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MISCONCEPTIONS IN MATHEMATICS
1. Math requires special or inherent intellectual abilities.
2. Math is gender dependent, ethnic based, hereditary.
3. Math in modern issues is too complex for the average person to understand.
4. It is difficult and dull.
5. Math makes you less sensitive to the romantic and aesthetic aspects of life.
6. Math makes no allowance for creativity.
7. Math provides exact answers.
8. Math is irrelevant to my life.
MATHEMATICS (definition)
The word mathematics is derived from the Greek word mathematikos which means
“inclined to learn” (thus literally, to be mathematical is to be curious, open-minded, and
interested in always learning more)
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● It is the language of nature because it is very useful for modeling the natural
world.
● It has its own grammar and vocabulary.
● You must be “fluent” in this language. Quantitative literacy is the level of
mathematical fluency required for success in today’s world.
POPULAR QUOTES
John Kerneny
The man ignorant of Mathematics will be increasingly limited in his grasp of the
main forces of civilization.
Roger Bacon
Mathematics is the door and key to the sciences.
Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Mathematics is distinguished to have a particular privilege, that is, in the course
of ages, they may always advance and can never recede.
*Quantitative literacy is fundamental to nearly every discipline of study and to different issues in
society that an individual faces.
INTERDISCIPLINARY THINKING
● Important issues, whether personal or societal, are interdisciplinary in nature.
They can best be understood when examined from various perspectives.
● Issues are better studied in an approach that recognizes how the various
branches of human knowledge are interconnected.
● The danger of compartmentalized education is the lack of perspective and the
inability to see the ‘big picture’.
QUANTITATIVE LITERACY
● Quantitative literacy is literacy in terms of information involving mathematical
ideas or numbers. It is the ability to interpret and reason with quantitative
information.
● Quantitative reasoning is the process of interpreting and reasoning with
quantitative information.
INNUMERACY
● It is the lack of quantitative literacy.
● Since quantitative literacy is a survival skill, the lack of it can lead to financial
trouble and personal problems.
● Innumeracy leads to a misunderstanding of logic, probability and statistics, thus
to an inability to distinguish between legitimate science and fraudulent science
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2. It helps you appreciate literature.
3. It helps you appreciate the substantial contribution to mathematics, science and
technology of achievers in art, literature or politics.
4. It provides greater chances for employment.
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CHAPTER 2.1: INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC AND REASONING
WHAT IS LOGIC
● Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct reasoning
from wrong reasoning. Copi
● Logic deals with arguments and inferences. It provides methods for distinguishing those
which are logically correct from those which are not. Salmon
● Logic is concerned with the question of adequacy or probative value of different kinds of
evidence. Cohen
● Logic is both science and art; it is concerned with the quest of knowledge and truth; it is
also the study of the validity or correctness of our reasoning. Mourant
● The main business of logic is the systematic evaluation of arguments for internal
cogency. Smith
INFORMAL LOGIC
● Study of natural language arguments.
● Its branches include the study of fallacies, critical thinking and argumentation theory.
● There is no method of establishing the invalidity of an argument since there is no
underlying theory.
FORMAL LOGIC
● Study of the inference with purely formal content so that the inference can be expressed
as a particular application of a given abstract rule.
● Lacks reference to meaning or content and simply evaluates the correctness of the form
(or structure) of the argument.
*insert logical arguments slides here
CHAPTER 2.2: PROPOSITIONAL AND PREDICATE LOGIC
PROPOSITIONS
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● A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence that makes a distinct claim, such
as an assertion or denial; it proposes something to be true or false.
● A proposition is that which is expressed by certain sentences in certain context and of
which it is proper to say that it is true or false.
● Examples: The Earth revolves around the sun.
I am hungry.
● In an argument, both premise and conclusion are propositions. Each makes a distinct
claim that, depending on your viewpoint, is either true or false.
● A proposition must have a subject and predicate.
● A proposition must be capable of being true or false, but not both at the same time,
though we may not know which it is.
PREDICATE LOGIC
is the part of logic that deals with the inner structure of the propositions, that is, it
analyzes the subject-predicate structures of a proposition.
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
deals with connections between propositions only. It does not break propositions
into smaller constituents.
PREDICATE LOGIC
*TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS
1. Categorical Proposition - a proposition that expresses a relationship
between two categories or sets, the subject set S and predicate set P.
*A proposition always makes a claim of truth. This claim however is not necessarily true.
Although a proposition is capable of being either true or false, determining which
it is may not be possible.
*CLAIMS OF TRUTH
A proposition maybe
1. unambiguous - no one can reasonably disagree with its truth or falsity
2. unverifiable - would require impossible or impractical procedures to determine
its truth or falsity
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3. matter of opinion - truth can be argued endlessly
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
cont
*TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS
2. Compound Proposition - a proposition that consists of two or more simple
(or
prime) propositions joined together by logical connectors.
not (negation)
and (conjunction)
or (disjunction)
if – then (conditional)
if and only if (biconditional)
Conjunction - Let p and q be propositions. If both p and q are true, then the
compound proposition p and q (denoted as p q) is true. Otherwise p q is false.
