution thereof
which tend directly and specially to insure its execution without
risk to himself arising from the defense which the offended party
might make.

Uncontrollable Fear - offender employs intimidation or threat in

compelling another to commit a crime.

Unlawful Entry - when an entrance is effected by a way not intended

for the purpose.

Youthful offender – over 9 but under 18 at time of the commission

of the offense.
Criminal Law Book 2
Reviewer
Abduction - the taking away of a woman from her house or the place
where she may be for the purpose of carrying her to another place
with the intent to marry or to corrupt her.

Related: Full Reference Material in Criminal Law

Forcible abduction - If a woman is transported from one place

to another by virtue of restraining her of her liberty, and that
act is coupled with lewd designs.

Serious illegal detention - If a woman is transported just to

restrain her of her liberty. There is no lewd design or lewd intent.

Grave coercion - If a woman is carried away just to break her

will, to compel her to agree to the demand or request by the
offender.
 Special complex crime of Kidnapping with Murder - When the victim
dies or is killed as a consequence of the detention.

Abortion By A Physician Or Midwife And Dispensing Of Abortives -

punishes a pharmacist who merely dispenses with an abortive without the proper
prescription of a physician. If pharmacist knew that the abortive would
be use for abortion, she would be liable as an accomplice in the crime
of abortion.

Acts Of Lasciviousness - Committed under circumstances w/c, had there

been carnal knowledge, would amount to rape. Offended party is a
female or male.

Adherence – intellectually or emotionally favors the enemy and harbors

sympathies or convictions disloyal to his country’s policy or interest.

Agent Of Person In Authority – any person who, by direct provision of

law or by election or by appointment by competent authority, is charged
with the maintenance of public order and the protection and security
of life and property.

Aid or Comfort – act w/c strengthens or tends to strengthen the enemy

of the government in the conduct of war against the government, or an
act w/c weakens or tends to weaken the power of the government or
the country to resist or to attack the enemies of the gov’t or country.

Alarms and Scandal - The essence of the crime is disturbance of public

tranquility and public peace. Any kind of disturbance of public order
where the circumstance at the time renders the act offensive to the
tranquility prevailing, the crime is committed.

Allegiance – obligation of fidelity and obedience which individuals

owe to the government under which they live or to the sovereign, in
return for protection they receive.

Certificate - any writing by which testimony is given that a fact has

or has not taken place.

Charivari - is a mock serenade or discordant noises made with kettles,

tin horns etc., designed to deride, insult or annoy.

Combination In Restraint Of Trade - is an agreement or understanding

between two or more persons in the form of a contract, trust, pool,
holding company or other form of association, for the purpose of
unduly restricting competition, monopolizing trade and commerce in a
certain commodity, controlling its production, distribution and price,
or otherwise interfering with freedom of trade without statutory authority.
Combination in restraint of trade refers to the means while monopoly
refers to the end.

Conspiracy - when two or more persons come to an agreement to rise

publicly and take arms against government for any of the purposes of
rebellion and decide to commit it.

Coup d' Etat - Essence of the crime: Swift attack against the government,
its military camps an installations, etc. It maybe committed singly or
collectively. Committed through force, violation, intimidation, threat,
strategy or stealth.

Customs - refer to established usage, social conventions carried on by

tradition and enforced by social disapproval in case of violation.

Decency - means properly observing the requirements of modesty,

good taste.
Delay in the Delivery of Detained Persons - Crime is committed by
failing to deliver such person to the proper judicial authority within
a certain period. Detention is for some legal ground.

Dereliction of Duty - Committed only by public officers who have the

duty to institute prosecution for the punishment of violations of
the law. Public officer does not abandon his office but merely fails
to prosecute a violation of the law.

Direct Assault - The Public Authority or the Agent of the Public

Authority must be engaged in the performance of official duties or
that he is assaulted by reason thereof.

Direct Bribery - the officer agrees to perform or refrain from doing

an act in consideration of the gift or promise.

Indirect Bribery - it is not necessary that the officer do any

act. It is sufficient that he accepts the gift offered by
reason of his office.

Dissolute – lax, unrestrained, immoral (includes maintainer of house

of prostitution).

Document - any written statement by which a right is established or

an obligation is extinguished.

Duel - is a formal or regular combat previously consented to by two

parties in the presence of two or more seconds of lawful age on
each side, who make the selection of arms and fix all the other
conditions of the fight to settle some antecedent quarrel.
If these are not the conditions of the fight, it is not a duel
 in the sense contemplated in the Revised Penal Code. It will
be a quarrel and anyone who killed the other will be liable
for homicide or murder, as the case may be.

Espionage - is the offense of gathering, transmitting, or losing

information respecting the national defense with intent or reason to
believe that the information is to be used to the injury of the Republic
of the Philippines or the advantage of a foreign nation.

Estafa With Abuse of Confidence - Crime is committed by misappropriating,

converting, or denying having received money, goods or other personal
property.

False Testimony - committed by a person who, being under oath and

required to testify as to the truth of a certain matter at a hearing
before a competent authority, shall deny the truth or say
something contrary to it.

Forgery - The essence of forgery is giving a document the appearance

of a true and genuine document. Not any alteration of a letter, number,
figure or design would amount to forgery. At most, it would only be
frustrated forgery.

Grave scandal - consists of acts which are offensive to decency and

good customs. They are committed publicly and thus, give rise to
public scandal to persons who have accidentally witnessed the acts.

Illegal Detention - Committed by a Committed by private individual

public officer or who unlawfully employee who deprives a person
detains a person of his liberty.

Illegal Exactions - This can only be committed principally

by a public officer whose official duty is to collect taxes, license
fees, import duties and other dues payable to the government.
Mere demand of a larger or different amount is sufficient to consummate
the crime. The essence is the improper collection (damage to government
is not required)

Illegal marriage - Illegal marriage includes also such other marriages

which are performed without complying with the requirements of law, or
marriages where the consent of the other is vitiated, or such marriage
which was solemnized by one who is not authorized to solemnize the same.

Imprudence - Failure in precaution.

Incriminating Innocent Person - act of planting evidence and the like

in order to incriminate an innocent person.

Inducing A Minor To Abandon His Home - What constitutes the crime is

the act of inducing a minor to abandon his home of his guardian, and
it is not necessary that the minor actually abandons the home.

Infanticide - the victim is younger than three days or 72 hours old;

can be committed by a stranger. If a stranger who conspires with parent,
both commit the crime of infanticide.

In Flight – From the moment all exterior doors are closed following
embarkation until the same doors are again opened for disembarkation.

Insurrection - more commonly employed in reference to a movement which

seeks merely to effect some change of minor importance, or to prevent
the exercise of governmental authority with respect to particular
matters or subjects.
Interlocutory Order - one issued by the court deciding a collateral
or incidental matter; it is not a final determination of the issues
of the action or proceeding.

Intriguing Against Honor - is referred to as gossiping: the offender,

without ascertaining the truth of a defamatory utterance, repeats the
same and pass it on to another, to the damage of the offended party.

Libel - Defamation is in writing or printed media.

Slander - oral defamation.

Defamation - public and malicious imputation calculated to cause

dishonor, discredit, or contempt upon the offended party.

Malfeasance - Doing of an act which a public officer should not

have done.

Malversation - is otherwise called embezzlement. Crime is committed

by approaching, taking, or misappropriating/consenting, or through
abandonment or negligence, permitting any other person to take the
public funds/property.

Manifestly Unjust Judgment – manifestly contrary to law that even a

person having meager knowledge of law cannot doubt the injustice; not
abuse of discretion or mere error of judgment.

Medical Malpractice - which is a form of negligence, consists in the

failure of a physician or surgeon to apply to his practice of medicine
that degree of care and skill which is ordinarily employed by the
profession generally, under similar conditions, and in like surrounding
circumstances.
Misfeasance - Improper doing of an act which a person might lawfully do.

Monopoly - is a privilege or peculiar advantage vested in one or more

persons or companies, consisting in the exclusive right or power to
carry on a particular business or trade, manufacture a particular
article, or control the sale or the whole supply of a particular
commodity. It is a form of market structure in which one or only a few
firms dominate the total sales of a product or service.

Mutiny - the unlawful resistance to a superior, or the raising of

commotions and disturbances on board a ship against the authority of
its commander.

Negligence - Failure in advertence.

Nonfeasance - Failure of an agent to perform his undertaking for

the principal.

Perjury by Making False Accusations - giving of false statement under

oath or making a false affidavit, imputing to the person the commission
of a crime.

Person In Authority – any person directly vested with jurisdiction,

whether as an individual or as a member of some court or governmental
corporation, board or commission.

Piracy - it is robbery or forcible depredation on the high seas, without

lawful authority and done with animo furandi and in the spirit and
intention of universal hostility.

Political Crimes – are those directly aimed against the political order,
as well as such common crimes as may be committed to achieve a political
purpose. The decisive factor is the intent or motive.

Prevaricacion - means the negligence and tolerance in the prosecution

of an offense.

Proposal - when the person who has decided to rise publicly and take
arms against the government for any of the purposes of rebellion
proposes its execution to some other person or persons.

Prostitutes - women who habitually(not just 1 man) indulge in sexual

intercourse or lascivious conduct for money or profit (If a man
indulges in the same conduct, the crime committed is vagrancy.)

Quasi-Recidivism - Commission of Another Crime During Service of

Penalty Imposed for Another Previous Offense.

Rebellion - more frequently used where the object of the movement is

completely to overthrow and supersede the existing government.

Revealing Secrets With Abuse Of Office - Essence of this crime is

that the offender learned of the secret in the course of his employment.
He is enjoying a confidential relation with the employer or master
so he should respect the privacy of matters personal to the latter.

Ruffians – brutal, violent, lawless.

Sedition - It is the raising of commotions or disturbances in the State.

It is sufficient that the public uprising be tumultuous. The purpose
may be political or social.