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
Two compound propositions are logically equivalent (denoted ≡) if they have the same
truth tables.
RULES OF REPLACEMENT
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1. De Morgan’s Theorems
i.) ~(p˄q) ≡ ~p˅~q
ii.) ~(p˅q) ≡ ~p˄~q
2. Commutation
i.) p˄q ≡ q˄p
ii.) p˅q ≡ q˅p
3. Association
i.) (p˄q)˄r ≡ p˄(q˄r)
ii.) (p˅q)˅r ≡ p˅(q˅r)
4. Distribution
i.) p˄(q˅r) ≡ (p˄q)˅(p˄r)
ii.) p˅(q˄r) ≡ (p˅q)˄(p˅r)
5. Double Negation
p ≡ ~~p
6. Transposition or Contraposition
p → q ≡ ~q → ~p
7. Material Implication
p → q ≡ ~p ˅q
8. Exportation
p → (q → r) ≡ (p˄q)→ r
9. Idempotence
i.) p ≡ p˅p
ii.) p ≡ p˄p
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
Goal: to investigate how arguments actually proceed from premises to conclusions. This
process is called inference (we infer the conclusion from the premises).
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1. Deductive Inference - a specific conclusion is deduced (or logically derived)
from general premises
2. Inductive Inference - a conclusion is formed by generalizing from specific
premises
HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
deductive arguments with a chain of conditionals
If p then q. // If q then r. // = If p then r.
RULES OF INFERENCE
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1. Disjunctive Syllogism p v q // ~p // ∴ q
2. Simplification: p˄q // ∴ p
3. Conjunction: p // q // ∴ p˄q
4. Addition: p // ∴ p˅q
5. Absorption: p→q // ∴ p →(p˄q)
6. Constructive Dilemma: (p→q) ˄(r→s) // p˅r // ∴ q˅s
THEOREMS
are statements of mathematical truth which requires proof which is possible only through
deductive logic.
AXIOMS
are the starting points for mathematical proof, the “givens”, assumed to be true without
proof.
Goldbach Conjecture (1742)
“Every even number (except 2) can be expressed as a sum of two prime numbers.”
Fermat’s Last Theorem (Pierre Fermat, 1601-1665)
“For any natural number n except 1 or 2, it is impossible to find natural numbers a, b,
and c that satisfy the relationship an + bn = cn.”
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
We describe the inter-relationships among logic, mathematics and science,
which
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open the way to understanding the scientific method, the principal means by which
knowledge is acquired today
Pythagorean Theorem. For any right triangle whose legs measure a and b units and
whose diagonal measures c units, a2 + b2 = c2.
Proof: Proof of Bhaskara (12th century Hindu mathematician)
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Leibniz’s Dream
● Recognizing that logic could be used to establish mathematical truths,
could logic also be used to establish other truths? Could it be used to
determine “universal truths”?
● Leibniz (1646-1716) attempted to establish a calculus of reasoning which
can be used to decide all arguments; suggested that an international
symbolic language for logic be developed with which equations of logic
could be written and used to calculate a “solution” to any argument.
So what really became of Leibniz’s dream?
● Kurt Godel in 1931 proved that the dream could never be achieved.
● Leibniz’s dream was shattered!
● But this ushered in a new period in the relationship between logic and
mathematics, often termed the period of modern logic.
GÖDEL’S THEOREM
Mathematicians believed that for an ultimate system of logic to be realized, a first
step is to show that mathematics could be wholly understood as a system of logic. Only
then could mathematical logic be developed into Leibniz’s dream of a calculus of
reasoning.
DAVID HILBERT
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sought to formalize mathematics as a system in which all mathematical truths, or
theorems, could be derived from a few basic assumptions called axioms, by applying
rules of logic.
*In 1931, Kurt Gödel, an Austrian mathematician, proved that no formal system of logic
can possess all three required properties. He proved that no system can be simultaneously
complete, consistent and finitely describable.
● Logic allows the discovery of new knowledge and the development of new
technology.
● Logic provides ways to address disputes, even if it cannot always ensure their
resolution.
● Through logic, you can study your personal beliefs and societal issues.
● Logic can help you study the nature of truth, though logic cannot ultimately
answer all questions.
● Though logic alone may fail under some circumstances, logical reasoning is an
excellent tool for understanding and acquiring knowledge.
● Finding the proper balance between logic and other processes of decision
making is one of the greatest challenges of being human.
SCIENCE
Lat. scientia which means “having knowledge” or “to know”.
Science is knowledge acquired through careful observation and study;
knowledge as opposed to ignorance or misunderstanding.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- It is a set of principles and procedures, based on logic, for the systematic
pursuit of knowledge.
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- an idealization of the process used to discover or construct new knowledge
Some Terminology:
● Fact - a simple statement that is indisputably or objectively true, or close as
possible to being so.
● Law - a statement of a particular pattern or order in nature
● Hypothesis - a tentative explanation for some set of natural phenomena,
sometimes called “an educated guess”
● Scientific Theory - an accepted (that is, extensively tested and verified) model
that explains a broad range of phenomena
PART 4: PARADOXES
PARADOX
- is a situation or statement that seems to violate common sense or to contradict itself.
- allow for the recognition of problems which may lead to new principles, to new facts, or
to a new scientific theory.
- may or may not be resolved.
EXAMPLES OF PARADOXES
● The “up-and-down” problem
● “I never tell the truth.”
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● Zeno’s Paradox (baffled mathematicians for 2,000 years but resolved already today)
● The Paradox of Light (now scientifically understood, but still baffles the common sense)
● The Paradox of Creation (not yet resolved and may never be)
● Liar’s Paradox “This sentence is false.”
● Barber’s Paradox “There was once a barber. Some say that he lived in Seville.
Wherever he lived, all of the men in this town either shaved themselves or were shaved
by the barber. And the barber only shaved the men who did not shave themselves.”
FALLACY
Latin “fallacia” meaning deceit or trick
*Previously we considered formal fallacies in which logical errors occur through a flaw in the
form or structure of the argument. Here, we consider informal fallacies, in which an argument is
deficient because of its content.
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
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committed when the premise is irrelevant to the conclusion of an argument.
1. SUBJECTIVISM
The fallacy of subjectivism has the form “I believe/want p to be true, therefore p is
true.”
2. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE
The fallacy of appeal to ignorance has the form “p has not been proven false,
therefore p is true.” Its other form is “p has not been proven true, therefore p is
false.”
3. LIMITED CHOICE (OR FALSE CHOICE)
The limited choice fallacy has the form “p is false, therefore q is true.”
4. APPEAL TO EMOTION
The appeal to emotion fallacy has the form “p evokes a strong emotional
response, therefore p is true.”
5. APPEAL TO FORCE
Appeal to force has the form “I say p is true and if you don’t agree with me, you
will be hurt or ridiculed; therefore p is true.”
6. INAPPROPRIATE APPEAL TO AUTHORITY
The fallacy of inappropriate appeal to authority is committed when the support for
a proposition relies on the testimony of an inappropriate or unqualified authority.
The appeal to emotion fallacy has the form “An authority says p is true, therefore
p is true.”
7. PERSONAL ATTACK (AD HOMINEM)
Ad Hominem - (Latin) “to the person”
This fallacy involves attacking the character, circumstances, or motives of a
person making an argument. The ad hominem fallacy has the form “Person X
says that p is true and person X is a bad person; therefore p is NOT true.”
8. BEGGING THE QUESTION(CIRCULAR REASONING)
p is true, p is true (often expressed using different words).
9. NON SEQUITUR
Non Sequitur - (Latin) “does not follow”
Two types of non sequitur:
Diversion or Red Herring
attention is diverted from the real issue to another issue
Straw Man
an argument is made against a distortion of someone’s idea or
position
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you will see them arise again and again.
1. APPEAL TO POPULARITY
The fallacy of appeal to popularity has the form “many people believe p is true,
therefore p is true.”
The fact that large numbers of people believe a proposition is used as evidence
of its truth
2. APPEAL TO NUMBERS
The appeal to numbers fallacy has the form “p has been observed many times,
therefore p is true.”
A conclusion is drawn solely on the basis of quantity
3. HASTY GENERALIZATION
The fallacy of hasty generalization has the form “p is true one or a few
times, therefore p is always true.”
Supports a proposition with an inadequate number of instances or
instances that are atypical
4. BIAS AND THE AVAILABILITY ERROR
Availability error - the human tendency to make judgments based on what
is available in the mind.
The availability error takes the form “the first thing that comes to mind is p,
therefore p is true.”
5. FALSE CAUSE
The false cause fallacy has the form “A came before B, therefore A caused B.”
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Confidence in Causality
•Possible Cause: An apparent linkage exists between two events, such as a
correlation, but no other evidence suggest causality.
•Probable Cause: A good reason to suspect causality exists
•Cause Beyond Reasonable Doubt: A model is so successful in explaining the
linkage between events that it seems unreasonable to doubt the causal
connection.
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ZERMELO-FRAENKEL SET THEORY
This eventually led to the restructuring of set theory along axiomatic lines.
By the Zermelo-Fraenkel Set Theory, Cantor’s Set Theory was axiomatized in
such a way that:
i. All undesirable features (like paradoxes) are avoided; and
ii. All desirable features are retained.
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i. A ⊆ A. (reflexivity)
ii. A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A imply A = B. (antisymmetry)
iii. A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A imply A ⊆ C. (transitivity)
● Numeral systems relied on tallies with fingers or toes, piles of stones, or notches cut on
a bone or a piece of wood. But these systems are inadequate for large numbers.
● To simplify the process of counting, counts are grouped by 2’s, 3’s, then eventually, by
5’s, 10’s, and 20’s.
● In 3000 B.C., the Egyptians and Babylonians independently introduced the first numeral
system to go beyond tallying.
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