Seduction - enticing a woman to unlawful sexual intercourse by promise

of marriage or other means of persuasion without use of force. It
applies when there is abuse of authority (qualified seduction) or
deceit (simple seduction).

Service Mark – is a mark used in the sale or advertising of services

to identify the services of one person and distinguish them from the
services of others and includes without limitation the marks, names,
symbols, titles, designations, slogans, character names, and distinctive
features of radio or other advertising.

Slavery - This is committed if anyone shall purchase, kidnap, or

detain a human being for the purpose of enslaving him.

Trade-Name Or Trade-Mark – is a word or words, name, title, symbol,

emblem, sign or device, or any combination thereof used as an
advertisement, sign, label, poster, or otherwise, for the purpose of
enabling the public to distinguish the business of the person who
owns and uses said trade-name or trade-mark.

Treason – breach of allegiance to the government by a person who owes

allegiance to it. The levying of war against the government would
constitute treason when performed to aid the enemy.

Tumultuous - caused by more than 3 persons who are armed or provided with
means of violence.

Unfair Competition - consists in employing deception or any other means

contrary to good faith by which any person shall pass off the goods
manufactured by him or in which he deals, or his business, or services
for those of the one having established goodwill, or committing any acts
calculated to produce such result.
Unintentional Abortion - requires physical violence inflicted deliberately
and voluntarily by a third person upon the pregnant woman. If the pregnant
woman aborted because of intimidation, the crime committed is not
unintentional abortion because there is no violence; the crime committed
is light threats.
Unlawful Arrest - This felony consists in making an arrest or detention
without legal or reasonable ground for the purpose of delivering the
offended party to the proper authorities.
Vagrants - Those who have no apparent means of subsistence and who have
the physical ability to work yet neglect to apply themselves to some
useful calling.
Special Penal Laws

BP 22 - Anti-Bouncing Checks Law - The gravamen of BP 22 is the

issuance of a check.

Commonwealth Act No.142 (Regulating the Use of Aliases) - No person

shall use any name different from the one with which he was
registered at birth in the office of the local civil registry, or
with which he was registered in the bureau of immigration upon entry;
or such substitute name as may have been authorized by a competent
court.

Gambling - any game of chance or scheme, whether upon chance or skill,

wherein wagers consisting of money, articles or value or representative
or value are at stake or made.

Betting - betting money or any object or article of value or

representative of value upon the result of any game, races and other
sport contests.

Game-Fixing - any arrangement, combinations, scheme or agreement by

which the result of any game, races or sport contests shall be
 predicated and/or known other than on the basis of the honest playing
skill or ability of the players or participants.

Game Machination - any other fraudulent, deceitful, unfair or

dishonest means, methods, manner or practice employed for the
purpose of influencing the result of any game, races or sports
contest.

Point-Shaving - any such arrangement, combination, scheme or

agreement by which the skill of ability of any player or participant
in a game, races or sports contests to make points or scores
shall be limited deliberately in order to influence the result
thereof in favor one or the other team, player or participant therein.

Presidential Decree NO. 46 - Prohibits giving and acceptance of gifts

by a public officer or to a public officer, even during anniversary, or
when there is an occasion like Christmas, New Year, or any gift-giving
anniversary. Both giver and receiver are punished. The giving of a
party is also punishable and is not limited to the public officer
only but also to any member of his family.

Presidential Decree No. 449 (The Cockfighting Law of 1974) - Only allows
one cockpit per municipality, unless the population exceeds 100,000 in
which case two cockpits may be established; Cockfights can only be
held in licensed cockpits on Sundays and legal holidays and local
fiestas for not more than three days;

PD No.532 - (The Anti - Piracy and Anti-Highway Robbery Law of 1974)

Was issued in August 1974, punishing piracy, but not mutiny,
in Philippine territorial waters.

PD 533 Anti-Cattle Rustling Law - Cattle rustling - taking away by

means,methods or schemes, without the consent of the owner/raiser, of
any large cattle whether or not for profit, or whether committed with
or without violence against or intimidation of person or force upon
things. It includes killing of large cattle, taking its meat or hide
without the consent of owner/raiser.

PD 704 Illegal Fishing

Presidential Decree NO.749 - Givers of bribes and other gifts as well

as accomplices in bribery and violations of the Anti-graft and
Corrupt Practices Act are immune from prosecution under the following
circumstances:
a. information refers to consummated violations
b. necessity of the information or testimony
c. the information and testimony are not yet in the possession of the
State
d. information and testimony can be corroborated on its material points.
e. informant has been previously convicted of a crime involving
moral turpitude

PD 1069 - (The Philippine Extradition Law)

PD 1563 Mendicancy Law Of 1978 - A mendicant refers to any person who

has no visible and legal means of support, or lawful employment and
who is physically able to work but neglects to apply himself to some
lawful calling and instead uses begging as a means of living.

PD 1612: Anti-Fencing Law

Fencing - the act of any person who, with intent to gain for
himself or for another, shall buy, receive, keep, acquire, conceal,
sell, or dispose of, or shall buy an d sell or in any other
manner deal in any article, item, object, or anything of value
 which he knows, or should be known to him, to have been derived
from the proceeds of the crime of robbery or theft.

PD 1613 - Destructive Arson

RA 75 - also punishes using the use of uniform, decoration or regalia

of a foreign state by people not entitled to do so.

RA 493 - punishes wearing an insignia, badge, or emblem of rank of the

members of the AFP or constabulary.

RA 947 - punishes entering or occupying public agricultural land

including lands granted to private individuals.

RA NO. 3019 (Anti-Graft And Corrupt Practices Act) - Persons Liable:

1.Any public officer who, by himself or in connivance with members of
his family, relatives by affinity or consanguinity, business associates
and subordinates or other persons, amasses, accumulates, or acquires ill-
gotten wealth through a combination or series of overt or criminal acts as
described under (I) in the aggregate amount or total value of at least 50
million pesos, shall be guilty of the crime of plunder (as amended by RA
7659).
2.Any person who participated with the said public officer in the
commission of plunder.

RA NO. 1379 (Forfeiture Of Ill-Gotten Wealth) - If the public officer

is found to have amassed wealth out of proportion to his legitimate
income, the said wealth will be forfeited in favor of the government.

RA 4200 - (Anti-Wiretapping Law) It shall be unlawful for any person,

not being authorized by all the parties to any private communication
or spoken word, to tap any wire or cable, or by using any other device
or arrangement, to secretly overhear, intercept, or record such
communication or spoken word by using a device commonly known as a
dictaphone or dictagraph or dictaphone or walkie-talkie or tape
recorder, or however otherwise described.

Republic Act No. 6235 (The Anti Hi-jacking Law) - is another kind of
piracy which is committed in an aircraft. In other countries, this
crime is known as aircraft piracy.

RA 6713: Code Of Conduct And Ethical Standards For Public

Officials And Employees

Conflict of interest - arises when a public official or employee

is a member of a board, an officer, or a substantial stockholder
of a private corporation or owner or has a substantial interest
in a business, and the interest of such corporation or business,
or his rights or duties therein, may be opposed to or affected by
the faithful performance of official duty.

Divestment - is the transfer of title or disposal of interest in

property by voluntarily, completely and actually depriving or
dispossessing oneself of his right or title to it in favor of a
person or persons other than his spouse and relatives as defined
in this Act.

RA NO. 7080 (Anti-plunder Act)

RA 7438 - Rights Of Persons Arrested, Detained, Or Under Custodial

Investigation; Duties Of Public Officers.
1. Be informed, in a language known to and understood by him,
of his rights to remain silent and to have competent and
independent counsel.
 2. Be assisted by counsel at all times. Preferably of his own
choice.
3. Be visited by or have conferences with Any member of his
immediate family.

Republic Act No. 7610 Special Protection Of Children Against Child Abuse,
Exploitation And Discrimination Act.

Republic Act No. 7659 - An Act To Impose The Death Penalty On Certain
Heinous Crimes, Amending For That Purpose The Revised Penal Code,
As Amended, Other Special Penal Laws, And For Other Purposes)

RA 7877 - Anti-Sexual Harassment Act Of 1995

Republic Act No. 9165 (Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002)

What are the unlawful acts defined and punished?
- Importation of Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and
Essential Chemical (Section 4)
- Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery,
Distribution and Transportation of Dangerous Drugs and/or
Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals (Section 5)
- Maintenance of a Den, Dive or Resort. (Section 6)
- Employees and Visitors of a Den, Dive or Resort (Section 7)
- Manufacture of Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and
Essential Chemicals (Section 8)
- Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and
Essential Chemicals. (Section 9)
- Manufacture or Delivery of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus,
and Other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled
Precursors and Essential Chemicals. (Section 10)
- Possession of Dangerous Drugs (Section 11)
- Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and Other
 Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs (Section 12)
- Possession of Dangerous Drugs During Parties, Social Gatherings
or Meetings (Section 13)
- Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and Other
Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs During Parties, Social
Gatherings or Meetings (Section 14)
- Use of Dangerous Drugs (Section 15)
- Cultivation or Culture of Plants Classified as Dangerous Drugs
or are Sources Thereof. (Section 16)
- Maintenance and Keeping of Original Records of Transactions
on Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential
Chemicals (Section 17)
- Unnecessary Prescription of Dangerous Drugs (Section 18)
- Unlawful Prescription of Dangerous Drugs (Section 19)

PDEA - is the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency It serves as

the implementing arm of the Dangerous Drugs Board.

Republic Act No. 8049 The Anti-Hazing Law

Hazing - This is any initiation rite or practice which is a
prerequisite for admission into membership in a fraternity or
sorority or any organization which places the neophyte or
applicant in some embarrassing or humiliating situations or
otherwise subjecting him to physical or psychological suffering
of injury. These do not include any physical, mental, psychological
testing and training procedure and practice to determine and
enhance the physical and psychological fitness of the prospective
regular members of the below.

RA 8353 - An Act Expanding The Definition Of The Crime Of Rape,

Reclassifying The Same As A Crime Against Persons.
RA 9208 - Anti-Trafficking Of Persons Act Of 2003

RA 9231 - Anti-Child Labor Act Of 2003

RA 10591 - Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition Regulation Act

Evidence Reviewer

Admission - any statement of fact made by a party against his interest

or unfavorable to the conclusion for which he contends or is inconsistent
with the facts alleged by him.

Related: Full Reference Material in Evidence

Best Evidence Rule - is that rule which requires the highest grade of
evidence obtainable to prove a disputed fact.

Burden Of Evidence - logical necessity on a

party during a particular time of the trail to create a
prima facie case in his favor or to destroy that
created against him by presenting evidence.

Burden Of Proof/Risk of Non-Persuasion - the duty of a party to present

evidence on the facts in issue necessary to establish his claim or defense
by the amount of evidence required by law.

Character - the aggregate of the moral qualities which belong to and

distinguish an individual person.

Circumstantial Evidence - is the proof of a fact or facts from which

taken either singly or collectively, the existence or a particular
fact in dispute may be inferred as a necessary or probable consequence.

Common Reputation - is the definite opinion of the community in which

the fact to be proved is known or exists. It means the general or
substantially undivided reputation, as distinguished from a partial or
qualified one, although it need not be unanimous.

Competency Of A Witness - is the legal fitness or ability of a witness

to be heard on the trial of a cause.

Competent Evidence - one that is not excluded by this Rules, a statute

or the Constitution.

Compromise - is an agreement made between two or more parties as a

settlement matters in dispute.

Conclusive Evidence - the class of evidence which the law does not allow
to be contradicted.

Confession - categorical acknowledgement of guilt made by an accused

in a criminal case, without any exculpatory statement or explanation.
If the accused admits having committed the act in question but alleges
a justification therefore, the same is merely an admission.

Judicial Confession - one made before a court in which the case

is pending and in the course of legal proceedings therein and,
by itself, can sustain a conviction even in capital offenses.

Extra Judicial Confession - one made in any other place or

occasion and cannot sustain a conviction unless corroborated by
evidence of the corpus delicti. This section refers to extrajudicial
confessions.

Corroborative Evidence - is additional evidence of a difference character

to the same point.

Cumulative Evidence - evidence of the same kind and to the same state
of facts.

Demonstrative Evidence - is a tangible evidence that merely illustrates

a matter of importance in the litigation such as maps, diagrams,
models, summaries and other materials created especially for litigation.

Direct Evidence - that which proves the fact in dispute without the
aid of any inference or presumption.

Doctine Of Processual Presumption - absent any of the evidence or admission,

the foreign law is presumed to be the same as that in the Philippines.

Document - any substance having any matter expressed or described upon

it by marks capable of being read.
- is a deed, instrument or other duly authorized appear by
which something is proved, evidenced or set forth.

Documentary Evidence - evidence supplied by written instruments or derived

from conventional symbols, such as letters, by which ideas are represented
on material substances.

Dying Declaration - The ante mortem statements made by a person after

the mortal wound has been inflicted under the belief that the death is
certain, stating the fact concerning the cause of and the circumstances
surrounding the attack.

Equipose Rule - Where the evidence gives rise to two probabilities,

one consistent with defendant’s innocence, and another indicative of
his guilt, that which is favorable to the accused should be considered.

Estoppel By Deed – the tenant is not permitted to deny title of his

landlord at the time of the commencement of the land-lord tenant
relationship. If the title asserted is one that is alleged to have been
acquired subsequent to the commencement of that relation, the presumption
will not apply.

Estoppel In Pais - whenever a party has, by his own declaration, act,

or omission, intentionally and deliberately lead another to believe a
particular thing to be true and act upon such belief, he cannot, in
any litigation arising out of such declaration, act or omission, be
permitted to falsify it.

Expert Witness - one who belongs to the profession or calling to which

the subject matter of the inquiry relates to and who possesses special
knowledge on questions on which he proposes to express an opinion.

Express Admissions - are those made in definite, certain and unequivocal

language.

Extra Judicial Admissions - are those made out of court, or in a judicial

proceeding other than the one under consideration.

Fact - thing done or existing.

Facts In Issue - are those facts which the plaintiff must prove in order
to establish his claim and those facts which the defendant must prove
in order to establish a defense set up by him, but only when the fact
alleged by the one party is not admitted by the other party.

Facts Relevant To The Issue - are those facts which render the probable
existence or non-existence of a fact in issue, or some other relevant
fact.

Factum Probandum - the ultimate fact or the fact sought to be established.

- Refers to proposition

Factum Probans - is the evidentiary fact or the fact by which the factum
probandum is to be established. Materials which establish the proposition.

Hearsay Rule - Any evidence, whether oral or documentary is hearsay if

its probative value is not based on the personal knowledge of the
witness but on the knowledge of some other person not on the witness
stand.

Impeaching Evidence - a proper foundation must be laid for the impeaching

questions, by calling attention of such party to his former statement
so as to give him an opportunity to explain before such admissions are
offered in evidence.

Implied Admissions - are those which may be inferred from the acts,
declarations or omission of a party. Therefore, an admission may be
implied from conduct, statement of silence of a party.

Independent Evidence - admissions are original evidence and no foundation

is necessary for their introduction in evidence

Intermediate Ambiguity - situation where an ambiguity partakes of the

nature of both patent and latent. In this, the words are seemingly
clear and with a settled meaning, is actually equivocal and admits of
two interpretations. Here, parol evidence is admissible to clarify
the ambiguity provided that the matter is put in issue by the pleader.
Example: Dollars, tons and ounces.

Issue - is the point or points in question, at the conclusion of the

pleadings which one side affirms, and the other side denies.
Judicial Admissions - are those so made in the pleadings filed or in
the progress of a trial.
- It is one made in connection with a judicial
proceeding in which it is offered, while an extrajudicial admission
is any other admission.

Judicial Notice - no more than that the court will bring to its aid
and consider, without proof of the facts, its knowledge of those
matters of public concern which are known by all well-informed
persons.
- cognizance of certain facts which judges may take
and act on without proof because they are already known to them.

Material Evidence - evidence directed to prove a fact in issue as

determined by the rules of substantive law and pleadings. The test is
whether the fact it intends to prove is an issue or not. AS to whether
a fact is in issue or not is in turn determined by the substantive law,
the pleadings, the pre-trial order and by the admissions or confessions
on file. Consequently, evidence may be relevant but may be immaterial
in the case.

Negative Evidence - when the witness did not see or know of the occurrence
of a fact. There is a total disclaimer of persona knowledge, hence without
any representation or disavowal that the fact in question could or could
not have existed or happened. It is admissible only if it tends to
contradict positive evidence of the other side or would tend to exclude
the existence of fact sworn to by the other side.

Object Evidence - is a tangible object that played some actual role on

the matter that gave rise to the litigation. For instance, a knife.
Objective or Real Evidence - directly addressed to the senses of the
court and consist of tangible things exhibited or demonstrated in open
court, in an ocular inspection, or at place designated by the court
for its view or observation of an exhibition, experiment or demonstration.
This is referred to as autoptic preference.

Omnia praesumuntur rite et solemniter esse acta donec probetur in

contrarium – all things are presumed to have been done regularly and
with due formality until the contrary is proved.

Opinion - an inference or conclusion drawn from facts observed.

Ordinary Opinion Evidence - that which is given by a witness who is

of ordinary capacity and who has by opportunity acquired a particular
knowledge which is outside the limits of common observation and which
may be of value in elucidating a matter under consideration.

Parol Evidence - any evidence aliunde, whether oral or written, which

is intended or tends to vary or contradict a complete and enforceable
agreement embodied in a document.

Patent or Extrinsic Ambiguity - is such ambiguity which is apparent on

the face of the writing itself and requires something to be added in
order to ascertain the meaning of the words used. In this case, parol
evidence is not admissible, otherwise the court would be creating a
contract between the parties.

Pedigree - includes relationship, family genealogy, birth, marriage,

death, the dates when, and the placer where these facts occurred and
the names of their relatives. It embraces also facts of family history
intimately connected with pedigree.
Positive Evidence - when the witness affirms that a fact did or did not
occur. Entitled to a greater weight since the witness represents of his
personal knowledge the presence or absence of a fact.

Presumption - An inference as to the existence or non-existence of a

fact which courts are permitted to draw from the proof of other facts.

Presumption Juris Or Of Law – is a deduction which the law

expressly directs to be made from particular facts.

Presumption Hominis Or Of Fact – is a deduction which reason

draws from facts proved without an express direction from the
law to that effect.

Prima Facie Evidence - that which is standing alone, unexplained or

uncontradicted, is sufficient to maintain the proposition affirmed.

Primary Evidence - that which the law regards as affording the greatest
certainty of the fact in question. Also referred to as the best evidence.

Privies - those who have mutual or successive relationship to the

same right of property or subject matter, such as “personal
representatives, heirs, devisees, legatees, assigns, voluntary grantee
or judgment creditors or purchasers from them without notices to the fact.

Privity - mutual succession of relationship to the same rights of property.

Proof - the result or effect of evidence. When the requisite quantum

of evidence of a particular fact has been duly admitted and given weight,
the result is called the proof of such fact.

Relevant Evidence - evidence having any value in reason as tending to

prove any matter provable in an action. The test is the logical relation
of the evidentiary fact to the fact in issue, whether the former tends
to establish the probability or improbability of the latter.

Res Gestae - literally means things done; it includes circumstances,

facts, and declarations incidental to the main facts or transaction
necessary to illustrate its character and also includes acts, words,
or declarations which are closely connected therewith as to constitute
part of the transaction.

Rule Of Exclusion - that which is secondary evidence cannot inceptively

be introduced as the original writing itself must be produced in court,
except in the four instances mentioned in Section 3.

Secondary Evidence - that which is inferior to the primary evidence and

is permitted by law only when the best evidence is not available.
Known as the substitutionary evidence.
- shows that better or primary evidence exists as to
the proof of fact in question. It is deemed less reliable.

Self Serving Declaration - is one which has been made extrajudicially

by the party to favor his interests. It is not admissible in evidence.

Testimonial Evidence - is that which is submitted to the court through

the testimony or deposition of a witness.

Unsound Mind - any mental aberration, whether organic or functional, or

induced by drugs or hypnosis.

Witness - reference to a person who testifies in a case or gives evidence

before a judicial tribunal.
Criminal Procedure
Reviewer

Affidavit of Desistance - the complainant states that he did not

really intend to institute the case and that he is no longer
interested in testifying or prosecuting.

Related: Full Reference Material in Criminal Procedure

Appeal - A proceeding for review by which the whole case is

transferred on the higher court.

Appellant - The party appealing

Appellee - The party adverse to the appellant.

Arraignment - It means for bringing the accused into court and

informing him of the nature and cause of the accusation against him.

Arrest - taking a person into custody in order that he may be bound

to answer for the commission of some offense, made by an actual
restraint of the person or by his submission to custody.

Attachment - It is a remedy afforded to the offended party to have

the property of the accused attached as security for the satisfaction
of any judgment that may be recovered from the accused.

Bail - security given for the release of a person in custody of law,

furnished by him or a bondsman, conditioned upon his appearance before
any court as required.

Bail Bond - an obligation under seal given by accused with one or

more sureties and made payable to proper officer with the condition
to be void upon performance by the accused of such acts as he may
legally be required to perform.

Brief - It literally means a short or condensed statement. The purpose

of the brief is to present to the court in concise form the points
and questions in controversy, and by fair argument on the facts and
law of the case, to assist the court in arriving at a just and
proper conclusion.

Capital Offense - It is an offense which, under the law existing at

the time of its commission and of the application for admission to
bail may be punished with death.

Certiorari - is used to correct only errors of jurisdiction and not

errors of judgment of an inferior court.

Confrontation - It is the act of setting a witness face to face with

the accused so that the latter may make any objection he has to the
witness, and the witness may identify the accused, and this must take
place in the presence of the court having jurisdiction to permit the
privilege of cross examination.

Counsel De Officio - He is counsel appointed by the court to represent

and defend the accused in case he cannot afford to employ one himself.

Complaint - sworn written statement charging a person with an offense,

subscribed by the offended party, any peace officer or other public
official charged with the enforcement of the law violated.

Continuous Trial System - Trial once commenced shall continue from

day to day as far as practicable until terminated; but it may be
postponed for a reasonable period of time for good cause.

Criminal Action - It is an action by which the State prosecutes a

person for an act or omission punishable by law.

Criminal Jurisdiction - It is the authority to hear and try a

particular offense and impose the punishment for it.

Criminal Procedure - It is the method prescribed by law for the

apprehension and prosecution of persons accused of any criminal offense
and for their punishment, in case of conviction.

Custodial Investigation - Involves any questioning initiated by law

enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or
otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way.

Demurrer To Evidence - It is an objection by one of the parties in

an action, to the effect that the evidence which his adversary produced
is insufficient in point of law, whether true or not, to make out a
case or sustain the issue.
Deposition - It is the testimony of a witness taken upon oral
questions or written interrogatories, in open court, but in pursuance
of a commission to take testimony issued by a court, or under a general
law or court rule on the subject, and reduced to writing and duly
authenticated, and intended to be used in preparation and upon the
trial of a civil or criminal prosecution.

Duplicity of the Offense - A complaint or information must charge

only one offense, except when the law prescribes a single
punishment for various offenses.

Error of Judgment - One which the court may commit in the exercise of
its jurisdiction.

Equipose Rule - where the evidence of the parties in a criminal case

are evenly balanced, the constitutional presumption of innocence should
tilt in favor of the accused who must be acquitted.

General Warrant - It is a process which authorizes the search and

seizure of things, in a general manner. It does not specify or
describe with particularity the things to be searched and seized.
This kind of warrant is VOID as it infringes on the constitutional
mandate requiring particular description of the things to be seized.

Habeas Corpus - is available when a person is imprisoned beyond the

maximum penalty imposed by law.

Hearing - It is not confined to trial but embraces the several stages

of litigation, including the pre-trial stage.

Improvident Plea - It is a plea without information as to all the

circumstances affecting it; based upon a mistaken assumption or
misleading information or advice.

Information - accusation in writing charging a person with an offense,

subscribed by the fiscal and filed with the court.

Judgment - adjudication by the court that the accused is guilty or not

guilty of the offense charged, and the imposition of the proper penalty
and civil liability provided by law on the accused.

Mittimus - It is a process issued by the court after conviction to

carry out the final judgment.

Motion To Quash - a hypothetical admission that even if all the facts

alleged were true, the accused still cannot be convicted due to other
reasons.

New Trial - The rehearing of a case already decided but before the
judgment of conviction therein rendered has become final, whereby
errors of law or irregularities are expunged from the record or new
evidence is introduced or both steps are taken.

Nolle Prosequi - is a dismissal of the criminal case by the government

before the accused is placed on trial and before he is called to plead,
with the approval of the court in the exercise of its judicial discretion.

Oath - Includes any form of attestation by which a party signifies that

he is bound in conscience to perform an act faithfully and truthfully.

Parole - the conditional release of an offender from a penal or

correctional institution after he has served the minimum period of his
prison sentence under the continued custody of the state and under
conditions that permit his reincarceration if he violated the conditions
of his release.

Plea Bargaining - process whereby the accused and the prosecution in

a criminal case work out a mutually satisfactory disposition of the
case subject to court approval. It usually involves the defendant's
pleading guilty to a lesser offense or to only some of the counts of
a multi-count indictment in return for a lighter sentence than that
for the greater charge.

Prejudicial Question - It is one which arises in a case, the

resolution of which is a logical antecedent of the issue involved
therein and the cognizance of which pertains to another tribunal.

Preliminary Investigation - inquiry or proceeding to determine if

there is sufficient ground to engender a well-founded belief that a
crime cognizable by the RTC has been committed, and that the respondent
is probably guilty thereof, and should be held for trial.

Pre-Trial Order - It is an order issued by the court reciting the

actions taken, the facts stipulated and the evidence marked
during the pre-trial conference. Such order binds the parties and
limits the trial to those matters not disposed of.

Probable Cause - such facts and circumstances which would lead a

reasonably prudent man to believe that a crime has been committed and
the thing to be searched for and seized is in the place to be searched.
- Such reasons, supported by facts and circumstances,
as will warrant a cautious man in the belief that his action, and the
means taken in prosecuting it, are legally just and proper

Probable Cause For A Search - It is defined as such facts and

circumstances which would lead a reasonably discreet and prudent man
to believe that an offense has been committed and that the objects
sought in connection with the offense are in the place sought to
be searched.

Probable Cause In General - Such facts and circumstances antecedent

to the issuance of the warrant, that are in themselves sufficient to
induce a cautious man to believe that the person against whom the
search warrant is applied had committed or is about to commit a crime.

Probation - disposition under which a defendant after conviction and

sentences, is released subject to conditions imposed by the court and
to the supervision of a probation officer.

Property Bond - It is an undertaking constituted as a lien on the real

property given as security for the amount of the bail.

Provisional Remedy - It is one provided for present need or one that is

adopted to meet a particular exigency.

Reasonable Doubt - state of the case which, after full consideration

of all the evidence, leaves the mind of the judge in such a condition
that he cannot say that he feels an abiding conviction, to a moral
certainty, of the truth of the charge.

Recantation - A Witness who previously gave a testimony subsequently

declares that his statements were not true.

Recognizance - Obligation of record entered into before some court

of magistrate duly authorized to take it, with the condition to do
some particular act, the most usual condition in criminal cases being
the appearance of the accused for trial.
Reduced Bail - A person in custody for a period to or more than the
minimum of the principal penalty prescribed for the offense charged,
without application of the Indeterminate Sentence Law or any modifying
circumstance, shall be released on a reduced bail or on his own
recognizance at the discretion of the court.

Reverse Trial - When the accused admits the act or omission charged in
the complaint/information but interposes a lawful defense, the trial
court may allow the accused to present his defense first and thereafter
give the prosecution the opportunity to present his rebuttal evidence.

Scatter Shot Warrant - It is a warrant that is issued for more than

one offense. It is void, since the law requires that a warrant should
only be issued in connection with one specific offense.

Search - It is an examination of a man’s house, buildings or other

premises, or of his person, with a view to the discovery of some
evidence of guilt to be used in the prosecution of a criminal action
for some offense with which he is charged.

Searching Questions and Answers - Such questions as have the tendency

to show the commission of a crime and perpetrator thereof.

Search Warrant - an order in writing issued in the name of the People

of the Philippines, signed by a judge and directed to a peace officer,
commanding him to search for personal property described therein and
bring it before the court.

Seizure - It is the physical taking of a thing into custody;

contemplates a forcible disposition of the owner.

State Witness - One of two or more persons jointly charged with the
commission of a crime but who is discharged with his consent as such
accused so that he may be a witness for the state.

Stop and Frisk - A limited protective search of outer clothing for weapon.

Transactional Immunity - witness can no longer be prosecuted for any

offense whatsoever arising out of the act or transaction.

Trial - It is the examination before a competent tribunal according

to the laws of the land, of the facts put in issue in a case for the
purpose of determining such issue.

Trial in Absentia - accused in case of his non-appearance After

Arraignment despite due notice simply means that he thereby waives
his right to meet the witnesses face to face, among others.

Use and Derivative Use Immunity - witness is only assured that his
or her particular testimony and evidence derived from it will not be
used against him or her in a subsequent prosecution.